1710233472-Prelims Sampoorna Geography

2 THEMATIC CURRENT AFFAIRS: YEARLY COMPILATION
Preface
I
n the challenging and dynamic landscape of UPSC Civil Services Examination
preparation, staying abreast of current affairs is indispensable. With this
imperative in mind, we present “Yearly Compilation of thematic Current
Affairs for Prelims.” This annual compilation of Current Affairs spanning the
last 1-2 years encapsulates over 800 topics, intelligently categorized into Subjects
and themes to aid aspirants in their quest for success in the UPSC Preliminary
Examination.
Comprehensive Coverage: Encompassing the latest 1 to 2 years it offers a
comprehensive overview of current affairs crucial for the Prelims Examination
of 2024.
Thematic Arrangement: To facilitate structured learning, our compilation
adopts a thematic arrangement. Topics are intelligently categorized into
subjects and themes, allowing aspirants to navigate through the vast sea of
information with ease.
Static and current interlinking: This comprehensive compilation incorporates
recent developments and nuanced concepts. The objective is to establish a
cohesive interlinking between core concepts and current affairs, thereby
yielding a more desirable outcome
Holistic Preparation through Practice: Beyond recent developments, this
resource integrates Previous Year Questions (PYQs) and practice questions,
offering a comprehensive understanding of subjects.
As aspirants gearing up for the Prelims 2024, may this compilation serve as a
guiding light, illuminating the path to success.
All the Best!!

PRELIMS SAMPOORNA: GEOGRAPHY 5
Contents
Preface El Niño is coming................................17
Indian Ocean Dipole (IOD)....................17
1. CLIMATOLOGY.......................... 01-22 Indian Ocean Geoid Low (IOGL)............18
‘Triple dip’ La Nina and
CYCLONE........................................ 01 its impact on India’s monsoon.................19
Flash flood........................................20
Cyclones in Bay of Bengal & Arabian Sea.....02
Practice Questions...............................20
Bomb Cyclone....................................04
Impact of Cyclone on Monsoon’s onset.....05 2. GEOMORPHOLOGY.................... 23-40
Sundarbans is cyclone
capital of India: IMD...........................06 INTERIOR OF EARTH....................... 23
2023 Atlantic Hurricane Season...............06
Derecho ...........................................06 Mantle and related phenomenon..............23
Fujiwhara Effect.................................07 New map of Earth’s tectonic plates..........25

Azores High.......................................07 Earth’s inner core stopped spinning and
reversing...........................................26
Glacial Lake Outburst..........................08
Major Cyclones ..................................08 Earth’s tilt & impact on cold days............26
NISAR satellite to map Himalayas’
CLOUD........................................... 09 Seismic Zones.....................................27
Scientists discover “Pontus plate”............28
Rainbow clouds..................................10
Cloudbursts.......................................11 EARTHQUAKES............................... 30
WIND.............................................. 11 Turkey & its relation to earthquakes.........30

Earthquakes in Afghanistan...................31
Heat waves in India..............................12
Earthquakes in Indonesia.......................31
Heat Dome in Northern America.............13
Massive Earthquake tremors in Delhi.......32
Temperature inversions.........................13
Micro-earthquakes event in India.............32
Atmospheric River Storms.....................13
Udhampur gets earthquake observatory.....33
Polar Vortex and Cold waves..................14
Local & periodic winds.........................14
VOLCANOS...................................... 33
Heat belts..........................................15
Ring of Fire .......................................34
WEATHER PHENOMENON................ 16 Vanuatu islands...................................35
Mayon volcanic Eruption.......................35
Triple dip’ La Nina and its
impact on India’s monsoon....................16 Kilauea volcano..................................35
Mauna Loa Volcano.............................35 Ocean Tides.......................................59
Borealis Mud Volcano...........................36 Ocean Current Power...........................59
North Atlantic drift..............................61
LANDFORMS & THEIR EVOLUTION... 36 Major ocean current system may collapse as
early as 2025: Study..............................61
Coastal Red Sand Dunes.......................36
Deep Sea Mission................................62
Land Creep in Joshimath.......................37
Holes on the ocean floor........................62
Landslide Atlas of India........................37
Practice Questions...............................38 TEMPERATURE &
SALINITY OF OCEANS...................... 63
3. PHYSIOGRAPHY......................... 41-52
Rising Antarctic ice melt to dramatically slow

LANDFORMS................................... 41 global ocean flows...............................63
Oxygen minimum zones........................64
Physiographic Divisions of India.............41
Indian Ocean Geoid Low (IOGL)............64
DRAINAGE...................................... 43 Indian Ocean Dipole (IOD)....................64

High Salinity in the Dead Sea.................65
Drainage system of India.......................43
Narmada canal....................................45 SEAFLOOR SPREADING................... 65
Indo-Gangetic plains............................45
Seafloor spreading slowed: Study.............65
Climate in India..................................46
Atlantic Ocean is widening....................65
West Seti power project ........................47
Pacific Ocean Is Shrinking.....................65
Machchhu River..................................47
Centre to merge Rajasthan Canal and
HYDROLOGICAL CYCLE.................. 66
Chambal river link projects....................48
Bedti-Varada Project............................48 World’s water cycle severely impacted by
Glacial Lake Atlas of Ganga River Basin climate change: WMO..........................66
Released............................................48 Impact of climate change on water cycle....67
Indus River System..............................49 Practice Questions...............................68
4. SOIL GEOGRAPHY...................... 53-68 5. LOCATION IN NEWS................... 69-96
SOIL GEOGRAPHY........................... 53 NATIONAL PARK/SANCTUARY/

RESERVES....................................... 69
Soil Degradation.................................57
Nutrient-deficiency in Soil.....................57 Bhitarkanika National Park ...................69
Practice Questions...............................58 Kanger Valley National Park ..................69
Kano National Park.............................69
OCEANOGRAPHY............................ 59 Orang National Park............................70
Orang National Park............................70
Movement of Oceans – Waves, Tides,
Currents............................................59 Santiago Glaciers National Park..............70
Ocean Waves......................................59 Pobitora Wildlife Sanctuary...................70

Aralam Wildlife Sanctuary.....................71 North Andaman’s Atlanta Bay................79
Wayanad Wildlife Sanctuary ..................71 Gulf of Guinea (GoG)..........................79
Askot Wildlife Sanctuary ......................71 Nord Stream 2 Pipeline.........................79
Rajasthan’s Ramgarh Vishdhari Sanctuary....71 Adriatic Sea.......................................80
Periyar Tiger Reserve (PTR)...................72 Black Sea and Russia............................80
Srivilliiputhur Megamalai Tiger Reserve....72
Veerangana Durgavati Tiger Reserve........72 VOLCANO....................................... 81
Munsiyari..........................................72
Stromboli Volcano ..............................81
Hanle, Ladakh....................................72
West Java..........................................81
Debrigarh..........................................73
Kamchatka Peninsula ...........................81
Barbara forest ....................................73
Agasthyamala Biosphere Reserve.............73 ISLANDS......................................... 81
Etimoga Mudflat.................................73
Widi Reserve......................................74 Triton Island......................................81
Arittapatti village- Tamil Nadu’s first Isle of Rum........................................82

biodiversity heritage site .......................74 Whakaari White Island.........................82
Solomon Islands..................................82
INFRASTRUCTURE.......................... 74 Tuscan Archipelago .............................82
Katchal island in the Nicobars................83
India-Bhutan-China tri-junction.............74
Galapagos Islands................................83
Arunachal Pradesh Frontier Highway ......75
Snake Island.......................................83
Tawang, Arunachal Pradesh ..................75
Kra Isthmus ......................................84
Patrolling point-15 (PP15) at the Gogra-Hot
Springs.............................................75
OTHERS.......................................... 84
Khambatki Ghat Project........................76
The Sela Tunnel .................................76 West Bank.........................................84
DeeporBeel .......................................76 Murmansk Port...................................84
Chabahar Port....................................85
WATER BODIES................................ 77
Palau................................................85
Sutlej River........................................77 Gabon..............................................86
Chite Lui River...................................77 North Andaman’s Atlanta Bay................86
Black Sea...........................................77 Turkmenistan.....................................86
Yellow Sea.........................................77 Istanbul.............................................87
Daporijo Bridge Over Subansiri River.......77 Saudi Aramco finds new gas fields in four
regions..............................................87
Mississippi River ................................78
Palestine and Israel..............................87
Gomti River.......................................78
Central Asia and Russia........................87
Sisseri River Bridge..............................78
South-East Asian and island countries......88
Sukhna Lake......................................78
Northern Sea Route (NSR).....................88
Anang Tal lake...................................79
Chennai-Vladivostok Sea Route..............88
China’s ‘nine-dash line’ ........................89 Shikharji Jain Temple ..........................92
Lithium discovery in Jammu & Kashmir....89 Datta Peetha- Chikmagalur Shrine ..........93
Gurez valley.......................................89 Practice Questions ..............................94
Nyoma..............................................90
6. MISCELLANEOUS...................... 97-102
Sriharikota.........................................90
Centre identified 30 critical minerals........97
Siri Fort............................................90
India joins US-led
Modhera Village..................................91 critical mineral club.............................97
World’s first CNG Kerala forms organic farming mission to
(Compressed Natural Gas) terminal.........91 boost agriculture.................................98
Asurgarh is Odisha’s oldest fortified Indo-US cooperation in agriculture..........99
settlement..........................................91
Regenerative agriculture &
World’s Highest Tunnel at its increasing need...............................99
Shinku La Pass....................................91
Annual meet on Cotton Crop..................99
Konark Sun Temple..............................92
Hybrid seeds in India.......................... 100
Ahom burial sites in Assam ...................92
Pearl millet cultivation
Santiniketan inscribed on zones in India................................... 100
UNESCO World Heritage List................92
CHAPTER 01
CLIMATOLOGY
CYCLONE
Building Basics (Cyclones)
About Cyclones
In meteorological terms, a cyclone is a wind system that rotates inwards (counter-clockwise in the Northern
Hemisphere and clockwise in the Southern) around a strong low-pressure centre.
Simply put, inward-spiralling winds that rotate about a low-pressure zone is known as a cyclone.
Generally, when winds rise above 118 kmph, it is known as a cyclone.
Formation of a cyclone Low Pressure Area (L)

Creating low-pressure zone: Warm, moist air over the ocean rises due to A low is an area where air
less density. This air rises up and away from the ocean surface, leaving less pressure is lower than it is in the
air near the surface, creating a low-pressure zone. areas surrounding it.
Formation of cycle: Due to the surrounding high-pressure areas, air flows
into this low-pressure area and eventually warms up, forming a cycle.
Formation of cloud and wind system: Now, this cycle makes the warm
air above the ocean rise and cool the water below to generate clouds. With
the constant heating and evaporating process, the entire cloud and wind
system spins and grows.
Eye formation: With more speed, cyclone eye formation takes place in
the centre. This zone signifies the lowest air pressure and is calm and clear. The high-pressure air from above flows
down into this region.
Factors responsible for cyclone formation:

Warm temperature at sea surfaces
Coriolis force impact area that forms a low-pressure zone
Atmospheric instability
Increased humidity in the lower to middle levels of the troposphere
Low vertical wind shear
Pre-existing low-level disturbance or focus
Commonly used names:

Wind Speed in
Depending on its location and strength, a tropical cyclone is referred to by Category
different names, including hurricane, typhoon, tropical storm, cyclonic Km/h
storm, tropical depression, and simply cyclone. 1 120-150
North Atlantic (including Caribbean and Gulf of Mexico):
2 150-180
Hurricanes
Eastern and Central North Pacific: Hurricanes 3 180-210
Western Northern Pacific: Typhoons 4 210-250
Arabian Sea/Northern Indian Ocean: Tropical Cyclones 5 250 and above
South Indian Ocean: Tropical Cyclones/Willy-Willy for southwest
Australia
Coral Sea/South Pacific: Tropical Cyclone
The Geographic Location

CYCLONES IN BAY OF Arabian Sea: The Arabian Sea is bordered by Oman,
1
BENGAL & ARABIAN SEA Iran, India, Pakistan and the Arabian Peninsula.
Bay of Bengal: It is bordered by India to the west,
Bangladesh to the north, and Burma and Thailand to
CONTEXT: A report highlighted the increasing the east.
occurrence of Cyclones in the Arabian Sea as compared to
the Bay of Bengal over several years due to climate change.
ARABIAN SEA (WEST COAST BAY OF BENGAL

OF INDIA) (EASTERN SIDE OF INDIA)
Island The group of islands in the Arabian The group of islands in the Bay of Bengal is called the
Sea is called Lakshadweep and Andaman and Nicobar Islands.
Minicoy.
Area The total area of
Lakshadweep The geographical area of Andaman
and Nicobar Islands
Islands is 32 sq km. is 8,249 km.
Features The Lakshadweep Islands and The Andaman and Nicobar Islands consist of sea
Minicoy Islands are made up of coral mountains, volcanic mountains (Barren Island), and
deposits. coral deposits.
Vegetation Vegetation is not so much in the The Andaman and Nicobar Islands receive convective
Lakshadweep islands. rainfall and have an equatorial type of vegetation
(evergreen forest)
What is the general trend of cyclones?

Generally, India gets 5 cyclones on an average in a year.
4 in the Bay of Bengal
1 in the Arabian Sea
Bay of Bengal vs. Arabian Sea:
FACTORS AFFECTING CYCLONES IN FACTORS AFFECTING CYCLONES

THE BAY OF BENGAL OVER THE ARABIAN SEA
The Bay of Bengal is fed by a constant source of Conversely, the northern, central, and western parts of
freshwater in the form of giant rivers like the Ganga the Arabian Sea have much cooler temperatures.
and the Brahmaputra. The mountains in east Africa direct winds toward
The river water that empties into the Bay of Bengal the Arabian Peninsula, dissipating heat much more
warms up at the surface and rises up as moisture. efficiently throughout the Arabian Sea.
This makes it difficult for the warm layers of water As a result, this region is not favourable to feed
to mix properly with the cooler layers of water below, potential cyclones, and about half the cyclones that
keeping the surface always warm and ready to feed move into this area typically lose energy and dissipate.
any potential cyclone over it. However, this year, the sea surface temperatures
Furthermore, because of the shape of the land around continue to remain abnormally high, in the 30s,
the Bay of Bengal, the winds are slower and weaker feeding cyclonic conditions.
over the ocean, ready to spin.
Cyclone Hazard Zone in India

As per the Indian Meteorological Department, 13
coastal regions and Union Territories in India are prone
to a cyclone.
This happens because of the long coastline of 8041 Km,
which is exposed to nearly 10% of the world’s tropical
cyclones. For that cause, both the coasts of India
experience cyclonic storms often.
Vulnerable states- West Bengal, Andhra Pradesh,
Tamil Nadu, Odisha, Puducherry (UT), Maharashtra,
Gujarat
Factors influencing formation &

intensification of cyclones
The formation of tropical cyclones and their
intensification are governed by various geophysical
and thermodynamic parameters such as:
sea surface temperatures
sea level pressure
tropical cyclone heat potential It occurs when a storm’s central barometric pressure
convective available potential energy drops at least 24 millibars in 24 hours.
air temperature at height levels A millibar is a way of measuring pressure. The
relative humidity at mid-tropospheric levels lower the pressure, the more powerful the storm.
vertical wind shear
Some storms have intensified as rapidly as 60 millibars
in 24 hours. A few bomb cyclones even develop “eyes,”
similar to the centre of a hurricane.
2 BOMB CYCLONE
Atmospheric rivers
CONTEXT: In December 2022, large parts of the United Bomb cyclones are often associated with atmospheric
States and Canada were under the grips of ‘bomb cyclone’ rivers and typically form in winter when cold and
that has caused dozens of deaths. warm air masses collide.
Atmospheric rivers are storms akin to rivers in the
What is Bomb Cyclone? sky that dump massive amounts of rain and can
cause flooding, trigger mudslides and result in loss
A bomb cyclone is a winter cyclone. It occurs through
of life and enormous property damage.
the process known as Bombogenesis.
The word “Bombogenesis” is a combination of
cyclogenesis which describes the formation of a In which region does a Bomb Cyclone occur?
cyclone or storm and bomb, which is self-explanatory. There are four active regions which are hot spots for
Bomb cyclones are often associated with atmospheric Bomb Cyclone:
rivers and are also called “explosive cyclogenesis” or The Northwest Pacific
a “weather bomb”.
The Northern region of the Atlantic Ocean
A bomb cyclone occurs when a mid-latitude cyclone
The Southwest Pacific
rapidly intensifies or quickly drops in atmospheric
pressure, marking the strengthening of the storm. The Southern region of the Atlantic Ocean.
BOMB CYCLONE HURRICANES

Cold air is an essential ingredient for bomb cyclones Cold air rapidly weakens hurricanes
Bomb cyclones form during winter Hurricanes form from late spring to early fall.
Bomb cyclones form at higher latitudes Hurricanes form in tropical waters
Factors that influence the onset of the Southwest

IMPACT OF CYCLONE ON Monsoon are mostly:
3 intense low-pressure formation over the Tibetan Plateau
MONSOON’S ONSET
permanent high-pressure cells in the South of the
Indian Ocean
CONTEXT: As the effect of Global warming, the subtropical jet stream
occurrence of cyclones in Indian Ocean and typhoons in African Easterly Jet
North-western Pacific Ocean is changing, which has a
Inter- Tropical Convergence Zone
significant impact on onset and withdrawal of monsoon
in India.
Onset of the Monsoon:
The onset of the monsoon (over Kerala) signals
Change in the conventional pattern the beginning of the four-month (June-September)
Against the conventional pattern of occurrence of southwest monsoon season, during which India gets
cyclones usually post-monsoon (October-November) more than 70% of its annual rainfall.
has shifted to pre-monsoon times (April-May). The onset of the monsoon happens when there is a
This unusual occurrence of cyclones either in Arabian significant transition in the large-scale atmospheric
Sea or Bay of Bengal affects the monsoon showers over and ocean circulations in the Indo-Pacific region.
Indian subcontinent.
Tropical rain belt
The course of monsoon usually is affected by the three
tropical oceans – Indian, Atlantic, and Pacific. Intertropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ) plays an
important role during the rainy season. It is a region
What is Monsoon? that circles the planet near the equator.
Monsoon can be defined as the change in the direction This narrow area is also a meeting point for the trade
of winds and currents in a region which leads to the winds coming from both the Northern and Southern
formation of clouds and hence precipitation. hemispheres of the planet.
Monsoon is a seasonal phenomenon. The tropical region is among the warmest on Earth,
and therefore the winds bring significant humidity and
Monsoons are predominantly driven by the two winds:
precipitation to the belt.
southwesterly and northeasterly, which defines the
two monsoon patterns i.e., southwest and northeast. The belt mainly oscillates from the northern to the
southern tropics over the year in line with the movement
Southwest Monsoon
of the Sun.
Northeast Monsoon
Therefore, between October and March, the tropical
During the southwest monsoon, which occurs in rain belt lies in the southern hemisphere and from April
the summer months, the southwesterly winds blow to September, it oscillates to the northern hemisphere.
from East Africa to India.
This is the reason why the Indian subcontinent
During the northeast, the winds completely reverse witnesses monsoon rains between June to September
with respect to the change in the atmospheric while the Australian monsoon season generally lasts
conditions and blow from India to Africa. from December to March.
Intertropical convergence zone (ITCZ)

Near the equator, from about 5° north and 5° south, the
northeast trade winds and southeast trade winds converge in
a low pressure zone known as the intertropical convergence
zone (ITCZ).
The position of the ITCZ varies seasonally because it
follows the Sun; it moves north in the Northern Hemisphere
summer and south in the Northern Hemisphere winter.
As a result, the ITCZ is responsible for the wet and dry
seasons in the tropics.
When is the Atlantic hurricane season? (The

SUNDARBANS IS CYCLONE normal season)
4
CAPITAL OF INDIA: IMD The Atlantic hurricane season officially runs from June
1 to November 30 each year.
This six-month period was chosen because it accounts
CONTEXT: West Bengal’s South 24 Parganas district, for about 97% of all Atlantic tropical storms and
within which the larger share of the Sundarbans is located, hurricanes.
is impacted by cyclones the most frequently among Indian
The Atlantic basin saw 20 named storms in 2023, which
districts, found a recent study.
ranks fourth for the most-named storms in a year since
1950.
About Sundarbans
Important Weather System
The Sunderbans forest sprawls over 10,000 sq km
covering India and neighbouring Bangladesh, of which A tropical cyclone is a rotating low-pressure
40% lies in India. weather system that has organized thunderstorms
but no fronts (a boundary separating two air masses
It is located in the south-west of Bangladesh between
of different densities).
the river Baleswar in the East and the Harinbanga in
the West, adjoining to the Bay of Bengal. Tropical depressions: Tropical cyclones with
maximum sustained surface winds of less than
In India, it is confined to the southern tip of West
39 miles per hour (mph) are called tropical
Bengal and spreads over two districts – South 24
depressions.
Parganas and North 24 Parganas.
Tropical Storms: Tropical cyclones with
The Sundarban Delta has 102 islands, of which 54
maximum sustained winds of 39 mph or higher
are inhabited. The rest constitute the world’s largest
are called tropical storms.
mangrove forest.
Hurricane: When a storm's maximum sustained
Sundarbans has got the world’s largest coastal mangrove
winds reach 74 mph, it is called a hurricane.
forest (an area of about 10,000 km2, shared between
India (4,000 km2) and Bangladesh (6,000 km2). Hurricanes are large, swirling storms.
The Sundarbans is a UNESCO world heritage site and Hurricanes originate in the Atlantic basin, which
a critical wetland. includes the Atlantic Ocean, Caribbean Sea, and
Gulf of Mexico, the eastern North Pacific Ocean,
and, less frequently, the central North Pacific
Ocean.
Atlantic Hurricane
An Atlantic hurricane or tropical storm is a tropical
cyclone that majorly covers the Atlantic Ocean,
Caribbean Sea and the Gulf of Mexico.
Formation: Hurricanes need three main ingredients
to form:
warm sea surface temperatures
minimal to no wind shear
an area of organized, long-lasting thunderstorms
6 DERECHO
2023 ATLANTIC CONTEXT: Derecho storms are becoming more frequent

5 during warmer weather, happening 70% of the time
HURRICANE SEASON between May and August.
CONTEXT: The above-normal 2023 Atlantic hurricane About Derecho:

season was characterized by record-warm Atlantic sea
A derecho is a large, possibly harmful weather
surface temperatures and a strong El Nino.
phenomenon that is characterized by broad, persistent
straight-line winds linked to a rapidly moving cluster vary between a depression (wind speed under 63 km
of severe thunderstorms. per hour) and a super typhoon (wind speed over 209
km per hour).
Types of Derecho:
Progressive: A progressive derecho is associated
with a short line of thunderstorms that may travel
for hundreds of miles along a relatively narrow path.
It is a summer phenomenon.
Serial: A serial derecho, on the other hand, has an
extensive squall line wide and long sweeping across
a large area. It usually occurs during spring or fall.
Hybrid: Hybrid ones have the features of both
progressive and serial derechos.
The word comes from the Spanish word ‘la derecha’

meaning ‘straight’. Straight storms are those where The term “Fujiwhara effect” refers to the interaction
thunderstorms do not change unlike a hurricane. between the two tropical weather systems.
This long-lasting, direct storm is associated with a It is named for Sakuhei Fujiwhara, a Japanese
fast-moving rain belt or thunderstorm. meteorologist who first described the effect in 1921.
These storms travel hundreds of miles and occupy a
large area.
As it is a warmer climate, Derecho usually - not always
8 AZORES HIGH
- occurs during the summer from May, and hits hard in
June and July. CONTEXT: According to a new study, an extremely large
However, they are rare compared to other storm systems ‘Azores High’ (a subtropical weather phenomenon) has
such as hurricanes or hurricanes. resulted in abnormally dry conditions across the western
Mediterranean, including the Iberian Peninsula, primarily
Classification: occupied by Spain and Portugal.
For a storm to be classified as a derecho it must have
wind gusts of at least 93 km per hour.
What is Azores High?
The Wind damage swath extending more than 400 km.
The Azores High is also known as the Bermuda High.
The time gap between successive wind damage events
should not be more than three hours.
7 FUJIWHARA EFFECT
CONTEXT: With typhoon Hinnamnor and another

tropical storm called Gardo, meteorologists observed a
phenomenon called the Fujiwhara Effect.
Typhoon Hinnamnor, known in the Philippines as

Super Typhoon Henry, was a very large and powerful
tropical cyclone in Pacific Ocean that impacted Japan
and South Korea.
It is a subtropical high pressure system that extends over
What is the Fujiwhara Effect? the eastern subtropical North Atlantic and Western
Europe during winter.
The Fujiwhara effect happens when two tropical
systems come near, then orbit each other, or possibly It is associated with anticyclonic winds in the
merge into one system. subtropical North Atlantic.
These two storms formed around the same time in It is formed by dry air aloft descending the subtropics
the same ocean region with their centres or eyes at a and coincides with the downward branch of the Hadley
distance of less than 1,400 km, with intensity that could Circulation.
The researchers showed that the Azores High Cyclone Asani has weakened into a deep depression
expansion is driven by external climate forces and with a wind speed of 55-65 kmph gusting to 75 kmph.
that the only external forcing that produces this signal Gulab, Titli, Hudhud, Helen, and Lehar — these five
in the industrial era is atmospheric greenhouse gas cyclones have made landfall over Andhra Pradesh in
concentrations. the last 10 years.
Azores Categories of Cyclones:

Azores are mostly known as weather makers or Category 1: Wind speed of 90-125 kph, negligible
weather causers. house damage, some damage to trees and crops.
They can be seen in the middle of Atlantic. Category 2: Destructive winds of 125-164 kph.
The nine major Azores islands – São Miguel, Santa Minor house damage, significant damage to trees,
Maria, Terceira, Graciosa, São Jorge, Pico, Faial, crops and caravans, risk of power failure.
Flores and Corvo. Category 3: Very destructive winds of 165-224 kph.
Some roof and structural damage, some caravans
destroyed power failure likely.
9 GLACIAL LAKE OUTBURST Category 4: Very destructive winds of 225-279
kph. Significant roofing loss and structural damage,
caravans destroyed, blown away, widespread power
CONTEXT: Glacial lake outburst floods (GLOFs) failures.
represent a major hazard and can result in significant loss Category 5: Very destructive winds gusts of more
of life. than 280 kph. Extremely dangerous with widespread
destruction.
What is a GLOF? Cyclone Mandous

GLOF is the term scientists use to describe the incident
when the water levels of glacial lakes breach their CONTEXT: Cyclone Mandous impacted the Tamil Nadu
boundaries, causing large amounts of water to flow into and Puducherry coasts in December 2022.
nearby streams and rivers.
These also create flash floods.
What is Cyclone Mandous?
Experts attribute GLOFs to climate change and the
increase of anthropogenic footprints on glaciers. The name, ‘Mandous’, was suggested by the United
Arab Emirates (UAE) in 2020 as a member of the
GLOFs are not a recent phenomenon, but they remain
World Meteorological Organisation (WMO).
a persistent threat to downstream communities and
infrastructure besides flora and fauna. It was a slow-moving cyclone that absorbs a lot of
moisture and gains strength in the form of wind speeds.
It intensified into a severe cyclonic storm.
10 MAJOR CYCLONES
Nomenclature of Cyclones:
Cyclones that form in every ocean basin across the world
Cyclonic storm Asani are named by the regional specialised meteorological
centres (RSMCs) and Tropical Cyclone Warning
CONTEXT: Severe Cyclonic Storm Asani was a strong Centres (TCWCs).
tropical cyclone that made landfall in India (Andhra There are six RSMCs in the world, including the India
Pradesh coast). Meteorological Department (IMD), and five TCWCs.
In 2000, a group of nations called WMO/ESCAP
(World Meteorological Organisation/United Nations
About Cyclone Asani:
Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the
Asani was formed in the North Indian Ocean region. Pacific), which comprised Bangladesh, India, the
Naming: The name Cyclone Asani has been given by Maldives, Myanmar, Oman, Pakistan, Sri Lanka
Sri Lanka. It means ‘wrath’ in Sinhalese. and Thailand, decided to start naming cyclones in
the region. After each country sent in suggestions, the
Asani triggered a spell of rain in the coastal region of
WMO/ESC AP Panel on Tropical Cyclones (PTC)
West Bengal, Karnataka, and Odisha. It also impacted
finalised the list.
regions of Bangladesh and Myanmar.
The WMO/ESCAP expanded to include five more Tauktae: May 2021

countries in 2018 — Iran, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, United Region: Arabian Sea
Arab Emirates and Yemen. Saffir-Simpson scale: category 4
Other Major Cyclones

PYQ (2020)
Biparjoy (Saffir-Simpson scale: category 3)
Mocha (Saffir-Simpson scale: category 5) 1. Consider the following statements:
Sitrang (2022) 1. Jet streams occur in the Northern Hemisphere
only.
Region: Bay of Bengal
2. Only some cyclones develop an eye.
Saffir-Simpson scale: tropical storm
Jawad: December 2021 3. The temperature inside the eye of a cyclone is
nearly 10°C lesser than that of the surroundings.
Which of the statements given above is/are
Saffir-Simpson scale: tropical storm correct?
Gulab (October 2021)
(a) 1 only
Region: Arabian Sea
(b) 2 and 3 only
Saffir-Simpson scale: category 1
(c) 2 only
Yaas: May 2021
(d) 1 and 3 only
Correct Answer: (c)
Saffir-Simpson scale: tropical storm
CLOUD
BUILDING BASICS (CLOUD)

A cloud is defined as 'a visible aggregate of minute droplets of water or particles of ice or a mixture of both floating
in the free air'.
Each droplet has a diameter of about a hundredth of a millimeter and each cubic meter of air will contain 100
million droplets.
Because the droplets are so small, they can remain in liquid form in temperatures of -30 °C. If so, they are called
supercooled droplets.
Clouds at higher and extremely cold levels in the atmosphere are composed of ice crystals - these can be about a
tenth of a millimeter long.
Clouds form when the invisible water vapor in the air condenses into visible water droplets or ice crystals.
Saturation: For this to happen, the parcel of air must be saturated, i.e. unable to hold all the water it contains in
vapor form, so it starts to condense into a liquid or solid form.
There are two ways by which saturation is reached.
By increasing the water content in the air, e.g. through evaporation, to a point where the air can hold no more.
By cooling the air so that it reaches its dew point - this is the temperature at which condensation occurs, and is
unable to 'hold' any more water.
Different types of clouds:
11 RAINBOW CLOUDS
CONTEXT: Recently, an unusually-shaped rainbow

cloud appeared over China.
The cloud in question resembles a pileus cloud, and the

phenomenon of bright colours appearing on a cloud is
called cloud iridescence.
What is a pileus cloud?

A pileus cloud is usually formed over a cumulus or
cumulonimbus cloud.
It is formed when the base cloud pushes a moist current
of air upwards and the water vapour from the current
condenses to somewhat resemble wave-like crests, or
umbrellas.
A pileus cloud is transient in nature and lasts barely for
a few minutes, making it difficult, and at the same time,
exciting, to spot.
Iridescence in clouds means the appearance of colours
on clouds, which can either be in the form of parallel
Cloud iridescence: bands like in a rainbow, or mingled in patches.
Cloud iridescence or Irisation is an optical In ancient Greek mythology, Iris is the goddess of
phenomenon that mostly occurs in wave-like clouds, rainbow.
including
“Irisation”, the phenomenon of rainbow-like colours in
Pileus and Altocumulus lenticularis. clouds, is derived from her name.
Iridescence of clouds is a photometeor – an optical The upward movement of clouds provides the
phenomenon produced by the reflection, refraction, required energy for a cloudburst.
diffraction or interference of sunlight. It usually happens at 1,000-2,500 metres above the
sea level.
12 CLOUDBURSTS Mini cloudburst: Some scientists term rainfall

between 50 and 100 mm within two hours as a ‘mini
cloudburst’.
CONTEXT: At least 26 cloudbursts occurred in the
Himalayan region since 2021. PYQ (2019)
What is Cloudburst? 2. Why are dewdrops not formed on a cloudy night?

A cloudburst is an extreme downpour in a short period (a) Clouds absorb the radiation released from the
of time. It may be accompanied with hail and thunder. Earth’s surface.
According to the Indian Meteorological Department (b) Clouds reflect back the Earth’s radiation.
(IMD), an unexpected precipitation exceeding 100mm
(c) The Earth’s surface would have a low
(or 10 cm) per hour over a geographical region of
temperature on cloudy nights.
approximately 20 to 30 square km is a cloudburst.
Orographic lift: These clouds usually cause rain, (d) Clouds deflect the blowing wind to ground
thunder and lightning. This upward movement of clouds level.
is also known as ‘orographic lift’. Due to these unstable Correct Answer: (b)
clouds, heavy rainfall may occur over a small area.
WIND
BRUSHING BASICS (WIND)

Definition: Wind is the movement of air caused by the uneven heating of the Earth by the sun.
Differences in atmospheric pressure generate winds.
Low Pressure System: At the Equator, the sun warms the water and land more than it does the rest of the globe.
Warm equatorial air rises higher into the atmosphere and migrates toward the poles. This is a low-pressure
system.
High Pressure System: At the same time, cooler, denser air moves over Earth’s surface toward the Equator
to replace the heated air. This is a high-pressure system. Winds generally blow from high-pressure areas to low-
pressure areas.
Front: The boundary between these two areas is called a front. The complex relationships between fronts cause
different types of wind and weather patterns.
Prevailing winds are winds that blow from a single direction over a specific area of the Earth.
Convergence zones: Areas where prevailing winds meet are called convergence zones. Generally, prevailing winds
blow east-west rather than north-south. This happens because Earth’s rotation generates what is known as the
Coriolis effect.
Coriolis effect: The Coriolis effect makes wind systems twist counter-clockwise in the Northern Hemisphere and
clockwise in the Southern Hemisphere.
Wind Zones
The Earth contains five major wind zones: polar easterlies, westerlies, horse latitudes, trade winds, and the doldrums.
Polar Easterlies
Polar easterlies are dry, cold prevailing winds that blow from the east.
They emanate from the polar highs, areas of high pressure around the North and South Poles.
Polar easterlies flow to low-pressure areas in sub-polar regions.
Westerlies
Westerlies are prevailing winds that blow from the west at mid-latitudes.
They are fed by polar easterlies and winds from the high-pressure horse latitudes, which sandwich them on either
side.
The strongest westerlies blow through the “Roaring Forties,” a wind zone between 40 and 50 degrees latitude in the
Southern Hemisphere.
Horse Latitudes
The horse latitudes are a narrow zone of warm, dry climates between westerlies and the trade winds. Horse latitudes
are about 30 and 35 degrees north and south.
Many deserts, from the rainless Atacama of South America to the arid Kalahari of Africa, are part of the horse
latitudes.
The prevailing winds at the horse latitudes vary, but are usually light. Even strong winds are often short in duration.
Trade Winds
Trade winds are the powerful prevailing winds that blow from the east across the tropics.
Most tropical storms, including hurricanes, cyclones, and typhoons, develop as trade winds. Differences in air
pressure over the ocean cause these storms to develop. As the dense, moist winds of the storm encounter the drier
winds of the coast, the storm can increase in intensity.
Doldrums
Intertropical convergence zone (ITCZ): The place where trade winds of the two hemispheres meet is called the
intertropical convergence zone (ITCZ). The area around the ITCZ is called the doldrums.
13 HEAT WAVES IN INDIA The General Occurrence:

Months: Heat waves usually occur in the months of
March to June and in some rare cases even in July.
CONTEXT: There were instances of frequent heatwave
The peak month of the heat wave over India is
in India that has forced millions of people indoors, with
May.
air conditioner sales nearly doubling seen in several years.
Regions: Heat waves generally occur over plains
of northwest India, Central, East and north
What are heatwaves? Peninsular India.
It covers Punjab, Haryana, Delhi, Uttar
The India Meteorological Department qualitatively
Pradesh, Bihar, Jharkhand, West Bengal,
describes heatwave as a condition of air temperature
Odisha, Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan, Gujarat,
which becomes fatal to the human body when exposed.
parts of Maharashtra and Karnataka, Andhra
Quantitatively, it is defined based on the temperature Pradesh and Telangana.
thresholds over a region in terms of actual temperature Sometimes it occurs over Tamil Nadu and
or its departure from normal. Kerala also.
Declaration:
Heatwave: A heatwave is declared when an Different standards on heatwaves:
area logs a maximum temperature of 45 degree
Celsius. Several countries have adopted their own standards on
heatwaves:
Severe heatwave: A severe heatwave is declared
if the maximum temperature crosses 47 degrees. United States: The US National Weather Service
defines a heatwave as a spell of “abnormally and
For coastal regions, heat wave may be described uncomfortably hot and unusually humid weather” over
provided actual maximum temperature is 37 degrees or two days or more.
more.
Denmark: A heatwave occurs when the mean of the

highest recorded temperature measured over three TEMPERATURE
consecutive days exceeds 28°C (82.4°F). 15
INVERSIONS
Australia: In Adelaide, Australia, a heatwave is defined
as five straight days with temperatures at or above
35°C (95°F), or three consecutive days at or over 40°C CONTEXT: Mumbai’s air quality has worsened than the
(104°F). National Capital’s quality of air. The phenomenon called
“air inversion” or temperature inversion is behind the
Wet Bulb Temperature: situation.
This heatwave has also brought the wet bulb

temperature concept into mainstream conversation. About
In simpler terms, wet bulb temperature tells us
Temperature inversions occur when a layer of warm air
at what level our bodies will be unable to cool
traps cool air near the Earth’s surface. This is the inverse
themselves down by sweating.
of what normally happens.
In this case, the threat of a heat stroke rises
Most of the time, for example, the Earth’s surface is
dramatically.
warm during the day and air gets colder the higher you
Wet bulb temperature combines heat and humidity go.
to indicate how much evaporation can be absorbed
A temperature inversion usually happens during the
into the air.
night when the ground temperature drops because it’s
It measures the lowest temperatures that our bodies no longer heated by the sun.
can reach when we are in hotter environments, by
sweating.
ATMOSPHERIC RIVER
16
STORMS
HEAT DOME IN NORTHERN
14
AMERICA CONTEXT: Atmospheric river storms can drive
devastating floods — and climate change is making them
stronger.
CONTEXT: The temperatures reported from the Pacific
north-west and some parts of Canada are part of a
“historic” heat wave, a result of a phenomenon referred About:
to as a “heat dome”.
Atmospheric rivers are long, narrow bands of moisture
in the atmosphere that extend from the tropics to higher
About Heat Dome latitudes.
These rivers in the sky can transport 15 times the volume
A heat dome occurs when the atmosphere traps hot of the Mississippi River.
ocean air like a lid or cap. A heat dome typically lasts
Impact: When that moisture reaches the coast and
for weeks.
moves inland, it rises over the mountains, generating
There are two things that contribute to a heat dome: rain and snowfall. It can trigger other disasters, such as
Atmospheric pressure extreme flooding and debris flows.
Rising sea temperatures Region: Atmospheric rivers occur globally, affecting the
west coasts of the world’s major land masses, including
High pressure way up in the atmosphere can trap heat,
Portugal, Western Europe, Chile and South Africa.
leading to an increase in temperatures at ground level.
So-called “Pineapple Express” storms that carry
This effect is fuelled by heat rising from the ocean, moisture from Hawaii to the United States West
creating an amplification loop. Coast are just one of their many flavours.
The high pressure in the atmosphere acts like a dome
and prevents the heat from dissipating. As the air gets Impact of climate change
hotter, everything gets hotter and hotter. Atmospheric rivers are predicted to grow longer, wetter
A heat dome is created when strong high-pressure and wider in a warming climate.
atmospheric conditions combine with weather patterns Greenhouse gases trap heat in the atmosphere, warming
like La Niña. the planet.
This causes more water to evaporate from oceans Often when the polar vortex is strong, temperatures
and lakes, and increased moisture in the air are mild in the mid-latitudes across the Eastern US
makes storm systems grow stronger. and Northern Eurasia; and when the vortex is weak,
In dry conditions, atmospheric rivers can replenish temperatures tend to be cold across the Eastern US and
water supplies and quench dangerous wildfires. In wet northern Europe and Asia.
conditions, they can cause damaging floods and debris
flows, wreaking havoc on local economies. What is Strong Polar Vortex?
Strong is the more common state of the polar vortex.
When the polar vortex is strong, this creates strong low
POLAR VORTEX AND COLD pressure in the Arctic region.
17
WAVES Because of the pressure difference between the Arctic
and mid-latitudes, air flows into low pressure and
this confine the cold air to high latitudes closer to the
CONTEXT: Polar vortices have been in the news ever Arctic.
since the northern hemisphere saw its coldest period
Therefore it is often mild across the Eastern US, Europe
during the winter season.
and East Asia during winters when the polar vortex is
strong. During strong polar vortex, the air flow is fast
The same cold spell had come once again in 2020 when and in a direction from west to east.
the United States of America, Canada, and Russia
Low pressure in the Arctic region is referred to as the
experienced one of the coldest winters on record.
positive phase of the Arctic Oscillation (AO), which is
also known as the North Atlantic Oscillation (NAO).
What is a Polar Vortex?
The stratospheric polar vortex is a large-scale region of
air that is contained by a strong west-to-east jet stream 18 LOCAL & PERIODIC WINDS
that circles the polar region. This jet stream is usually
referred to as the polar night jet.
The polar vortex extends from the tropopause (the
CONTEXT: The direction of periodic winds changes
with the change of seasons. Monsoon winds are the most
dividing line between the stratosphere and troposphere)
important periodic winds.
through the stratosphere and into the mesosphere (above
50 km). Low values of ozone and cold temperatures are
associated with the air inside the vortex.
Classification of Winds:
It is described as a whirling cone of low pressure over
the poles that are strongest in the winter months due There are majorly three Types of Winds that exist in
to the increased temperature contrast between the Polar the world. The winds are categorized or classified under
Regions and the mid-latitudes, such as the US. the following categories:
PLANETARY WINDS/
PERIODIC WINDS LOCAL WINDS
PERMANENT WINDS
Loo
Mistral
Trade Winds
Monsoons Foehn
The Westerlies
Mountain and valley breeze Sirocco
The Easterlies
Bora
Chinook
List of Major Local Winds and their Type or Nature:
Alizé Maritime wet, fresh northerly wind across west central Africa
Bora northeasterly from eastern Europe to northeastern Italy
Cape Doctor dry south-easterly wind that blows on the South African coast in summer
Chinook warm dry westerly off the Rocky Mountains
Diablo hot, dry, offshore wind from the northeast in the San Francisco bay
Etesian northerly across Greece and Turkey
Elephanta strong southerly or southeasterly wind on the Malabar coast of India
Föhn warm dry southerly off the northern side of the Alps and the North Italy
Fremantle Doctor afternoon sea breeze from the Indian Ocean which cools Perth, Western Australia during summer
Harmattan dry northerly wind across central Africa
Kali Andhi Violent dust squalls that occur before monsoon in the northwestern parts of the Indo-Gangetic
Plain region of the Indian Subcontinent.
Karaburan a Spring and winter Katabatic wind of central Asia
Khamsin South-easterly wind from North Africa to the eastern Mediterranean
Loo Hot wind which blows over plains of India and Pakistan.
Maestro cold northerly in the Adriatic sea
Mistral cold northerly from central France and the Alps to Mediterranean
Monsoon mainly south-westerly winds combined with heavy rain in various areas close to the equator
Nor’easter strong storm with winds from the northeast on the north eastern coast of the United States
(particularly New England states) and the east coast of Canada (Atlantic Canada))
Nor’wester wind that brings rain to the West Coast, and warm dry winds to the East Coast of New Zealand’s
South Island, caused by the moist prevailing winds being uplifted over the Southern Alps, often
accompanied by a distinctive arched cloud pattern
Pampero very strong wind which blows in the Pampa(Argentina)
Passat medium strong, constant blowing wind at sea in tropical areas
Rashabar(“black a strong wind in the Kurdistan Region of Iraq, particularly in Sulaimaniya
wind”)
Simoom strong, dry, desert wind that blows in the Sahara, Israel, Jordan, Syria, and the desert of Arabia
Shamal a summer northwesterly wind blowing over Iraq and the Persian Gulf states
Zonda eastern slope of the Andes in Argentina
What are Heat belts?

PYQ (2014)
“Extreme heat belt” -- with at least one day per year in
3. The seasonal reversal of winds is the typical which the heat index hits 125 Fahrenheit (52C).
characteristic of- The developing “Extreme Heat Belt” forms a region of
(a) Equatorial climate vulnerability for most of the states in US.
(b) Mediterranean climate It was estimated that the extreme heat belt will expand
(c) Monsoon climate from 50 counties in 2023 to more than 1,000 by 2053.
(d) All of the above climates

Calculation of Heat Index:
Correct Answer: (c)
The Heat Index is a parameter that considers both
temperature and humidity to calculate the apparent
19 HEAT BELTS temperature or “feel like” temperature for human
beings.
It helps in understanding the impact of humidity on
CONTEXT: A new study reveals the emergence of an high temperatures and how it contributes to human
“extreme heat belt” in USA which is likely to spread in discomfort during hot weather.
other regions of the world by 2030.
The Heat Index has been launched on an experimental
basis by the Indian Meteorological Department Torrid Zone: This is the hottest zone of the Earth.
(IMD). The region that lies from the Tropic of Cancer
It aims to provide general guidance for regions (23.5°N), across Equator (0°) to the Tropic of
experiencing higher apparent temperatures causing Capricorn (23.5°S) is considered the Torrid Zone
discomfort to people. (Tropical Zone). The Sun’s ray falls directly at
least once a year.
Temperature belts of world Frigid Zone: This is the coldest zone of the Earth.
This area lies to the north of the Arctic Circle
(66.6°N) and to the south of the Antarctic Circle
(66.5°S) and is permanently frozen. There is no
sunlight for most of the months is of the year in
this zone.
These are based on the distance they have from Equator.
PYQ (2019)
4. On 21st June, the Sun

(a) does not set below the horizon at the Arctic
Circle
(b) does not set below the horizon at Antarctic
Circle
The three major heat zones of the Earth are:

(c) shines vertically overhead at noon on the
Equator
Temperate Zone: This is the habitable heat zone
of the Earth. There are two temperate zones lie (d) shines vertically overhead at the Tropic of
in between in both 23½° to 66½° the hemisphere. Capricorn
These regions have moderate, tolerable Correct Answer: (a)
temperatures.
WEATHER PHENOMENON
tropical atmospheric circulation (winds), pressure, and
TRIPLE DIP’ LA NINA AND rainfall.
It usually has the opposite impact on weather and
20 ITS IMPACT ON INDIA’S climate as El Niño.
MONSOON
El Niño is a climate pattern that describes the unusual
warming of surface waters in the eastern tropical Pacific
CONTEXT: Australia’s Bureau of Meteorology (BOM) Ocean.
predicted that a third consecutive event of La Niña could
be underway. La Niña is characterized by lower-than-normal air
pressure over the western Pacific.
These low-pressure zones contribute to increased
What is La Niña? rainfall.
La Niña years are associated with above-average trade
El Nino-Southern Oscillation (ENSO): winds, pushing the warmer waters towards Asia and
drawing in cooler than normal water temps to the
ENSO is the interaction between the atmosphere
equatorial pacific.
and ocean in the tropical Pacific.
Causes: La Niña is caused by a build-up of cooler-than-
It is a series of linked weather and ocean-related
normal waters in the tropical Pacific, the area of the
phenomena.
Pacific Ocean between the Tropic of Cancer and the
La Niña involves the large-scale cooling of the ocean Tropic of Capricorn.
surface temperatures in the central and eastern Effects: La Niña affects; patterns of rainfall, atmospheric
equatorial Pacific Ocean coupled with changes in the pressure and global atmospheric circulations.
What does a triple La Niña mean? La Nina is the opposite of El Nino and is characterised by
cooler currents in the equatorial eastern Pacific.
A triple La Niña or a ‘triple dip’ La Niña is a rare
occurrence, lasting for three years in a row. It has
happened only twice since 1950. El Nino Southern Oscillation (ENSO):
On the contrary, the occurrence of two consecutive The combined phases of La Nina and El Nino are
La Niña winters in the Northern Hemisphere is termed El Nino-Southern Oscillation (ENSO).
common. The phenomenon affects rainfall patterns, global
atmospheric circulation, and atmospheric pressure
across the planet.
21 EL NIÑO IS COMING
How El Niño affects the planet?
Wet and dry areas: Warm water affects air currents that
CONTEXT: As per the prediction of most forecast
leave areas wetter or drier than usual.
models, the climate system’s biggest player – El Niño –
will return for the first time in nearly four years. Storms: It can ramp up storms in some areas, like the
southern U.S. while tending to tamp down Atlantic
hurricane activity.
El Nino:
Impact on marine life: El Niño can also wreak havoc
El Niño is one side of the climatic coin called the El on the many marine ecosystems that support the world’s
Niño-Southern Oscillation (ENSO). It’s the heads to fishing industries, including coral reefs and seagrass
La Niña’s tails.
meadows.
It is classified as a periodic fluctuation in sea surface
Extreme ocean warming: Specifically, El Niño tends
temperature (SST) across the central and eastern
to trigger intense and widespread periods of extreme
tropical Pacific oceans.
ocean warming known as marine heat waves.
Global ocean temperatures are already at record
highs, so El Niño-induced marine heat waves
could push many sensitive fisheries to a breaking
point.
In the Bay of Bengal east of India, interactions between El

Niño and a tropical airflow pattern known as the Walker
Circulation elevate the risk for marine heat waves.
INDIAN OCEAN DIPOLE

22
(IOD)
CONTEXT: With the El Nino phenomenon almost

certain to affect the Indian monsoon this year, high hopes
are pinned on the development of a positive Indian Ocean
Dipole (IOD) and its ability to counterbalance the El Nino
effect.
It is triggered by a warming of the eastern equatorial
Pacific Ocean
El Niño occurs every 2-7 years and can last anywhere About Indian Ocean Dipole:
between nine months and two years.
The IOD is an ocean-atmosphere interaction very
El Niño is the warm phase of the El Niño Southern similar to the El Nino fluctuations in the Pacific Ocean,
Oscillation (commonly called ENSO) and is associated
playing out, as the name shows, in the Indian Ocean.
with a band of warm ocean water that develops in the
central and east-central equatorial Pacific (between It is also a much weaker system than El Nino, and thus
approximately the International Date Line and has relatively limited impacts.
120°W), including off the Pacific coast of South A positive IOD helps rainfall along the African
America. coastline and also over the Indian sub-continent while
suppressing rainfall over Indonesia, Southeast Asia and similar phenomenon, playing out in the relatively
Australia. smaller area of the Indian Ocean between the
The impacts are opposite during a negative IOD event. Indonesian and Malaysian coastline in the east and
the African coastline near Somalia in the west.
IOD, sometimes referred to as the Indian Nino, is a
ocean to be drained. However, there is a massive

The El Nino phenomenon: anomaly in the Earth’s crust that has a much weaker
An El Nino event is the result of a weakening of gravitational attraction than usual.
wind systems that leads to lesser displacement of It is located about 600 miles below the surface of the
warmer waters. Earth.
This results in the eastern side of the Pacific This “gravity hole” is actually the Indian Ocean Geoid
becoming warmer than usual. During La Nina, the Low (IOGL), which spans an area of more than two
opposite happens. million square miles.
Both these conditions, together called El Nino Type of structure: Humongous structures
Southern Oscillation or ENSO, affect weather events Shape: The gravity hole is not actually a perfect sphere,
across the world. as Earth’s gravitational field is not uniform due to
Over India, the El Nino has the impact of suppressing variations in density and mass distribution.
monsoon rainfall.
What forms it?
The distribution of mass within Earth is not
INDIAN OCEAN GEOID homogeneous, with denser regions in some areas and
23 less dense regions in others.
LOW (IOGL) These variations in density and mass create differences
in gravitational attraction, leading to the formation of
CONTEXT: Researchers at the Indian Institute of Science the geoid.
have revealed the secrets of the giant gravity hole that rests The irregularity in the gravitational field causes
in the Indian Ocean. anomalies, resulting in differences in the strength of
gravity at different locations on the Earth’s surface,
which influences the Earth’s shape.
What is the Indian Ocean Geoid Low The shape is also affected by the planet’s rotation,
(IOGL)? gravitational forces, and internal structure.
There is an enigmatic “gravity hole” in the Indian
How are they formed (Key-findings)?
Ocean.
It is not the kind of “hole” that would allow the entire The scientists looked inside Earth’s surface, nearly
1,000 kilometers beneath the crust where once an

ancient ocean plunged nearly and stirred up hot molten ‘TRIPLE DIP’ LA NINA AND
rock, nearly 30 million years ago.
The team then looked at how the tectonic plates moved
24 ITS IMPACT ON INDIA’S
along each other in the past 140 million years when the MONSOON
Indian plate had just begun separating from the larger
Gondwanaland.
Every time for the gravity hole anomaly to form plumes CONTEXT: Australia’s Bureau of Meteorology (BOM)
of hot, low-density magma was required, and the first predicted that a third consecutive event of La Niña could
such plume appeared nearly 20 million years ago, and be underway.
as the plumes intensified so did the gravity hole.
Low density anomalies: The researchers found that What is La Niña?
‘low density anomalies’ or the presence of lighter
materials in the upper to mid mantle below the IOGL,
were responsible for the gravity low in this region. El Nino-Southern Oscillation (ENSO)
Mantle plumes: Plumes are integral in generating the ENSO is the interaction between the atmosphere
IOGL. Mantle plumes or the rising up of abnormally and ocean in the tropical Pacific.
hot rock within the Earth’s mantle can result in low It is a series of linked weather and ocean-related
density anomalies. phenomena.
La Niña involves the large-scale cooling of the ocean Unusually strong, eastward-moving trade winds
surface temperatures in the central and eastern and ocean currents bring this cold water to the
equatorial Pacific Ocean coupled with changes in the surface, a process known as
tropical atmospheric circulation (winds), pressure, and Effects: La Niña affects; patterns of rainfall, atmospheric
rainfall. pressure and global atmospheric circulations.
It usually has the opposite impact on weather and
climate as El Niño. What does a triple La Niña mean?
La Niña is characterized by lower-than-normal air A triple La Niña or a ‘triple dip’ La Niña is a rare
pressure over the western Pacific. occurrence, lasting for three years in a row. It has
These low-pressure zones contribute to increased happened only twice since 1950.
rainfall. On the contrary, the occurrence of two consecutive La
La Niña years are associated with above-average trade Niña winters in the Northern Hemisphere is common.
winds, pushing the warmer waters towards Asia and
drawing in cooler than normal water temps to the Impact of El Nino and La Nina
equatorial pacific.
El Nino is associated with drought or weak
Causes: La Niña is caused by a build-up of cooler-than-
monsoons.
normal waters in the tropical Pacific, the area of the
La Nina is associated with strong monsoons and
Pacific Ocean between the Tropic of Cancer and the
above average rains and colder winters.
Tropic of Capricorn.
Impact on India
PYQ (2022)
Monsoon: India may experience an extended monsoon
lasting up to October due to La Niña. 6. In the northern hemisphere, the longest day of
Agriculture: La Nina could have negative impacts on the year normally occurs in the:
Indian agriculture. Farmers will be at risk of losing their (a) First half of the month of June
standing Kharif crops if it rains during this period.
(b) Second half of the month of June
(c) First half of the month of July
25 FLASH FLOOD
(d) Second half of the month of July
Correct Answer: (b)
CONTEXT: A flash flood was recently occurred near
Gaurikund on the Kedarnath yatra route in Uttarakhand.
PYQ (2013)
What are flash floods and how are they
7. During a thunderstorm, the thunder in the skies
different from floods in general?
is produced by the:
Excessive or continuous rainfall over a period of days,
or during particular seasons, can lead to stagnation of 1. meeting of cumulonimbus clouds in the sky
water and cause flooding. 2. lightning that separates the nimbus clouds
Flash floods refer to such a situation, but occurring in 3. violent upward movement of air and water
a much shorter span of time, and are highly localised. particles
Himalayan states further face the challenge of
overflowing glacial lakes, formed due to the melting of
Select the correct answer using the codes given
glaciers, and their numbers have been increasing in the below.
last few years. (a) 1 only
Frequently, flash floods are accompanied by landslides, (b) 2 and 3
which are sudden movements of rock, boulders, earth
or debris down a slope. (c) 1 and 3
Features: Very fast rise and recession of flow of small (d) None
volume and high discharge.
Correct Answer: (d)
Causes: Heavy or excessive rainfall, cloudburst or
thunderstorm, sudden release of water from any
reservoir and floating debris.
PRACTICE QUESTIONS
PYQ (2022) 1. Which of the following statements is/are correct
about monsoon theory in India?
5. Consider the following statements:
1. High clouds primarily reflect solar radiation and 1. Hailey’s classical theory is based on differential
cool the surface of the Earth. heating of land and water as the main driving force
of the monsoon winds.
2. Low clouds have a high absorption of infrared
radiation emanating from the Earth’s surface 2. Jet stream theory suggests the presence of the
and thus cause warming effect. westerly jet stream to the north of the Himalayas
Which of the statements given above is/are and the tropical easterly jet stream over the Indian
correct? peninsula during summer.
(a) 1 only Select the correct answer using the code below:
(b) 2 only (a) 1 only

(c) Both 1 and 2 (b) 2 only
(d) Neither 1 nor 2 (c) Both 1 and 2
Correct Answer: (d) (d) Neither 1 nor 2
2. Consider the following statements: How many of the statements given above are correct?
1. Positive Indian Ocean Dipole is good for the (a) Only one
Indian Monsoon.
(b) Only two
2. During the positive phase of the ‘Equatorial Indian
(c) All three
Ocean Oscillation (EQUINOO),’ there is enhanced
cloud formation and rainfall in the western part of (d) None
the equatorial ocean near the African coast. 6. Regarding the phenomenon of Temperature
3. The onset of the southwest monsoon is coincided inversions, consider the following statements:
with the onset of the Warm Somali Current. It a reversal of the normal behaviour of temperature
How many of the above statements is/are correct? in the troposphere.
(a) Only one (b) Only two 1. Inversions also cause intense thunderstorms and
tornadoes because of the energy trapped high up
(c) All three (d) None
in the atmosphere.
3. With respect to Retreating Monsoon season,
consider the following statements: 2. Air density increases with increasing height during
an inversion.
1. The season is marked by the fall in temperature.
How many of the statements given above are correct?
2. The intensity of rain in this season decreases
southwards. (a) Only one
3. October heat is a common feature of this season. (b) Only two
How many of the above statements is/are correct? (c) All three
(a) Only one (d) None
(b) Only two 7. Consider the following statements regarding the

glacial lake outburst floods (GLOF):
(c) All three
1. It is a sudden release of water from a lake fed by
(d) None glacier melt that has formed at the side, in front,
4. Consider the following statements about Savannah within, beneath, or on the surface of a glacier.
Climate:
2. It can be impounded by moraine complexes, glacial
1. The grass found in this climate is short and fine ice or bedrock.
like lawn grass.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
2. Trees in the Savannah are evergreen.
(a) 1 only
3. In this type of climate generally, there is no
distinction between dry and wet seasons. (b) 2 only
How many of the statements given above is/are (c) Both 1 and 2
correct? (d) Neither 1 nor 2
(a) Only one 8. With reference to Fujiwhara effect, consider the
following statements:
(b) Only two
1. It is an interaction between two cyclones.
(c) All three
2. It can lead to the rotation or orbiting of the two
(d) None
cyclones around a common point or their merger
5. Consider the following statements about the Earth’s
into a single, larger storm.
Heat Budget:
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
1. The Earth as a whole accumulates more heat than
it loses. (a) 1 only
2. Albedo is a measure of how much light that hits a (b) 2 only
surface and is absorbed. (c) Both 1 and 2
3. The Urban Heat Island Effect is due to the influence (d) Neither 1 nor 2
of albedo.
9. Consider the following statements regarding How many of the statements given above are correct?
Cloudburst:
(a) Only one (b) Only two
1. Cloudburst is a sudden, very heavy rainfall, usually (c) All three (d) None
local in nature and of brief duration.
2. Most cloudbursts occur in connection with ANSWERS
thunderstorms. 1. (c) 2. (b) 3. (a) 4. (d) 5. (a)
3. It occurs due to the formation of high-pressures
6. (b) 7. (c) 8. (c) 9. (b)
areas in high-altitude regions.

CHAPTER 02
GEOMORPHOLOGY
INTERIOR OF EARTH
1 MANTLE AND RELATED PHENOMENON
CONTEXT: Researchers trying to uncover the secrets of Earth’s geology have revealed the fifth layer of the planet.
Seismic waves generated by earthquakes have revealed new insights about the deepest parts of Earth’s inner core.
About:
The Earth has four
layers namely:
The solid crust
on the outside
The mantle
The core —
split between
the outer core
and the inner
core.
The crust is
everything we
can see and study
directly.
The thinnest layer
of the Earth, the
crust still measures
about 40 km on
average, ranging
from 5–70 km (~3–44 miles) in depth.
But at the scale of the planet, that’s less than the skin of an apple.
There are two types of crust: Continental and Oceanic crust.
Oceanic crust can be found at the bottom of the oceans or below the continental crust; it is generally harder and deeper,
consisting of denser rocks like basalt, while continental crust contains granite-type rocks and sediments. The continental
crust is thicker on land.
Key highlights of the study: S-waves: S-waves, also known as secondary waves,
shear waves or shaking waves, are transverse waves
The mantle:
that travel slower than P-waves. S-waves cannot
The research has revealed that the mantle normally travel through air or water but are more destructive
is a 2,900 km thick layer of solid rock sandwiched than P-waves because of their larger amplitudes.
between the Earth’s upper crust and lower core —
Surface waves: Surface waves are similar in nature
has been hiding two layers inside it.
to water waves and travel just under the Earth’s
One is the “low viscosity” zone in the upper
surface. They are typically generated when the
mantle, roughly 100 kilometres in thickness.
source of the earthquake is close to the Earth’s
The other layer is the ‘low-velocity zone’, which
surface.
is also a part of the upper mantle.
The low viscosity zone coincides with the
transition zone between the upper and the lower
Explainer: Earth — layer by layer
mantle.
The earth is made up of three different layers: the crust, the
It was also found that mantle covers the largest area mantle and the core.
inside the earth of about 44% of the earth.
Earth Crust
What are Seismic Waves? The outermost surface part of earth is called earth crust.
Seismic waves are caused by the sudden movement of It is also known as Lithosphere. It is subdivided into three
materials within the Earth, such as slip along a fault parts, viz., Continental Crust, Oceanic Crust, and Crust of
during an earthquake. transitional type.
Continental Crust is the part of continental region
of the earth surface. Main rock forming substances of
continental crust are Silica and Aluminium, hence it
is called ‘Sial’.
Oceanic Crust refers the part of oceanic region under
the continental crust, with a depth of about 5 to 7 km.
Main rock forming substances of oceanic crust are
Silica and Magnesium for which it is also called as
‘Sima’. The upper portion of oceanic crust is developed
by sedimentary rocks, and the lower portion is with
Basalt.
Crust of transitional type refers to an intermediate
region of aforementioned two divisions, having a
mixed characteristics of both of that. This includes the
continental shelf regions, islands etc.
CONTINENTAL
CRUST
Volcanic eruptions, explosions, landslides, avalanches,
and even rushing rivers can also cause seismic waves.
Seismic waves travel through and around the Earth and OCEANIC
can be recorded with seismometers. CRUST
Types of seismic waves: There are three basic types of

seismic waves – P-waves, S-waves and surface waves.
P-waves and S-waves are sometimes collectively called
body waves. Mantle
P-waves: P-waves, also known as primary waves
or pressure waves, travel at the greatest velocity Mantle is the middle part of earth crust and centrosphere.
through the Earth. When they travel through air, It is divided into two parts, e.g. Upper Mantle, and Lower
they take the form of sound waves – they travel at Mantle. The mantle is about 2,900 kilometers (1,802 miles)
the speed of sound (330 ms-1) through air but may thick, and makes up a whopping 84 percent of Earth’s total
travel at 5000 ms-1 in granite. volume.
UPPER MANTLE LOWER MANTLE

About It begins at the Moho boundary, which marks It begins at around 660 kilometres below
the point deep in the earth where the crust the surface of the earth.
transitions into the mantle.
Dynamics It extends from the crust to a depth of about It extends from 1,000 km. to 2,900 km.
410 kilometers (255 miles).
Composition Chromium (Cr), Iron (Fe), Silica (Si), Nickel (Ni), Iron (Fe), Silica (Si),
Magnesium (Mg). Hence it is called 'Crofesima'. Magnesium (Mg). So this layer is called
'Nifesima'.
Centrosphere
It is the core of earth. Earth’s core is the deepest, hottest layer. Centrosphere occupies the 17% to total volume, and 34% of
total mass of earth. Centrosphere is divided into two parts: Outer Core, and Inner Core.
ASPECT OUTER CORE INNER CORE

State of Matter Liquid Solid
Composition Chromium (Cr), and Iron (Fe). Thenceforth it is Nickel (Ni), and Iron (Fe). Hence it is
called 'Crofe'. called 'Nife'.
Dynamics It starts at around 1,800 miles (2,900 kilometers) deep It is estimated to be about 1221 km in
and ends at 3,200 miles (5,150 km) beneath the surface radius (2442 km in diameter).
crust and uppermost

15 major Tectonic Plates:
NEW MAP OF EARTH’S mantle – are viewed as
2 acting as a single African Plate
TECTONIC PLATES mechanical layer, the Antarctic Plate
lithosphere. Arabian Plate
Australian Plate
The lithosphere is Caribbean Plate
CONTEXT: Researchers have carried out a new study
divided into separate Cocos Plate
that includes an updated map of the earth’s tectonic plates. Eurasian Plate
“plates” that move
Indian Plate
It sheds light on how past continents were formed by relative to each other on
Juan de Fuca Plate
tectonic movements; new micro plates have been added the underlying, relatively Nazca Plate
with existing plates. weak asthenosphere in a North American Plate
process ultimately driven Pacific Plate
What is plate tectonics? by the continuous loss of Philippine Plate
heat from the Earth’s Scotia Plate
In plate tectonics the outermost part of the Earth – the South American Plate
interior.
There are three main types of plate boundaries:

About Earth’s inner core
Divergent, where plates move apart from each
other and new lithosphere is formed in the process Earth’s inner core is the fourth layer inside the Earth.
of sea-floor spreading; It is a solid metallic ball made mainly of iron.
Transform, where plates slide past each other, and Although the inner core is very hot (7200-8500
Convergent, where plates converge and lithosphere degree F), it is not liquid like the outer core.
is “consumed” by the process of Subduction. The inner core is very solid due to the pressure
caused by the weight put on it by the Earth’s other
Lithosphere three layers (crust, mantle and the outer core).
The lithosphere is the outermost layer of Earth,

composed of the crust and the brittle part of the
upper mantle.
The lithosphere can be divided into two varieties:
oceanic and continental.
Oceanic crust is relatively thin and dense. It is
mainly composed of basalt rock rich in silica
and magnesium.
Continental crust, on the other hand, is mainly
composed of granite rocks rich in silica and
aluminium and can reach thicknesses of up to
190 miles (300 km).
Asthenosphere is a zone of Earth's mantle lying
beneath the lithosphere.
EARTH’S INNER CORE

EARTH’S TILT & IMPACT
3 STOPPED SPINNING AND 4
ON COLD DAYS
REVERSING
CONTEXT: Above the equator, winter officially begins
CONTEXT: According to a new research, published in in December, but in many areas, January is when it really
the journal ‘Nature Geoscience’, the inner core of Earth takes hold which is mainly due to the earth’s tilt and it
seems to have stopped spinning in the same direction as seems to be different for different locations on earth.
the rest of the planet. About the earth’s axial tilt:
Earth’s axial tilt (also known as the obliquity of the

Key-findings of the Study ecliptic) is about 5 degrees.
Earth’s inner core, seems to have been spinning in the Due to this axial tilt, the sun shines on different latitudes
opposite direction in comparison to the rest of the at different angles throughout the year.
planet.
The earth’s spin axis is tilted with respect to its orbital
The rotation of the inner core that is the hot iron ball, plane.
which is around the size of Pluto “came to near halt
This is what causes the seasons. When the earth’s
around 2009 and then turned in an opposite direction.
axis points towards the sun, it is summer for that
According to Researchers, the inner core rotates, relative hemisphere. When the earth’s axis points away, winter
to the Earth’s surface, back and forth, just like a swing. can be expected.
One cycle of the swing is of around seven decades. This
means that it changes direction after every 35 years. How does the Earth’s orbit influence our
It changed its direction earlier in the early 1970s and the daylight and temperatures?
same may happen again in the mid-2040s.
As the Earth orbits the sun, it spins around an axis from
This rotation lines up with changes in what is called the the North Pole to the South Pole.
“length of day”, the small variations in the exact time it
During the 24 hours that it takes for the Earth to rotate
takes the Earth to rotate on its axis.
once around its axis, every point on its surface faces
toward the Sun for part of the time and away from it for
NISAR satellite was jointly developed by the Indian
part of the time. This is what causes daily changes in
Space Research Organisation (ISRO) and the
sunlight and temperature.
National Aeronautics and Space Administration
There are two other important factors:
(NASA) of the U.S.
First, the Earth is round, although it’s not a perfect
sphere. NISAR is expected to be launched in January 2024
from Satish Dhawan Space Centre into a near-polar
Second, its axis is tilted about 23.5 degrees
relative to its path around the Sun. orbit.
As a result, light falls directly on its equator but strikes
the North and South poles at angles. About the map:
When one of the poles points more toward the Sun than Need of the initiative: A large section of the Himalayan
the other pole, that half of the planet gets more sunlight region falls in Zone V, implying the highest risk of
than the other half, and it’s summer in that hemisphere. strong earthquakes.
When that pole tilts away from the Sun, that half of the
Earth gets less sunlight and it’s winter there.
Strain
Strain refers to the deformation that occurs in rocks
when it is under pressure from other rocks, usually
due to movements of continental plates that are
sliding, colliding, or sub-ducting against each other.
The Indian Plate, for instance, collided into the
Eurasian plate forming the Himalayas and continues
to incrementally push it upwards.
The NISAR satellite will use two frequency bands: the

L-band and S-band to image the Himalayan region.
The geoscience community can use this to determine
how strain is building up in various parts of the
Himalayas.
These two frequency bands will together provide high-
resolution, all-weather data from the satellite that is
expected to follow a sun-synchronous orbit and will be
PYQ (2013) launched in January 2024.
1. Variations in the length of daytime and night

time from season to season are due to-
About NISAR:
(a) the earth’s rotation on its axis NISAR stands for NASA-ISRO Synthetic Aperture
Radar.
(b) the earth’s revolution around the sun in an
elliptical manner It is an Earth observation satellite.
The 2,800 kilograms satellite consists of both
(c) latitudinal position of the place
L-band and S-band synthetic aperture radar (SAR)
(d) revolution of the earth on a tilted axis instruments, which makes it a dual-frequency
Correct Answer: (d) imaging radar satellite.
NASA has provided the L-band radar, GPS, a high-
capacity solid-state recorder to store data, and a
payload data subsystem.
NISAR SATELLITE TO MAP
And the ISRO has provided the S-band radar, the
5 HIMALAYAS’ SEISMIC GSLV launch system and spacecraft.
ZONES Another important component of the satellite is its
large 39-foot stationary antenna reflector
It is made of a gold-plated wire mesh, the reflector
CONTEXT: NISAR satellite is going to map the
most earthquake-prone regions in the Himalayas with will be used to focus the radar signals emitted and
unprecedented regularity and aims to build an advance received by the upward-facing feed on the instrument
warning system of land subsidence and earthquakes. structure.
Subduction
SCIENTISTS DISCOVER
6 Subduction is the geologic process in which one
“PONTUS PLATE” edge of one lithospheric plate is forced below the
edge of another – and over time an entire plate can
be lost.
CONTEXT: Scientists discover a long-lost tectonic
plate ‘Pontus’, an ancient mega-plate that disappeared 20 Crucially, a sub-ducted plate leaves behind traces
million years ago. when it 'sinks' into Earth's mantle – namely,
fragments of rock hidden in mountain belts.
It is an ongoing process.
What is Pontus (Key-Findings)?
Pontus is a tectonic plate that existed around 150
million years ago in the western Pacific.
Size: Called Pontus, the ‘mega-plate’ was once 15
million square miles, about a quarter the size of the
Pacific Ocean today. But over time it was subducted
into Earth’s mantle and eventually lost.
Name game: Scientists have dubbed it the “Pontus
plate” because at the time of its existence, it sat under
an ocean known as the Pontus Ocean.
Location: The plate is known only from a few rock
fragments from the mountains of Borneo and the
What led to the discovery?
ghostly remnants of its huge slab detected deep in Background: Scientists predicted the existence of the
Earth’s mantle. Pontus about a decade ago. The prediction came after
In addition to northern Borneo, Pontus plate relics they discovered fragments of old tectonic plates deep
were found in Palawan, an island in the Western in the Earth’s mantle.
Philippines, and the South China Sea. In the current study, scientists reconstructed the lost
The study was published in the journal Gondwana plates by combining field research with extensive
Research. investigations of Japan, Borneo, the Philippines, New
Guinea, and New Zealand Mountain belts.
These areas were believed to be the “most
complicated plate tectonic region.”
What are Tectonic Plates?

Plate tectonics is a scientific theory that explains how
major landforms are created as a result of Earth’s
subterranean movements.
The theory, which solidified in the 1960s, transformed
the earth sciences by explaining many phenomena,
including mountain building events, volcanoes, and
earthquakes.
In plate tectonics, Earth’s outermost layer, or
lithosphere—made up of the crust and upper mantle—
is broken into large rocky plates.
These plates lie on top of a partially molten layer of
rock called the asthenosphere.
Due to the convection of the asthenosphere and
lithosphere, the plates move relative to each other at
Why did it disappear? different rates, from two to 15 centimeters (one to six
Pontus has been gradually subducted beneath the earth inches) per year.
over the last millions of years. Scientists believe this This interaction of tectonic plates is responsible for
gravitational force came from a neighboring plate. many different geological formations such as the
In the ancient geological past, large plates have Himalaya mountain range in Asia, the East African
since disappeared into Earth’s mantle by means of Rift, and the San Andreas Fault in California, United
‘subduction’. States.
A convergent plate boundary is formed by tectonic

plates crashing into each other.
Convergent Convergent boundaries are often subduction zones,

Boundaries where the heavier plate slips under the lighter plate,
creating a deep trench. This subduction changes the
dense mantle material into buoyant magma, which
rises through the crust to Earth’s surface. Over millions
of years, the rising magma creates a series of active
volcanoes known as a volcanic arc.
Divergent A divergent boundary is formed by tectonic plates

Boundaries pulling apart from each other.
A transform boundary is formed as tectonic plates slide

horizontally past each other. Parts of these plates get
stuck at the places where they touch.
Transform Stress builds in those areas as the rest of the plates
Boundaries continue to move.
This stress causes the rock to break or slip, suddenly
lurching the plates forward and causing earthquakes.
These areas of breakage or slippage are called faults.
PYQ (2013)
2. Consider the following:

1. Electromagnetic radiation
2. Geothermal energy
3. Gravitational force
4. Plate movements
5. Rotation of the earth
6. Revolution of the earth
Which of the above are responsible for bringing dynamic changes on the surface of the earth?
(a) 1, 2, 3 and 4 only
(b) 1, 3, 5 and 6 only
(c) 2, 4, 5 and 6 only
(d) 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 and 6
Correct Answer: (d)
EARTHQUAKES
Brushing Basics (Earthquake)

An earthquake is the shaking of the surface of the Earth,
resulting from the sudden release of energy in the Earth‘s
lithosphere that creates seismic waves.
Earthquake is the form of energy of wave motion
transmitted through the surface layer of the earth.
It may be due to faulting, folding, plate movement,
volcanic eruptions and anthropogenic factors like dams
and reservoirs.
According to the National Disaster Management
Authority, this happens due to the release of the
transmitted pressure of moving lithospheric or crustal
plates.
According to seismic zoning mapping, earthquake zones
are divided on the basis of the estimation of the intensity
of the earthquake.
India is divided into 4 Zones: Zone 2, Zone 3, Zone 4,
and Zone 5.
While Zone 2 is the least dangerous, Zone 5 is the most dangerous.
Nearly, 59% of India’s land area is under a moderate to severe seismic hazard warning, which means that India
is prone to earthquakes of magnitude 7 and above.
The capital is Ankara, and its largest city and seaport

TURKEY & ITS RELATION is Istanbul.
7
TO EARTHQUAKES Turkey is bounded on the north by the Black Sea, on
the northeast by Georgia and Armenia, on the east by
Azerbaijan and Iran, on the southeast by Iraq and Syria,
CONTEXT: Recently, Turkey witnessed a 7.8 magnitude
on the southwest and west by the Mediterranean Sea and
earthquake which is one of the most powerful earthquakes
the Aegean Sea, and on the northwest by Greece and
in the past two decades with more than 1,300 people killed
Bulgaria.
and thousands still believed to be trapped under rubble.
Occurrence of Earthquakes:
What makes Turkey a hotbed of seismic
activity? Types of earthquakes:
Turkey is frequently shaken by earthquakes. Tectonic earthquakes
Turkey’s proneness to earthquakes comes from its Volcanic earthquakes
tectonic location. Human-induced earthquakes
Turkey, a hotbed of seismic activity, sits on the
Anatolian Plate, which borders two major faults as it An earthquake is the shaking of the earth. It is a natural
event.
grinds northeast against Eurasia.
It is caused due to release of energy, which generates
The location: waves that travel in all directions.
The vibrations called seismic waves are generated
Turkey lies partly in Asia and partly in Europe.
from earthquakes that travel through the Earth and are
It is situated at the crossroads of the Balkans, Caucasus, recorded on instruments called
Middle East, and eastern Mediterranean.
The location below the earth’s surface where the
The country has a north-south extent that ranges from earthquake starts is called the hypocenter, and the
about 300 to 400 miles (480 to 640 km), and it stretches location directly above it on the surface of the earth is
about 1,000 miles from west to east. called the epicenter.
PYQ (2014)
3. Turkey is located between

(a) Black Sea and Caspian Sea
(b) Black Sea and Mediterranean Sea
(c) Gulf of Suez and Mediterranean Sea
(d) Gulf of Aqaba and Dead Sea
Correct Answer: (b)
EARTHQUAKES IN
8 EARTHQUAKES IN
AFGHANISTAN 9
INDONESIA
CONTEXT: Over 2,000 people lost their lives, after a
powerful earthquake hit western Afghanistan, near the CONTEXT: The recent Earthquake (Magnitude 5.6) in
Iranian border. West Java province of Indonesia led to massive devastation
in the island country.
What Makes Afghanistan, the Epicenter of

The Location:
Earthquakes?
The Island is prone to frequent earth quakes, Tsunamis,
Afghanistan is located in a region where several tectonic volcanic eruptions.
plates meet, making it susceptible to seismic activity. West Java is bordered by the country’s capital region
As it is located in the mountainous Hindu Kush region, of Jakarta to the west, the Java Sea to the north, the
part of the Alpide Belt, the second most seismically province of Central Java to the east and the Indian
active region in the world after the Pacific Ring of Ocean to the south.
Fire, it stretches from the Mediterranean to Southeast Tectonics and seismicity of Jakarta and adjacent areas is
Asia. highly influenced by the convergence of the Australian
This belt is formed by the collision of the Eurasian and Plate toward the Eurasian Plate.
African plates in the west and the Indo-Australian and
Eurasian plates in the east.
Geographic factors Responsible for
Earthquakes in the region:
As these plates move, they create pressure and tension
that eventually result in earthquakes. Ring of fire: Indonesia is on the arc of volcanoes and
fault lines in the Pacific Basin known as the ‘Ring of
The region is situated on the boundary between the
Fire’, it becomes one of the places where a majority of
Indian, Eurasian & Arabian tectonic plates.
the world’s earthquakes occur.
The Indian plate moves northwards and is pushed
Movement of Fault lines: Due to number of rocks
against the Eurasian plate, causing it to move placed inside the island forms fault lines, they are
westwards. continuously moving with respect to normal rocks.
This movement results in the formation of the Hindu Hence, they can slide over each other easily and are not
Kush mountain range, which runs through Afghanistan stiff.
and Pakistan.
The collision of these plates creates seismic waves, that A fault is a place with a long break in the rock that forms
results in earthquakes. the surface of the earth. When an earthquake occurs on
one of these faults, the rock on one side of the fault slips
with respect to the other.
What is Epicentre?
Epicentre is the location just above the hypocentre Type of Soil: The Indonesian island is made of basically
on the earth. volcanic soil made up of ashes which is similar to black
soil in India. This soil easily gets settled down and is
Hypocentre is the location below the earth’s surface easy to swell and shrink.
where the earthquake starts.
The Structure holding capacity the soil is also poor.
Zone III is classified as a Moderate Damage Risk

MASSIVE EARTHQUAKE Zone
10
TREMORS IN DELHI Zone II is the least
* No area of India is classified as Zone I.
CONTEXT: In Nepal, the first quake of magnitude 4.6

Distribution
struck the west region at a depth of 10 kilometre. Delhi
also experienced two tremors. A total of 59% of the land mass of India (covering all
states of India) is prone to earthquakes of different
intensities.
National Centre for Seismology under Ministry of 11% area of the country falls in zone V
Earth Sciences is the nodal agency of Government of 18% in zone IV
India (GoI), for monitoring earthquakes in and around 30% in zone III and remaining in zone II
the country.
MICRO-EARTHQUAKES
Why Delhi is vulnerable to earthquakes? 11
India is subdivided by the Bureau of Indian Standards
EVENT IN INDIA
(BIS) into four major seismic zones -- Zone V (high
intensity) to Zone II (low intensity). CONTEXT: Micro tremors have been helping release
Delhi-NCR falls in Zone IV, which is severe intensity tectonic stress and protecting India from a devastating
zone. event, experts said and asserted that the country has seen a
Delhi is located near three active seismic fault lines: paradigm shift towards effective response and mitigation.
Sohna, Mathura and Delhi-Moradabad.
Gurugram is the riskiest area in Delhi-NCR as it is About
situated on seven fault lines. India is witnessing micro tremors regularly which,
If these get active, a quake of high intensity is imminent. in turn, is helping release tectonic stress and offering
Such a quake would wreak havoc. protection from the possibility of a devastating event.
The triple junction on India’s western side near the
Seismic zoning map border with Pakistan is continuously releasing stress
due to the occurrence of micro-level earthquakes.
Zone V is seismically the most active region
There are a few earthquakes of magnitude 4 and 5 as
Zone IV is called the High Damage Risk Zone
well.
Role of National Center for Seismology

Triple Junction
(NCS):
A triple junction is a point where three tectonic
plates meet and interact. National Center for Seismology (NCS) is the nodal
These are important areas of geological activity agency of the Government of India for monitoring
and can be sites of significant seismic and volcanic earthquake activity in the country.
activity.
NCS maintains the National Seismological Network
The movement of the plates can cause a significant
of 155 stations each having state of art equipment and
build-up of stress and strain in the Earth's crust that
is eventually released in the form of earthquakes. spreading all across the country.
NCS monitors earthquake activity all across the country
How prone is India to earthquakes? through its 24x7 around-the-clock monitoring center.
India is located in a seismically active region. India is The major activities currently being pursued by the
divided into four seismic zones based on the potential NCS are:
for earthquake activity in each region.
Earthquake monitoring on a 24X7 basis
According to the Ministry of Earth Sciences, 59 per
cent of India’s land mass is prone to earthquakes. Operation and maintenance of national
Zone V is seismically the most active region, while seismological network comprising of 155 Stations
Zone II is the least. Maintenance of Seismological data center and
Around 11 per cent of the country’s area falls in information services
Zone V, 18 per cent in Zone IV and 30 per cent in
Seismic hazard microzonation related studies
Zone III and the remaining in Zone II.
The zones are used to guide building codes and Aftershock/Earthquake swarm monitoring/
construction practices. survey
Zone 5 is the zone where the most intense earthquakes Understanding of Earthquake processes
occur, while the least intense quakes take place in zone Public outreach
2. Approximately 11% of the country's area falls in Zone
5, 18% in zone 4, 30% in zone 3 and the remaining in Other earthquake observatories in India
zone 2.
Currently, India has only 115 earthquake observatories.
Some of them are:
UDHAMPUR GETS
12 National Geophysical Research Institute (NGRI),
EARTHQUAKE OBSERVATORY Hyderabad
Wadia Institute of Himalayan Geology (WIHG),
CONTEXT: The government recently inaugurated a Dehradun
seismological observatory in Udhampur, Jammu and North East Institute of Science & Technology
Kashmir. (NEIST), Jorhat
VOLCANOS
BRUSHING BASICS (VOLCANOS)

A volcano is an opening in the Earth's surface through which lava, volcanic ash, and gases escape.
Volcanic eruptions occur as a result of heat moving under Earth’s surface.
They often begin with an accumulation of gas-rich magma (molten underground rock) in reservoirs near Earth’s
surface, though they may be preceded by emissions of steam and gas from small vents in the ground.
A volcano starts to form when molten rock rises from a crack in the Earth’s surface, which often emerge along
tectonic plate boundaries.
Magma rises to the Earth’s surface because it’s lighter than rock. When it surfaces or erupts, it’s referred to as lava.
Types of Volcanoes
Shield Volcanoes Shield volcanoes are built slowly, from low-viscosity lava that spreads far and quick.
The lava eventually dries to form a thin, wide sheet, and after repeated eruptions, a
mount starts to form.
From the top, these types of volcanoes look like a shield, hence the name. While these
volcanoes take a while to form, they aren’t necessarily low. In fact, the world’s tallest
active volcano, Mauna Kea in Hawaii, is a shield volcano.
Stratovolcanoes Also known as composite volcanoes, stratovolcanoes are built relatively fast, at least
compared to shield volcanoes. This is because, in between lava eruptions, composite
volcanoes emit ash and rock, which helps add structure to the mound rather quickly.
Some well-known composite volcanoes are Mount Fuji in Japan, Mount St. Helens in
Washington, and Mount Cotopaxi in Ecuador.
Volcanic Domes Opposite to shield volcanoes, volcanic domes are formed when lava is highly-viscous.
Because the thick lava can’t travel very far, it starts to pool around the volcano’s vent.
This can sometimes create a pressure build-up, meaning dome volcanoes are prone to
explosive eruptions.
Cinder Cones These types of volcanoes typically don’t release lava. Rather, their eruptions typically
emit volcanic ash and rocks, known as pyroclastic products.
Cinder cones are characterized by a bowl-shaped crater at the top, and usually don’t
exceed 400 m (1,312 ft) in height.
Roughly 90 percent of all earthquakes occur along the

13 RING OF FIRE Ring of Fire, and the ring is dotted with 75 percent of
all active volcanoes on Earth.
A string of 452 volcanoes stretches from the southern
8Most of Earth’s volcanoes and earthquakes occur in tip of South America, up along the coast of North
regions that skirt the Pacific Ocean, known as the Ring America, across the Bering Strait, down through Japan,
of Fire. and into New Zealand.
What is Ring of Fire? Important active volcanoes: Mount Ruapehu (New

Zealand), Krakatau (Indonesia), Mount Fuji (Japan),
The Ring of Fire is a string of volcanoes and sites of Popocatépetl, Aleutian Islands
seismic activity, or earthquakes, around the edges of the
Pacific Ocean.
MAYON VOLCANIC
15
ERUPTION
CONTEXT: In January 2018, the Mayon Volcano

experienced its most recent eruption.
About
Geography behind Ring of Fire
The Mayon volcano, situated at the southernmost point
The Ring of Fire is the result of plate tectonics. Tectonic of Luzon island, is the Philippines’ most active volcano.
plates are huge slabs of Earth’s crust, which fit together Located in the southern part of Luzon about 473
like pieces of a puzzle. kilometers (294 miles) from Makati Business District of
The plates are not fixed but are constantly moving atop the Philippines, Mount Mayon is the main landmark of
a layer of solid and molten rock called the mantle. the Province of Albay of Bicol Region.
Sometimes these plates collide (convergent plate Mayon Volcano is a Stratovolcano composite type
boundary), move apart (divergent boundary), or slide volcano renowned for its perfect cone shape, can be
next to each other (transform boundary). seen in all eight cities and municipalities of Albay.
Most tectonic activity in the Ring of Fire occurs in these
geologically active zones.
14 VANUATU ISLANDS
CONTEXT: Vanuatu islands, located between Australia

and Fiji, witnessed eruption of an active underwater
volcano.
Volcanoes in Vanuatu 16 KILAUEA VOLCANO

The nation made up of roughly 80 islands that stretch
1300 kilometres has a number of active volcanoes.
CONTEXT: Hawaii’s Kilauea volcano, one of the world’s
most active, erupted again.
About
Kilauea is the youngest and most active volcano on the
island of Hawai’i, and one of the busiest in the world.
Kilauea’s frequent eruptions are usually nonexplosive
and are contained within Halema‘uma‘u as a boiling
lake of active lava.
Kilauea is bordered by Mauna Loa volcano (west and

north), the Ka‘u Desert (southwest), ‘Ainahou Ranch
(south), and a tropical fern jungle (north-northeast).
17 MAUNA LOA VOLCANO
CONTEXT: Scientists and researchers have alarmed the

Vanuatu is in the Pacific “Ring of Fire”, where tectonic residents of Hawaii Island as the world’s largest active
plates collide. They have shown activity throughout the volcano ‘Mauna Loa’ is at risk of eruption.
twentieth and twenty-first century.
The Mauna Loa volcano:

It is the World’s largest active Volcano in the Island of 18 BOREALIS MUD VOLCANO
Hawaii in the U.S. state of Hawaii in the Pacific Ocean.
The volcano makes up 51% of the Hawaii Island CONTEXT: Geologists have discovered a never-before-
landmass. seen volcano at the bottom of the Barents Sea off the coast
It is an active shield volcano with relatively gentle of Norway, which is erupting with mud, fluids, and gas
slopes, with a volume estimated at 18,000 cubic miles from the planet’s interior. The volcano has been named
(75,000 km3). The Borealis Mud Volcano.
Lava eruptions from Mauna Loa are silica-poor and
very fluid, and they tend to be non-explosive. About the new Volcano
It last erupted in 1984 which led to destruction on the It is located in the Southwestern Barents Sea at the outer
Island. part of Bjornoyrenna (Outer Bear Island Trough).
The volcano has been seen to be erupting with fluids
What is Shield Volcano? rich in methane, which is a greenhouse gas responsible
A shield volcano is a broad volcano with sloping sides for the rising temperature of the planet due to global
that is formed mainly out of runny lava that flows out warming.
of its central summit vent.
Examples of Shield Volcanoes: are Mauna Loa on What is underwater volcano?
the Island of Hawaii, Wolf volcano on the Galapagos Most volcanic activity happens beneath the ocean.
Islands, and Nyamuragira in the Democratic Republic
However, there is no specific difference in the
of Congo.
formation of submarine (underwater) and subaerial
(on land) volcanoes.
Characteristics:
Volcanoes form when molten rock is produced in
Basaltic magma is high in temperature, very low on the second layer of the Earth's interior — the mostly
silica, and with low gas content. solid upper mantle — and makes its way through the
Basic lava, which is non-acidic and very runny. crust.
Gentle sides as the lava flow for long distances before The collision of two plates can also cause a volcano.
it solidifies. If both tectonic plates are beneath the ocean, then
No layers, as the volcano just consists of lava. the volcano will develop underwater
LANDFORMS & THEIR EVOLUTION
The dunes are susceptible to aerodynamic lift. This is

COASTAL RED SAND the push that lets something move up. It is the force that
19 is the opposite of weight.
DUNES
About Coastal red sand dunes:
CONTEXT: Geologists have said that the coastal red Coastal red sand dunes are popularly known as Erra
sand dunes of Vizag have much significance geologically, Matti Dibbalu.
archaeologically, and anthropologically and it needs to be It is dissected and stabilized coastal red sediment
protected. mounds, located between Visakhapatnam and
Bheemunipatnam in Andhra Pradesh.
They have very low water and nutrient retention
About Coastal red sand dunes: capacity.
Coastal red sand dunes are popularly known as Erra The dunes are susceptible to aerodynamic lift. This is
Matti Dibbalu. the push that lets something move up. It is the force that
It is dissected and stabilized coastal red sediment is the opposite of weight.
mounds, located between Visakhapatnam and
Bheemunipatnam in Andhra Pradesh.
They have very low water and nutrient retention
capacity.
neo-tectonic mountain-building process, like

Other Similar Places: earthquakes, landslides, floods, etc
Such sand deposits are rare and have been reported
only from three places in the tropical regions in Other factors:
south Asia such as: Overexploitation of the ecosystem(tourism, increased
Teri Sands in Tamil Nadu consumerism)
Erra Matti Dibbalu in Visakhapatnam Exploitative development projects: The indiscriminate
Pulmoddai in Sri Lanka exploitation of the fragile Himalayan region in the
name of development projects has extracted a heavy
price in terms of environmental damage.
Recognition:
Fragmentation of natural resources: String of
This site was declared a geo-heritage site by the hydroelectric and road projects in the Himalayan States
Geological Survey of India (GSI) in 2014. have already resulted in the fragmentation of natural
The Andhra Pradesh government listed it under the systems.
category of ‘protected sites’ in 2016.
LANDSLIDE ATLAS OF
LAND CREEP IN 21
20 INDIA
JOSHIMATH
CONTEXT: According to the India Meteorological
CONTEXT: Joshimath, the ancient Uttarakhand town Department’s Statement of Climate of India 2022, heavy
has become a cause of concern and was declared a ‘disaster rain, floods and landslides claimed 835 lives in the country
prone region’. in the year 2022.
About Landslides:
Reasons for Vulnerability of region:
Landslides are natural disasters occurring mainly
Joshimath is built on the deposits of an old landslide, in mountainous terrains where there are conducive
which means the slopes can be destabilised even by conditions of soil, rock, geology and slope.
slight triggers.
A sudden movement of rock, boulders, earth or debris
The town is also in Zone V, denoting highest risk, in down a slope is termed as a landslide.
India’s seismic zonation sche me.
Classification: Landslides are broadly classified based
It lies between two thrusts, the Main Central Thrust on the;
(MCT) and the Vaikrita Thrust (VT), and thus
type of materials involved (rock, debris, soil, loose
occupies a seismically active terrain.
mud)
Main Central Thrust (MCT) line: type of movement of the material (fall, topple,
slide, rotational slide or translational slide)
In simplest terms, the MCT is a crack or geological fault
in Himalayas. type of flow of the material
It is formed due to the collusion of Indo-Australian Another category is of landslides that spread laterally.
plate and Eurasian plate. Landslides mapped in the ISRO atlas are mainly event-
based and season-based.
The area underneath the MCT is particularly very
fragile due to frequent tectonic activities. What causes landslides?
And, therefore, seismic activities are very common in
Natural factors: heavy rainfall, earthquakes, snow
MCT areas.
melting and undercutting of slopes due to flooding.
Why Himalayan region is susceptible to Anthropogenic factors: excavation, cutting of hills
disasters? and trees, excessive infrastructure development, and
overgrazing by cattle.
The Hindu Kush Himalayan region is prone to
Other influential factors: Some of the main factors that
numerous types of disasters because of its:
influence landslides are lithology, geological structures
Steep terrain
like faults, hill slopes, drainage, geomorphology,
fragile geology
land use and land cover, soil texture and depth, and
intense and variable precipitation
weathering of rocks.
Common incidents of floods and landslides
(a) Both Statement-I and Statement-II are correct

PYQ (2018) and Statement-II is the correct explanation for
Statement-I
(b) Both Statement-I and Statement-II are correct
1. The Barren Island volcano is an active volcano and Statement-II is not the correct explanation for
located in the Indian territory. Statement-I
2. Barren Island lies about 140 km east of Great (c) Statement-I is incorrect but Statement-II is correct
Nicobar.
(d) Statement-I is correct but Statement-II is incorrect
3. The last time the Barren Island volcano erupted 3. With reference to the Earths Geomagnetism,
was in 1991 and it has remained inactive since consider the following statements:
then.
1. The self-sustaining Earth’s magnetic field is created
Which of the statements given above is/are by convection current and the Coriolis Effect.
correct?
2. The magnetic field of the Earth, which is primarily
(a) 1 only dipolar at its surface.
(b) 2 and 3 3. Earth’s magnetic field is generated in the earth’s
(c) 3 only inner core.
(d) 1 and 3 4. The intensity of the magnetic field of the earth is

not the same all over the earth.
Correct Answer: (a)
How many of the statements given above is/are
correct?
PRACTICE QUESTIONS (a) Only two

(b) Only three
1. Consider the following:
(c) All four
1. South America
(d) None
2. North America 4. Consider of the following statements:
3. Madagascar 1. It is an isolated hill of bedrock which stands above
4. India the general level of the surrounding area.
2. It is formed in humid, tropical regions.
5. Arabia
3. It is made up of sedimentary rocks.
How many of the following were the parts of
Gondwanaland? How many of the above statements is/are correct
about Monadnock?
(a) Only two (b) Only three
(a) Only one
(c) Only four (d) All five
(b) Only two
(c) All three
Statement-I:
(d) None
Volcanoes are distributed all around the world, mostly
along the edges of tectonic plates, although there are 5. Consider the following statements:
intra-plate volcanoes that form from mantle Hotspots. Statement-I:
Statement-II: Seamounts are mountains with pointed peaks,
mounting from the seafloor but they do not reach the
The Pacific “Ring of Fire” is a string of volcanoes and
surface of the ocean.
sites located on most of the Earth’s subduction zones
having high seismic activity, around the edges of the Statement-II:
Pacific Ocean.
An extension of the Hawaiian Islands in the Pacific
Which one of the following is correct in respect of Ocean which is known as The Emperor seamount is
the above statements? an example of the seamount.
Which one of the following is correct in respect of (b) Only two

the above statements? (c) Only three
(a) Both Statement-I and Statement-II are correct (d) All four
and Statement-II is the correct explanation for 7. The Himalayan Mountains were primarily formed
Statement-I due to the collision of which two tectonic plates?
(b) Both Statement-I and Statement-II are correct (a) Eurasian and North American plates
and Statement-II is not the correct explanation for
(b) Pacific and South American plates
Statement-I
(c) Asian and Indo-Australian plates
(c) Statement-I is incorrect but Statement-II is correct
(d) Pacific and South American plates
8. The recently discovered ‘Pontus’ tectonic plate is
6. Regarding the phenomenon of ‘Landslide’, consider
believed to have been lost over millions of years
the following statements:
primarily due to:
1. Landslide denotes any down-slope movement of
(a) Plate tectonics and continental drift.
soil and rock under the direct influence of gravity.
(b) Volcanic eruptions and seismic activity.
2. Slope movement occurs when forces acting down-
slope exceed the strength of the earth materials (c) Slow subduction under a neighboring plate driven
that compose the slope. by gravity.
3. Water increases the hydrostatic pressure and (d) Impact events with celestial bodies.
weakens the soil further.
ANSWERS
4. Earthquake shaking and other factors can induce
submarine landslides. 1. (c) 2. (b) 3. (b) 4. (a) 5. (b)
How many of the statements given above are correct? 6. (d) 7. (c) 8. (c)
(a) Only one

CHAPTER 03
PHYSIOGRAPHY
LANDFORMS
1 PHYSIOGRAPHIC DIVISIONS OF INDIA
CONTEXT: ‘Physiography’ of an area is the outcome of structure, process and the stage of development. The land
of India is characterised by great diversity in its physical features. The north has a vast expanse of rugged topography
consisting of a series of mountain ranges with varied peaks, beautiful valleys and deep gorges. The south consists of
stable table land with highly dissected plateaus, denuded rocks and developed series of scarps. In between these two lies
the vast north Indian plain.
Physiographic Divisions
Based on these macro variations, India can be divided into the following physiographic divisions:
The Northern and North-eastern Mountains
The Northern Plain The northern plains are formed by the alluvial deposits
The Peninsular Plateau brought by the rivers – the Indus, the Ganga and the
Brahmaputra.
The Indian Desert
These plains extend approximately 3,200 km from
The Coastal Plains
the east to the west. The average width of these plains
The Islands
varies between 150-300 km.
The North and North-eastern Mountains: The maximum depth of alluvium deposits varies
between 1,000-2,000 m.
The Northern and the North-eastern Mountains consist
From the north to the south, these can be divided
of the Himalayas and the North-eastern hills.
into three major zones: the Bhabar, the Tarai and the
The Himalayan Ranges include the Greater Himalaya, alluvial plains.
Lesser/Middle Himalaya, and the Siwalik Range.
The alluvial plains can be further divided into the
Khadar and the Bhangar.
Sub-divisions of the Himalayas
Features the northern plain
Based on relief, alignment of ranges and other
geomorphological features, the Himalayas can be divided Bhabar: After descending from the mountains, the
into the following sub-divisions: rivers deposit pebbles in a narrow belt. The width of
this belt is about 8-16 km and it lies parallel to the
Kashmir or North-western Himalayas: Karakoram,
Shiwaliks. This region is known as bhabar. All the
Ladakh, Zanskar, and Pir Panjal.
streams disappear in this region. ii.
Important glaciers of South Asia, i.e., the
Terai: lies towards south of bhabar belt. In this
Baltoro and Siachen are found in the North-
region, the streams reappear and make a wet,
western Himalayan region.
swampy and marshy region.
Important passes of the North-western
Bhangar: Largest part of northern plain and is
Himalayas are Zoji La on the Great Himalayas,
composed of the oldest alluvial soil. They lie above
Banihal on the Pir Panjal, and Khardung La
the flood plains and resemble terraces. The soil
on the Ladakh range.
of this region is locally known as kankar and is
Important fresh lakes are Dal and Wular composed of calcareous deposits.
and salt water lakes are Pangong Tso and Tso
Khadar: The floodplains formed by younger
Moriri.
alluvium are called khadar. The soil in this region is
Himachal and Uttaranchal Himalayas: The renewed every year and is thus highly fertile.
Himachal and Uttarakhand Himalayas are located
approximately between the rivers Ravi in the west
and the Kali (a tributary of Ghaghara) in the east. The Peninsular Plateau
Darjeeling and Sikkim Himalayas: The Darjeeling Peninsular plateau is a triangular shaped table land. It is
and Sikkim Himalayas are flanked by the Nepal part of ancient land mass called Gondwana level.
Himalayas in the west and the Bhutan Himalayas in It covers an area of nearly 5 lakh sq.km. It is spread over
the east. the states of Gujarat, Maharashtra, Bihar, Karnataka
Arunachal Himalayas: The Arunachal Himalayas and Andhra Pradesh.
extend from the east of the Bhutan Himalayas up to Delhi ridge in the northwest, (extension of Aravalis),
the Diphu pass in the east. Some of the prominent the Rajmahal hills in the east, Gir range in the west and
tribes of Arunachal Himalayas from west to east are the Cardamom hills in the south constitute the outer
the Monpa, Abor, Mishmi, Nyishi, and the Nagas. extent of the Peninsular plateau. However, an extension
Eastern Hills and Mountains: Located in the of this is also seen in the northeast, in the form of
northeast India, the Eastern Hills i.e. parts of the Shillong and Karbi-Anglong plateau.
Himalayan mountains are known by different local
names. They are known as Patkai Bum, Naga hills, Division
the Manipur hills in the North, and Mizo or Lushai
hills in the South. The Peninsular plateau can be divided into three broad
groups:
The Deccan Plateau: The Deccan Plateau This is
The Northern Plains bordered by the Western Ghats in the west, Eastern
Regional division of northern plains: Punjab Plains, Ghats in the east and the Satpura, Maikal range and
Ganga Plain, Brahmaputra Plain Mahadeo hills in the north.
It is because of these characteristic features that this is

The Central Highlands: They are bounded to the
also known as Marusthali. Kathiawar coast in Gujarat,
west by the Aravali range. The Satpura range is
Konkan coast in Maharashtra, Goan coast and Malabar
formed by a series of scarped plateaus on the south,
coast in Karnataka and Kerala respectively.
generally at an elevation varying between 600-900 m
above the mean sea level. The western coastal plains are narrow in the middle and
get broader towards north and south. The rivers flowing
The North-eastern Plateau: it is an extension of the
through this coastal plain do not form any delta.
main Peninsular plateau. It is believed that due to the
force exerted by the north-eastward movement of The Malabar coast has got certain distinguishing
the Indian plate at the time of the Himalayan origin, features in the form of ‘Kayals’ (backwaters), which are
a huge fault was created between the Rajmahal hills used for fishing, inland navigation and also due to its
and the Meghalaya plateau. special attraction for tourists.
Every year the famous Nehru Trophy Vallamkali (boat
The Indian Desert race) is held in Punnamada Kayal in Kerala.
To the northwest of the Aravali hills lies the Great
Indian desert. It is a land of undulating topography
The Coastal Plains
dotted with longitudinal dunes and barchans. On the basis of the location and active geomorphological
This region receives low rainfall below 150 mm per year; processes, it can be broadly divided into two: (i) the
hence, it has arid climate with low vegetation cover. western coastal plains; (ii) the eastern coastal plains.
WESTERN COASTAL PLAINS EASTERN COASTAL PLAINS

It extends from the Gujarat coast in the north to the Eastern coastal plain is marked by Deltas made by the
Kerala coast in the south. rivers Mahanadi, Godavari, Krishna and Kaveri.
The western coastal plains are an example of It is wider than the western coastal plain.
submerged coastal plain. The northern part of the coast is called Northern
Kandla, Mazagaon, JLN port Navha Sheva, Circar and the southern part is called Coromandal
Marmagao, Mangalore, Cochin, etc. are some of the Coast.
important natural ports located along the west coast.
The Islands
There are two major island groups in India:
Bay of Bengal: There are 204 islands in Bay of Bengal called as Andaman and Nicobar islands.
Arabian Sea: 43 islands in Arabian Sea called as Lakshadweep islands. Lakshadweep islands are located near
Malabar coast of Kerala in the Arabian sea
DRAINAGE
2 DRAINAGE SYSTEM OF INDIA
CONTEXT: The flow of water through well-defined channels is known as ‘drainage’ and the network of such channels
is called a ‘drainage system’. The drainage pattern of an area is the outcome of the geological time period, nature and
structure of rocks, topography, slope, amount of water flowing and the periodicity of the flow.
India River System

Rivers In India Can Be Mainly Divided Into Two Parts:
Himalayan Rivers Drainage System
Peninsular Rivers Drainage System
About 77% of the drainage area consisting of the Ganga, the Brahmaputra, the Mahanadi, the Krishna, etc. is
oriented towards the Bay of Bengal.
On the other hand, 23% comprising the Indus, the Narmada, the Tapi, the Mahi, and the Periyar systems discharge
their waters in the Arabian Sea.
HIMALAYAN RIVERS DRAINAGE SYSTEM

The Indus River The Indus starts from the northern slopes of the Kailash range in Tibet near Lake
Mansarovar.
System
In India, it flows between the Ladakh Range and the Zaskar Range at Leh in Jammu
& Kashmir.
Tributaries of Indus river: Chenab, Jhelum, Satluj, Ravi, Beas
The Brahmaputra The Brahmaputra also originates from Mansarovar Lake. It flows through the states
of Arunachal Pradesh & Assam, which is connected by many tributaries.
River System
The Ganga River The Ganga originates as the Bhagirathi from the Gangotri glacier. It is an
amalgamation of two rivers- Alaknanda & Bhagirathi. Devprayag in the Garhwal
System
division is where Alaknanda and Bhagirathi's rivers meet & take the name Ganga
or Ganges River.
Panch Prayag at Uttarakhand
Vishnuprayag: where the river Alaknanda meets river Dhauliganga
Nandprayag: where river Alaknanda meets river Nandakini
Karnaprayag: where river Alaknanda meets river Pindar
Rudraprayag: where river Alaknanda meets river Mandakini
Devprayag: where river Alaknanda meets river Bhagirathi - Hence, the Ganga
river.
Tributaries of Ganga river Yamuna, Damodar, Sapta Kosi, Ram Ganga, Gomati,
Ghaghara, and Son (these rivers ultimately ends at Ganga).
The Yamuna River The Yamuna River is the largest tributary of the Ganga River. (meets Ganga in the
end)
System
This river originates from the Yamunotri glacier at the Bandarpoonch peak in
Uttarakhand.
The catchment of this river extends to Delhi, Himachal Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh,
Haryana, Rajasthan, & Madhya Pradesh.
Tributaries of Yamuna river: Tons, Sin, Hindon, Betwa Ken, & Chambal.
PENINSULAR RIVERS OF INDIA

Narmada River The Narmada river is situated in central India and rises to the summit of the
Amarkantak Hill in the state of Madhya Pradesh
System
It outlines the traditional border between North India and South India.
This river runs through the states of Madhya Pradesh, Gujarat, and Maharashtra.
It ultimately drains into the Arabian Sea in the Bharuch district of Gujarat.
Tapti River System It is a central Indian river.
This river system originates in the Eastern Satpura Range of the southern state of
Madhya Pradesh.
It flows from east to west, draining a few significant historic places such as Madhya
Pradesh’s Nimar region, East Vidarbha region & Maharashtra’s Khandesh in the
northwest corner of the Deccan Plateau and South Gujarat & it ultimately drains
into the Gulf of Cambay of the Arabian Sea.
Principal tributaries: Waghur River, Aner River, Girna River, Purna River, Panzara
River & Bori River.
The Godavari River The Godavari River is the second-longest course with brownish water in India.
System This river originates from Trimbakeshwar, near Nasik in Maharashtra.
This is also known as the Dakshin (South) Ganga or Vriddh (Old) Ganga which is a
seasonal river, dried during the summers, and vice versa during the monsoons.
Principal tributaries: Pranahita (Combination of Penuganga and Warda),
Bindusara, Sabari, Indravati River, and Manjira.
Krishna River System The Krishna river originates from Mahabaleshwar in Maharashtra & it flows through
Sangli which ultimately drains into the Bay of Bengal.
Tributaries: Tungabhadra River, Dudhganga Rivers, Koyna, Bhima, Mallaprabha,
Dindi, Ghataprabha, Warna, Yerla, & Musi.
Kaveri (Cauvery) Originates from Talakaveri in the Western Ghats, which is a renowned pilgrimage
and tourist place in the Kodagu district of Karnataka.
River System
The river sources are in the Western Ghats range of Karnataka & through Tamil
Nadu.
Tributaries: Arkavathy, Shimsha, Amaravati, Hemavati, Kapila, Shimsha,
Honnuhole, Lakshmana Kabini, Lokapavani, Bhavani, Noyyal, and Tirtha.
Mahanadi River This river originates from the Satpura Range of central India, & it is a river in eastern
India.
System
The Mahanadi river flows from east and drains into the Bay of Bengal. It flows from
the states of Maharashtra, Chhattisgarh, Jharkhand, and Orissa.
3 NARMADA CANAL 4 INDO-GANGETIC PLAINS
CONTEXT: Prime Minister Narendra Modi inaugurated CONTEXT: Rainfall patterns over the Indo-Gangetic
the Narmada canal that will bring water to Kutch from the plains will undergo significant changes in the coming years
Narmada Sarovar dam in south Gujarat. due to climate change.
Key-highlights of the Study

About Narmada River:
The study by the centre under the department of
The Narmada, the largest Westward flowing River, science and technology, which projected the behaviour
rises near the Amarkantak range of mountains in of rainfall patterns across the Indo-Gangetic Plains,
Madhya Pradesh. shows that in the period spanning 2041-60, the mean
It is the fifth largest river in the country and the largest monsoon rainfall recoded in June and July will reduce
one in Gujarat. by around 40-70% compared with the average between
It traverses Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, and 1986 and 2005.
Gujarat and meets the Gulf of Cambay.
About Indo-Gangetic Plains
The total length of the river from source to sea is 1312
kilometers (815 miles). This large plain is formed by the Indus and the Ganga-
Brahmaputra basins.
Narmada canal and branches Alluvial deposits of the Indo-Gangetic Plain stretch
This project will cover Saurashtra, Kachchh as well from the Indus River in Pakistan to the Punjab Plain in
as parts of North Gujarat (Ahmedabad, Mehsana, India and Pakistan, to the Haryana Plain and Ganges
Banaskantha, Sabarkantha, and Panchmahal). delta in Bangladesh.
The northern boundary of the plain is marked by two
Why Kutch is strategic for Gujarat? narrow belts known as Terai, containing small hills
formed by coarse remnant gravel deposits emerging
Kutch had the largest cement plants in the world.
from mountain streams.
It stood second in the world in welding pipe
The southern boundary of the plains is marked by the
manufacturing.
front of the Great Indian Desert in Rajasthan, then
Also holds the world’s second-largest textile plant and continues eastward to the Bay of Bengal along the hills
it also houses Asia’s first Special Economic Zone (SEZ) of the Central Highlands.
at Mundra.
The Indo-Gangetic Plain can be divided into three
Kandla and Mundra ports handle 30% of India’s cargo, geographically and hydrologically distinct sections.
and the district produces 30% of the country’s salt.
The Indus Valley in the west is fed by the Indus
Kutch produces 2,500 MW of power from solar and River, which flows out of Kashmir, the Hundu
wind energy. Kush, and the Karakoram range.
The Punjab and Haryana Plains are fed by runoff Type of Climate in India
from the Siwalik and Himalaya Mountains into
the Ganges River, and fed by the Lower Ganga The Tropic of Cancer divides India into almost two
and Brahmaputra drainage systems in the east. equal parts.
The southern part is in the tropical zone
The lower Ganga plains and Assam Valley are lush
The northern part is in the temperate zone.
and heavily vegetated, and the waters flow into the
Tropical climate: The gigantic Himalayan Mountains
deltaic regions of Bangladesh.
are situated on the northern border of India. It
separates the Indian subcontinent from Central Asia
5 CLIMATE IN INDIA and blocks the cold winds coming from there. Thus,
tropical climate is found all over India.
Tropical monsoon climate: Monsoon winds coming
CONTEXT: India features as a land of multiple climatic from the Indian Ocean located in the south of India
conditions. The different territories of the country have the greatest influence on the country. Therefore,
experience varying climates as per their locations, varied the climate of India is called a tropical monsoon
topography, and other physiographic factors. climate.
CLIMATE ZONES IN INDIA
Type Region Characteristics
Hot and Dry A hot and Dry climate is seen Temperatures: Very hot weather in summer and cold in
in western parts of the country winter
Climate
where desert-like conditions Summer- temperatures vary from 40 to 45 deg C
exist.
Winters – Min temperatures- 5-25 deg C
Jaipur
High-temperature difference between Day and Night
Jaisalmer
High Solar Radiation causes glare
Kutch
Hot Winds
Gujarat
Rainfall: Minimal rainfall
Maharashtra
Humidity: Low Relative Humidity
Groundcover: Dry sandy or rocky ground with less
vegetation
Sky Condition: Cloudless sky
Warm and It is present in regions that Temperatures: Not very high

are in proximity to the water Vary between 25-35 deg C in summer and 20-30 deg
Humid
bodies, such as coastal areas. C in winter.
Climate
Kerala Humidity: Very high humidity
Tamil Nadu Rainfall: High rainfall (about 12mm per year)
Goa Sky Condition: Clouds cover 40-80%
Parts of Andhra Pradesh
Parts of Orissa
Composite It covers the central part of Temperatures: 32-43 deg C during summer and 10-25 deg
India. C during winter.
Climate
New Delhi Humidity: Variable (20-25% in dry periods and 50-95% in
Kanpur wet periods.
Allahabad Rainfall: Variable (500-1300mm per year)
Sky Condition: variable
Temperate/ Temperate/Moderate Climate Temperatures: The temperatures are in comfort ranges

regions vary in small parts between 30-34deg C during Summer and 27-33deg C
Moderate
of India and are considered during winter.
Climate the most comfortable climate Humidity: Low in winter and summer (20-55%) and high
zones in India. (55-90%) during monsoons.
Banglore Rainfall: low rainfall (1000mm per year)
Pune Sky Condition: Mainly clear or dense low clouds in
summer.
Cold Climate Cold Climate exists in the Temperatures: Typically, low temperatures; are 17-20 deg
northern parts of the country C during summer and -7 to 8 deg C during winter.
near the Himalayas. Humidity: low in sunny regions and high in cloudy regions.
Shimla Rainfall: low (200mm per year) to Moderate (1000mm per
Shillong year.
Leh Sky Condition: clean with less than 50% cloud cover.
Seti River cuts through the Mahabharat range and,

WEST SETI POWER therefore, seems to disappear in caves and tunnels in
6 many places along its route through Pokhara city.
PROJECT
7 MACHCHHU RIVER
CONTEXT: The 750 MW West Seti Hydro Power Project
is decided to be constructed on the Seti River in Far-west
Nepal. The dam site is to be located 82 kilometers (km) CONTEXT: Recently, a suspension bridge collapsed over
upstream of the confluence of the Seti and Karnali rivers. the river Machchu, in Gujarat’s Morbi district, which
killed almost 135 people.
Seti River
The West Seti River flows through northwestern Background:
Nepal. The suspension bridge, or Jhulta Pul, was built by
the ruler of the princely state of Morbi, Sir Waghji
Thakor, in 1877.
It was made to reflect the ‘progressive and scientific
nature of the rulers of Morbi’. It was inaugurated by
the then-Bombay governor, Richard Temple, in 1879.
Machchhu River:
About: The Machchhu River originates from Madla
hills in the Surendranagar district of Gujarat and
ends 141.75 km downstream in the Rann of Kutch.
Tributaries: Beti, Asoi, Jamburi, Benia, Machchhori,
Maha are the tributaries of Machchhu river.
Dams: It has two dams to augment irrigation to
alleviate droughts in Saurashtra.
What is the Significance of Morbi District?

It is famous for its ceramic industry. Around 70% of
It is a left tributary of the Trishuli River. India’s ceramics are produced in Morbi, and ceramic
It is one of the holiest rivers of Nepal, worshipped in tiles manufactured here are exported to countries in the
Hinduism as a form of Vishnu. Middle East, East Asia, and Africa.
What is the Bedti-Varada Project?

CENTRE TO MERGE The Bedti-Varada project was envisaged in 1992 to
RAJASTHAN CANAL AND supply drinking water.
8 The plan aims to link the Bedti, a river flowing west
CHAMBAL RIVER LINK into the Arabian Sea, with the Varada, a tributary of
PROJECTS the Tungabhadra River, which flows into the Krishna,
which in turn flows into the Bay of Bengal.
CONTEXT: The central government has prepared a mega

proposal to merge two projects - the Eastern Rajasthan GLACIAL LAKE ATLAS
Canal Project (ERCP) and the Parbati-Kalisindh-Chambal 10 OF GANGA RIVER BASIN
River Link - to provide water for drinking and irrigation to
13 eastern districts of the state. RELEASED
About Chambal River CONTEXT: The Department of Water Resources, River

Development, and Ganga Rejuvenation (DoWR, RD &
The Chambal is the chief tributary of the Yamuna GR) released the Glacial Lake Atlas of Ganga Basin.
River and rises in the Vindhya Range just south of
Mhow, western Madhya Pradesh state. The NHP –Bhuvan portal was also launched.
From its source it flows north into southeastern About the Glacial Lake Atlas
Rajasthan state.
The present glacial lake atlas is based on the inventoried
Turning northeast, it flows past Kota and along the glacial lakes in part of Ganga River basin from its origin
Rajasthan–Madhya Pradesh border; shifting east- to foothills of Himalayas covering a catchment area of
southeast, it forms a portion of the Uttar Pradesh– 2,47,109 sq. km.
Madhya Pradesh border and flows through Uttar The study portion of Ganga River basin covers part of
Pradesh to empty into the Yamuna after a 550-mile India and transboundary region.
(900-km) course. The Ganga River Basin Atlas is brought out under the
Tributaries: The Banas, Kali Sindh, Sipra, and National Hydrology Project (NHP).
Parbati are its chief tributaries.
9 BEDTI-VARADA PROJECT
CONTEXT: Environmental groups in Karnataka have

criticised the project to link the Bedti and Varada rivers in The atlas is prepared with the efforts of the National
Karnataka, calling it ‘unscientific’. Remote Sensing Centre (NRSC), ISRO under the
National Hydrology Project (NHP).
About Ganga Basin It is joined by Dhar River near Indo-China border.
The Ganges River originates in the Himalaya Mountains After entering J&K it flows between the Ladakh and
at Gomukh, the terminus of the Gongotri Glacier. the Zaskar Ranges. It flows through the regions of
Ladakh, Baltistan and Gilgit.
When the ice of this glacier melts, it forms the
clear waters of the Bhagirathi River. The gradient of the river in J&K is very gentle (about
As the Bhagirathi River flows down the Himalayas, 30 cm per km).
it joins the Alaknanda River, officially forming the Average elevation at which the Indus flows through JK
Ganges River. is about 4000 m above sea level.
The Ganges River Basin is sometimes considered It is joined by the Zaskar River at Leh (these kind of
part of a larger river basin consisting of the nearby points are important for prelims).
Brahmaputra and Meghna rivers.
Near Skardu, it is joined by the Shyok at an elevation
Known as the Ganges-Brahmaputra-Meghna (GBM) of about 2,700 m.
River Basin, it is one of the largest river systems in the
The Gilgit, Gartang, Dras, Shiger, Hunza are the
world.
other Himalayan tributaries of the Indus.
It crosses the Himalayas (ends its mountainous journey)
River Basin
through a 5181 m deep gorge near Attock, lying north
A river basin is a region that is drained by a river, of the Nanga Parbat. It takes a sharp southerly bend
such as the Ganges, and any of its tributaries. here (syntaxial bend).
This means that surface water and rainwater in the Kabul River from Afghanistan joins Indus near Attock.
basin area flow into the nearby rivers. Thereafter it flows through the Potwar plateau and
crosses the Salt Range (South Eastern edge of Potwar
Plateau).
11 INDUS RIVER SYSTEM Some of the important tributaries below Attock include
the Kurram, Toch and the Zhob-Gomal.
Just above Mithankot, the Indus receives from Panjnad
CONTEXT: Indus river system has been one of the (Panchnad), the accumulated waters of the five eastern
significant and disputed Rivers as its shares International tributaries—the Jhelum, the Chenab, the Ravi, the
boundary with China and Pakistan. Beas and the Satluj.
The river empties into the Arabian Sea south of
The Indus River System: Karachi after forming a huge delta.
It flows in north-west direction from its source
(Glaciers of Kailas Range – Kailash range in Tibet near Significance for India:
Lake Manasarovar) till the Nanga Parbhat Range.
India got her name from Indus.
Its length is about 2,900 km. Its total drainage area is
‘The Indus Valley Civilization’ was born around this
about 1,165,000 square km [more than half of it lies in
river.
semiarid plains of Pakistan].
MAJOR TRIBUTARIES OF INDUS RIVER SYSTEM

Jhelum River Chenab River Ravi River Beas River Satluj River
The Jhelum The Chenab originates The Ravi has its The Beas The Satluj
has its source from near the Bara source in Kullu originates near rises from the
in a spring Lacha Pass in the Lahul- hills near the the Rohtang Manasarovar-
at Verinag Spiti part of the Zaskar Rohtang Pass Pass, at a Rakas Lakes in
in the south- Range. in Himachal height of 4,062 western Tibet
eastern part of Two small streams Pradesh. m above sea at a height of
the Kashmir on opposite sides It drains the area level, on the 4,570 m within
Valley. of the pass, namely between the Pir southern end 80 km of the
It flows Chandra and Panjal and the of the Pir source of the
northwards Bhaga, form its Dhaola Dhar Panjal Range, Indus.
into Wular headwaters at an ranges. close to the Like the Indus,
Lake (north- altitude of 4,900 m. source of the it takes a
After crossing
western part Ravi. north-westerly
• The united stream Chamba, it takes
of Kashmir Chandrabhaga flows a south-westerly It crosses course upto
Valley). From in the north-west turn and cuts a the Dhaola the Shipki La
Wular Lake, direction through deep gorge in Dhar range on the Tibet-
it changes the Pangi valley, the Dhaola Dhar and it takes a Himachal
its course parallel to the Pir range. south-westerly Pradesh
southwards. Panjal range. direction and boundary.
It enters Punjab
At Baramulla • It enters the plain meets the It cuts deep
Plains near
the river enters area near Akhnur in Satluj River gorges where
Madhopur and
a gorge in the Jammu and Kashmir. at Harike in it pierces
later enters
hills. • From here it through Punjab. the Great
Pakistan below
• The river is the plains of Paki- It is a Himalaya
Amritsar.
navigable for stani Punjab to reach comparatively and the other
Panchnad where it It debouches
about 160 small river Himalayan
km out of a joins the Satluj after into the Chenab
which is ranges.
total length of receiving the waters a little above
only 460 km Before entering
724km. of Jhelum and Ravi Rangpur in
long but lies the Punjab
rivers. Pakistani
entirely within plain, it cuts a
Punjab.
the Indian gorge in Naina
Territory Devi Dhar,
where the
famous Bhakra
dam has been
constructed.
PYQ (2021) PYQ (2021)
1. With reference to the Indus River system, of the 2. Consider the following Rivers:
following four rivers, three of them pour into one 1. Brahmani
of them which joins the Indus direct. Among the 2. Nagavali
following, which one is such river that joins the
3. Subarnarekha
Indus direct?
4. Vamsadhara
(a) Chenab (b) Jhelum
Which of the above rise from the Eastern Ghats?
(c) Ravi (d) Sutlej
(a) 1 and 2 (b) 2 and 4
Correct Answer: (d) (c) 3 and 4 (d) 1 and 3
Correct Answer: (b)
PYQ (2017) Select the correct answer using the code given
below.
3. With reference to river Teesta, consider the
(a) 1 only
following statements:
(b) 2 and 3 only
1. The source of river Teesta is the same as that of
Brahmaputra but it flows through Sikkim. (c) 1 and 3 only
2. River Rangeet originates in Sikkim and is a (d) 1, 2 and 3
tributary of river Teesta. Correct Answer: (d)
3. River Teesta flows into the Bay of Bengal on the
border of India and Bangladesh.
PYQ (2015)
correct? 5. Consider the following rivers :
(a) 1 and 3 only (b) 2 only 1. Vamsadhara
(c) 2 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3 2. Indravati
Correct Answer: (b) 3. Pranahita
4. Pennar
PYQ (2016) Which of the above are tributaries of Godavari?
(a) 1, 2 and 3
4. Which of the following is/are tributary/
tributaries of Brahmaputra? (b) 2, 3 and 4
1. Dibang (c) 1, 2 and 4
2. Kameng (d) 2 and 3 only
3. Lohit Correct Answer: (d)

CHAPTER 04
SOIL GEOGRAPHY
SOIL GEOGRAPHY
BASICS OF SOIL
Soil is the mixture of rock debris and organic materials which develop on the earth’s surface.
The major factors affecting the formation of soil are relief, parent material, climate, vegetation and other life-forms
and time.
Besides these, human activities also influence it to a large extent.
Horizon
Soil mainly consists of the following layers which
are called horizons.
O - Horizon containing a high percentage of soil
organic matter.
O Horizon
A - Horizon darkened by the accumulation of A Horizon
organic matter.
E - Horizon formed through the removal E Horizon
(eluviation) of clays, organic matter, iron, or
aluminum. Usually lightened in color due to these Bt Horizon
removals.
B - Broad class used for subsurface horizons that
have been transformed substantially by a soil C Horizon
formation process such as color and structure
development; the deposition (illuviation) of
materials such as clays, organic matter, iron,
R Horizon
aluminum, carbonates, or gypsum; carbonate
or gypsum loss; brittleness and high density; or
intense weathering leading to the accumulation of
weathering-resistant minerals.
C - A horizon minimally affected or unaffected by the soil formation processes.
R - Bedrock.
Composition of Soil: There are four components of soil. These are air, water, organic matter, and inorganic matter.
The chief components of soil are Inorganic matter 40%, Organic matter 10%, Soil water 25% and Soil air
25% (approx.).
The actual amount of each of these depend upon the type of soil. Some soils are deficient in one or more of
these, while there are some others that have varied combinations.
Soil Organism: These include the Protozoans, mites, nematodes, rotifiers, blue green or green, soil bacteria, fungi
arthropods like mite, myriapods, spiders, insect larvae and collembola.
Classification
On the basis of genesis, colour, composition and location, the soils of India have been classified into:
Alluvial soils
Black soils
Red and Yellow soils
Laterite soils
Arid soils
Saline soils
Peaty soils
Forest soils
Alluvial Soils
Coverage: These soils cover about 40 per cent of the total area of the country (widespread in northern plains and
the river valleys).
Formation: They are depositional soils, transported and deposited by rivers and streams.
In the Upper and Middle Ganga plain, two different types of alluvial soils have developed, viz. Khadar and Bhangar.
Khadar is the new alluvium and is deposited by floods annually, which enriches the soil by depositing fine silts.
Bhangar represents a system of older alluvium, deposited away from the flood plains.
Crops: As the alluvial soil is rich in humus content due to silt deposits, it supports a wide variety of crops. Crops
like wheat, rice, maize, sugarcane, pulses, oilseed, etc are cultivated extensively in northern areas of India rich in
alluvial soil.
Fertility and Mineral Content: They are rich in humus, potash, and organic matters. But they are poor in
phosphorous.
Black Soil
Coverage: Black soil covers most of the Deccan Plateau which includes parts of Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh,
Gujarat, Andhra Pradesh and some parts of Tamil Nadu.
These soils are also known as the ‘Regur Soil’ or the ‘Black Cotton Soil’.
The black soils are generally clayey, deep and impermeable.
They swell and become sticky when wet and shrink when dried. So, during the dry season, these soil develop wide
cracks. Thus, there occurs a kind of ‘self-ploughing’.
Because of this character of slow absorption and loss of moisture, the black soil retains the moisture for a very
long time, which helps the crops, especially, the rain fed ones, to sustain even during the dry season.
Crops: They are suitable for crops like cotton which are extensively grown especially in south-eastern Gujarat,
south-western Madhya Pradesh, and the north-western regions of Maharashtra.
In addition, crops like sugarcane, potato, oilseeds, groundnuts, pulses, soybean, etc are also grown in some
regions of Madhya Pradesh and Maharashtra.
Fertility and Mineral Content: Chemically, the black soils are rich in lime, iron, magnesia and alumina. They also
contain potash. But they lack in phosphorous, nitrogen and organic matter.
Red and Yellow Soil

Red soil develops on crystalline igneous rocks in areas of low rainfall in the eastern and southern part of the Deccan
Plateau.
Along the piedmont zone of the Western Ghat, long stretch of area is occupied by red loamy soil.
Yellow and red soils are also found in parts of Odisha and Chattisgarh and in the southern parts of the middle
Ganga plain.
The soil develops a reddish colour due to a wide diffusion of iron in crystalline and metamorphic rocks. It looks
yellow when it occurs in a hydrated form.
Crops: In areas rich in fine-grained red soils, Farmers grow cotton, wheat, pulses, oilseeds, potato, and tobacco, etc.
Fertility and Mineral Content: Whereas the fine-grained red soil is fertile, the coarse-grained one is less fertile. It is
poor in nitrogen, phosphorous, and humus.
Laterite Soil
The laterite soils develop in areas with high temperature and high rainfall.
These are the result of intense leaching due to tropical rains.
The laterite soils are commonly found in Karnataka, Kerala, Tamil Nadu, Madhya Pradesh and the hilly areas of
Odisha and Assam.
Fertility and Mineral Content: These soils are poor in organic matter, nitrogen, phosphate and calcium, while
iron oxide and potash are in excess. Hence, laterites are not suitable for cultivation; however, application of manures
and fertilisers are required for making the soils fertile for cultivation.
Crops: They are not suitable for growing crops. After proper application of manure and fertilizers, tree crops like
cashew nuts are grown in some regions of Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, and Kerala. They are widely cut as bricks
for use in house construction.
Arid Soils
Arid soils range from red to brown in colour. They are generally sandy in structure and saline in nature.
Nitrogen is insufficient and the phosphate content is normal. Lower horizons of the soil are occupied by ‘kankar’
layers because of the increasing calcium content downwards.
The ‘Kankar’ layer formation in the bottom horizons restricts the infiltration of water, and as such when irrigation is
made available, the soil moisture is readily available for a sustainable plant growth.
Arid soils are characteristically developed in western Rajasthan, which exhibit characteristic arid topography.
Fertility and Mineral Content: Arid soil is not very fertile. As they are found in desert areas with high temperatures
and low rainfall, they lack moisture and decaying matters like humus.
Further, it is deficient in nitrogen but contains phosphate in varying degrees. The calcium content increases
with depth.
Crops: They don’t support a wide variety of crops. They mostly remain barren throughout the year. In some areas,
however, Bajra and Millets, etc are cultivated that require less water.
Saline Soils (Usara soils)

Saline soils contain a larger proportion of sodium, potassium and magnesium, and thus, they are infertile, and do
not support any vegetative growth.
They have more salts, largely because of dry climate and poor drainage.
They occur in arid and semi-arid regions, and in waterlogged and swampy areas.
Their structure ranges from sandy to loamy. They lack in nitrogen and calcium. Saline soils are more widespread in
western Gujarat, deltas of the eastern coast and in Sunderban areas of West Bengal.
In the Rann of Kuchchh, the Southwest Monsoon brings salt particles and deposits there as a crust.
Peaty Soils
They are found in the areas of heavy rainfall and high humidity, where there is a good growth of vegetation.
Thus, large quantity of dead organic matter accumulates in these areas, and this gives a rich humus and organic
content to the soil.
Organic matter in these soils may go even up to 40-50 per cent. These soils are normally heavy and black in colour.
It occurs widely in the northern part of Bihar, southern part of Uttaranchal and the coastal areas of West Bengal,
Orissa and Tamil Nadu.
Crops: They support a wide range of crops including wheat, rice, pulses, etc.
Fertility and Mineral Content: Peaty soils are extremely fertile for crop cultivation due to the high amount of
decomposed organic materials and humus found in them.
Forest Soils
Forest soils are formed in the forest areas where sufficient rainfall is available.
They are loamy and silty on valley sides and coarse-grained in the upper slopes. In the snow-bound areas of the
Himalayas, they experience denudation, and are acidic with low humus content.
The soils found in the lower valleys are fertile.
Crops: In areas having fertile forest soils, people grow crops like wheat, tea, coffee, barley, maize, etc. They are also
good for cultivating tropical and temperate fruits.
TYPE OF STATES WHERE

RICH IN LACKS IN CROPS GROWN
SOIL FOUND
Large variety of rabi

Mainly found in the plains of and kharif crops
Potash and Nitrogen and
Alluvial Gujarat, Punjab, Haryana, UP, such as wheat, rice,
Lime Phosphorous
Bihar, Jharkhand etc. sugarcane, cotton,
jute etc.
Deccan Plateau- Maharashtra, Lime, Iron,

Phosphorous, Cotton, sugarcane,
Black (Regur Madhya Pradesh, Gujarat, Magnesia
Nitrogen and jowar, tobacco, wheat,
soil) Andhra Pradesh Tamil Nadu, and Alumina,
organic matter rice etc.
Valleys of Krishna and Godavari. Potash
Eastern and southern part of

Nitrogen,
the Deccan plateau, Orissa, Iron and Wheat, rice, cotton,
Red Phosphorous
Chattishgarh and southern parts Potash sugarcane and pulses
and humus.
of the middle Ganga plain.
Organic matter,
Karnataka, Kerala, Tamil Nadu,
Iron oxide Nitrogen, Cashew nuts, tea,
Laterite Madhya Pradesh, Assam and
and potash Phosphate and coffee, rubber
Orissa hills.
Calcium
Only drought resistant

and salt tolerant crops
Western Rajasthan, north Gujarat Soluble salts, Humus,
Arid and Desert such as barley, rape,
and southern Punjab phosphate Nitrogen
cotton, millets maize
and pulses
Western Gujarat, deltas of

Sodium,
Saline and eastern coast, Sunderban areas Nitrogen and
Potassium, Unfit for agriculture
Alkaline of West Bengal, Punjab and Calcium
Magnesium
Haryana
1 SOIL DEGRADATION
CONTEXT: According to the National Bureau of Soil

Survey and Land Use Planning, 146.8 million hectares,
around 30% of the soil in India is degraded. Of this,
around 29% is lost to the sea, 61% is transferred from one
place to another, and 10% is deposited in reservoirs.
What Is Soil Degradation?

Soil degradation refers to the loss of land’s physical,
chemical, biological, and ecological qualities due to
either natural or human-caused disturbances.
Some examples of soil degradation processes are the
exhaustion of nutrients and organic matter, soil erosion,
acidification, desertification, and pollution.
How does soil get degraded?

Haryana’s soils are the most deficient in organic
Overuse of chemical pesticides and fertilisers. The carbon, followed by those of Punjab, Uttar
soil lost its natural nutrients, becoming toxic and Pradesh, Rajasthan, Tamil Nadu, Mizoram, and
contaminated. Andaman and Nicobar Islands.
Excess fertilisers increased nitrate in the soil.
Excessive farming led to the water table collapsing as Soil organic matter content is an indicator of soil health,
bore wells went deeper and deeper every year. and it is about 2.5% to 3.0 % by weight in the root zone
Rapid urbanisation, development projects, and (top 20 cm)
population growth Nitrogen deficiency: Similarly, 97% of the samples are
deficient in nitrogen—out of these, 45% of the samples
show very low levels of nitrogen, 36% low levels of
NUTRIENT-DEFICIENCY IN
2 nitrogen and 16% medium levels of nitrogen.
SOIL 32 states and UTs have nitrogen deficiency in at,
least, half of their soil samples.
Of these, 27 states and UTs have more than 90%
CONTEXT: According to Centre for Science and
deficient samples.
Environment (CSE) report ‘The State of Biofertilizers and
Organic Fertilizers in India’, about 85% of soil samples Fifteen states and UTs have nitrogen deficiency
are deficient in organic carbon. in almost all of their samples—Andaman and
Nicobar Islands, Dadar and Nagar Haveli, Daman
The levels of organic carbon and macronutrients and Diu, Bihar, Delhi, Haryana, Kerala, Madhya
in Indian soils are either “very low”, “low” or Pradesh, Manipur, Mizoram, Odisha, Puducherry,
“medium”. Rajasthan, Tamil Nadu, Uttarakhand and Uttar
Pradesh.
Background Phosphorus deficiency: The report found that 83% of
Organic deficiency: 85% of soil samples are deficient the samples are deficient in phosphorus—17% reveal
in organic carbon. Of the total sample, about 15% very low levels of phosphorus, 31% reveal low levels
contain very low levels of organic carbon, 49% contain and 35% medium levels.
low levels of organic carbon and 21% contain medium Potassium deficiency: About 71% of the samples are
levels of organic carbon deficient in potassium. Of these samples, about 5%
Organic carbon deficiency is widespread across have very low levels of potassium, 14% low levels and
the country—24 states and Union Territories (UTs) 52% medium levels.
have, at least, half of their soil samples deficient in Other deficiencies (micronutrient): Indian soils are
organic carbon. also deficient in micronutrients with more samples
Out of these, seven states have more than 90% showing deficit in boron, iron, sulphur and zinc and a
deficient samples. lesser number in copper and manganese.
What decides soil’s fertility?

3. They are well-developed in Rajasthan and UP.
Soil is a complex mixture of minerals, water, air,
4. Tapioca and cashew nuts grow well on these
organic matter, and countless organisms—all of which
soils.
come together to form a fertile substance that can grow
and nourish saplings. Select the correct answer using the codes given
These microorganisms provide essential nutrients below.
for crop plant growth such as nitrogen, phosphorus, (a) 1, 2 and 3
sulphur, potassium, calcium, magnesium and
(b) 2, 3 and 4
micronutrients.
Soil fertility is also greatly dependent on biological (c) 1 and 4
components of soil like bacteria, fungi, or algae. (d) 2 and 3 only
The presence of diverse soil microbes protects the plant
Correct Answer: (c)
from harmful pathogens. Moreover, the presence of
rich microorganism enhances the fertility of the soil,
and therefore, gives out better yield.
PRACTICE QUESTIONS
PYQ (2021)
1. Consider the following statements regarding the
1. The black cotton soil of India has been formed Peninsular Plateau of India:
due to the weathering of- 1. The plateau region lying to the north of the
(a) Brown forest soil Narmada River is known Central Highlands which
is wider in the west and narrower in the east.
(b) Fissure volcanic rock
(c) Granite and schist 2. The Western Ghats and Eastern Ghats mark the
western and eastern edges of the Deccan Plateau
(d) Shale and limestone
respectively.
Correct Answer: (b)
3. The eastern extension of peninsular plateau
includes Mahadev, the Kaimur hills and the Maikal
range
PYQ (2018)
How many of the statements given above is/are
2. With reference to agricultural soils, consider the incorrect?
following statements :
1. High content of organic matter in soil drastically
reduces its water holding capacity.
2. Consider the following islands of Andaman &
2. Soil does not play any role in the sulphur cycle.
Nicobar Island group:
3. Irrigation over a period of time can contribute
1. Netaji Subhash Chandra Bose Island
to the salinization of some agricultural lands.
2. Swaraj Dweep
correct? 3. Shaheed Dweep
(a) 1 and 2 only (b) 3 only 4. North Sentinel Island
(c) 1 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3 Arrange the above given islands from north to south
Correct Answer: (b) direction:
(a) 1-4-3-2 (b) 2-4-3-1
(c) 2-3-1-4 (d) 3-2-1-4
PYQ (2013) 3. Consider the following pairs:
3. Which of the following statements regarding 1. Sonapani Glacier: Pir Panjal range
laterite soils of India are correct?
2. Rimo Glacier: Eastern Himalaya
1. They are generally red in colour.
3. Zemu Glacier: Karakoram Range
2. They are rich in nitrogen and potash.
4. Milam Glacier: Kumaon Himalaya
How many of the above pairs is/are correctly 5. Consider the following statements:
matched? 1. The curved shape of the Himalayan Mountain
(a) Only one (b) Only two ranges is due to the higher push force at the ends
of Indian peninsula than in the middle.
(c) Only three (d) All four
4. Peninsular Hills are of the relict type, being remnants 2. The differential width and the height of the
Himalayas are due to the difference in the
of the originally higher hills but some typical horsts
compressive force between the Indian and Eurasian
are also seen. In this context, consider the following
plates.
statements:
3. Discovery of similar fossils in Shivalik range and
1. Bharner and Kaimur hills form the eastern part of Tibetan plateau indicates that both the regions
the Satpura Range. were part of the same land mass more than 50
2. Dhupgarh near Panchmarhi on Mahadev Hills is million years ago.
the highest peak of the Vindhyan range. How many of the above statements is/are correct?
3. Tapti originates from the Amarkantak plateau. (a) Only one (b) Only two
How many of the above statements is/are correct? (c) All three (d) None
(a) Only one (b) Only two ANSWERS

(c) All three (d) None 1. (d) 2. (c) 3. (b) 4. (d) 5. (b)
OCEANOGRAPHY
MOVEMENT OF OCEANS – WAVES, TIDES, CURRENTS

What are Ocean Tides?
3 OCEAN WAVES Ocean tides are brief, episodic changes in the height
of the ocean surface at a certain place caused by the
gravitational pull of the moon and the sun as well as the
CONTEXT: In a groundbreaking study, novel research
spinning of Earth.
has revealed a concerning trend — waves are surging
to greater heights and surf reaching at least 13 feet The wavelength of tides is half Earth’s circumference.
(approximately 4 metres) is becoming more frequent off Tides are caused by gravitational pull of the moon and
the coast of California. the sun.
When the highest part, or crest, of the wave reaches
What are Ocean Waves? a particular location, high tide occurs; low tide
corresponds to the lowest part of the wave, or its trough.
Ocean waves are disturbances in the surface of the The difference in height between the high tide and the
ocean. low tide is called the tidal range.
Ocean waves come in many shapes and sizes, ranging
in length from a fraction of a centimeter for the smallest
ripples to half the circumference of Earth for the tides.
They are formed by wind, gravity, earthquakes, and
submarine landslides disturbing the water surface.
Once formed, and regardless of origin, ocean waves can
travel great distances before reaching the coast.
The ocean waves arriving at the shore today may have
had their beginnings many hours or even days earlier a
hemisphere away.
4 OCEAN TIDES 5 OCEAN CURRENT POWER
CONTEXT: In 2023, World Oceans Day (June 8) has CONTEXT: Ocean current power technology has several
been observed around the theme “Planet Ocean: Tides are advantages over other sources (‘sustainable’ energy
Changing”. sources, such as solar panels and wind turbines).
About Ocean Currents Coriolis force: The Coriolis force intervenes and
causes the water to move to the right in the northern
Ocean currents are the continuous, predictable,
hemisphere and to the left in the southern hemisphere.
directional movement of seawater driven by gravity,
wind (Coriolis Effect), and water density. These large accumulations of water and the flow
around them are called Gyres. These produce
Ocean water moves in two directions: horizontally
large circular currents in all the ocean basins.
and vertically.
Differences in water density affect vertical mobility
Horizontal movements are referred to as currents of ocean currents.
Vertical changes are called upwellings or Water with high salinity is denser than water with
downwellings. low salinity and in the same way cold water is
This abiotic system is responsible for the transfer of denser than warm water. Denser water tends to
heat, variations in biodiversity, and Earth’s climate sink, while relatively lighter water tends to rise.
system. Cold-water ocean currents occur when the cold
water at the poles sinks and slowly moves towards
The major currents across the globe include the California the equator. Warm-water currents travel out from
and Humboldt currents in the Pacific, the Gulf Stream the equator along the surface, flowing towards the
and Labrador currents in the Atlantic and the Indian poles to replace the sinking cold water.
Monsoon current in the Indian Ocean.
Types of Ocean Currents
The primary forces that influence the currents The ocean currents may be classified:
are:
Heating by solar energy: Heating by solar energy causes Based on their depth as surface currents and
the water to expand. That is why, near the equator the deep water currents:
ocean water is about 8 cm higher in level than in the Surface currents constitute about 10 per cent of all the
middle latitudes. This causes a very slight gradient and water in the ocean; these waters are the upper 400 m of
water tends to flow down the slope. the ocean;
Wind: Wind blowing on the surface of the ocean Deep water currents make up the other 90 per cent of
pushes the water to move. Friction between the wind the ocean water. These waters move around the ocean
and the water surface affects the movement of the water basins due to variations in the density and gravity. Deep
body in its course. waters sink into the deep ocean basins at high latitudes,
Gravity: Gravity tends to pull the water down the pile where the temperatures are cold enough to cause the
and create gradient variation. density to increase.
Based on temperature: As cold currents and It breaks into two branches off the coast of the British
Isles, one flowing south (the Canary Current) and the
warm currents:
other going north along the coasts of W and N Europe,
Cold currents bring cold water into warm water areas. where it has a significant impact on the climate as far as
These currents are usually found on the west coast of north-western Europe.
the continents in the low and middle latitudes (true in
both hemispheres) and on the east coast in the higher Effects:
latitudes in the Northern Hemisphere;
The North Atlantic Drift slowed during the previous
Warm currents: They bring warm water into cold ice age, according to core samples, but its path is thought
water areas and are usually observed on the east coast to have changed between then and now.
of continents in the low and middle latitudes (true in
both hemispheres). In the northern hemisphere they are However, research into the previous climate suggests
found on the west coasts of continents in high latitudes that the Gulf Stream has entirely ceased multiple times,
resulting in significant climate change.
6 NORTH ATLANTIC DRIFT

MAJOR OCEAN CURRENT
7 SYSTEM MAY COLLAPSE
CONTEXT: The North Atlantic drift is getting wider
with time as reported by the agencies. AS EARLY AS 2025: STUDY
About the North Atlantic Drift: CONTEXT: A new study has suggested that the Atlantic
Meridional Overturning Circulation could halt as early as
The North Atlantic Drift’s unusually warm waters help
2025.
to moderate the climate of Western Europe, resulting
in milder winters than would otherwise be expected at
that latitude.
What is Atlantic Meridional Overturning
Circulation (AMOC)?
AMOC stands for Atlantic Meridional Overturning
Circulation. The AMOC circulates water from north
to south and back in a long cycle within the Atlantic
Ocean.
This circulation brings warmth to various parts of the
globe and also carries nutrients necessary to sustain
ocean life.
The circulation process begins as warm water near
the surface moves toward the poles (such as the Gulf
Stream in the North Atlantic), where it cools and forms
sea ice. As this ice forms, salt is left behind in the
ocean water.
Due to the large amount of salt in the water, it becomes
denser, sinks down, and is carried southwards in the
depths below.
Eventually, the water gets pulled back up towards the
surface and warms up in a process called upwelling,
The UK and other parts of Europe would be as cold as completing the cycle.
Canada at the same latitude if the mild North Atlantic
Drift did not exist. What will happen without AMOC?
Winters in the British Isles, for example, would be Without it, the tropics would experience
more than 5°C colder without this consistent influx of rapid temperature increases
warmth, bringing the average December temperature in
disruption of vital tropical rains
London to around 2°C.
severe impacts on the environments of regions
The North Atlantic Drift spreads to several hundred
such as South America, western Africa, India, and
miles in length, slows to less than one mile per hour,
other parts of South Asia
and separates into multiple sub-currents.
Furthermore, northern and western Europe would lose Fourth component: Exploring multi-metal
its supply of warm water from the tropics, leading to hydrothermal sulphides mineralisation along the Indian
increased storms and extremely cold winters in those Ocean mid-oceanic ridges.
areas. Fifth component: Focus on developing an offshore
The absence of the Gulf Stream would also result Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion (OTEC) powered
in rising sea levels along the eastern seaboard of the desalination plant which will work with tidal energy.
United States. Sixth component: Establishment of an advanced
Marine Station for Ocean Biology.
HOLES ON THE OCEAN

9
FLOOR
CONTEXT: Sea explorers, deep in the waters along a

volcanic ridge in the bottom of the Atlantic Ocean, found
a pattern of holes in the sand.
What has been found?

During exploration in the north of the Azores, near
Portugal’s mainland, explorers saw about a dozen sets
of holes resembling a track of lines on the ocean floor,
at a depth of 1.6 miles.
8 DEEP SEA MISSION
There were four more sightings on the Azores Plateau,
which is underwater terrain where three tectonic plates
CONTEXT: The Government of India has flagged off the meet.
Deep Sea mission namely the Samudrayaan mission. Those holes were about 1 mile deep and about 300
miles away from the site of the expedition’s initial
discovery.
About Samudrayaan Mission:
Samudrayaan Mission is aimed to develop a self- Mid-Atlantic Ridge (MAR):
propelled manned submersible to carry three human
beings to a water depth of 6,000 meters in the ocean The Mid-Atlantic Ridge (MAR) is known as a
with a suite of scientific sensors and tools for deep mid-ocean ridge, an underwater mountain system
ocean exploration. formed by plate tectonics.
It has an endurance of 12 hours of operational period It is the result of a divergent plate boundary that
and 96 hours in case of emergency. runs from 87° N – about 333 km (207 mi) south of
The projected timeline is five years for the period 2020- the North Pole – to 54 °S, just north of the coast of
2021 to 2025-2026. Antarctica.
Like other ocean ridge systems, the MAR developed
Main components of the Deep Sea Mission as a consequence of the divergent motion between
the Eurasian and North American, and African
There are six components to this mission:
and South American Plates.
First component: A manned submersible will be
In the North Atlantic, it separates the Eurasian
developed to carry three people to a depth of 6,000
and North American Plates; whereas in the
metres in the ocean.
South Atlantic, it separates the African and South
Second component: Developing a suite of observations
American Plates.
and models to understand and provide future projections
of important climate variables. The MAR is also part of the longest mountain
chain in the world, extending continuously across
Third component: Development of technological
the oceans floors for a total distance of 40,389 km
innovations to explore and conserve deep-sea
(25,097 mi).
biodiversity.
TEMPERATURE & SALINITY OF OCEANS

Southern Ocean supporting about three-quarters of
RISING ANTARCTIC ICE global phytoplankton production, the base of the food
chain.
MELT TO DRAMATICALLY
10 Leaving more CO2 in the atmosphere: Study suggest
SLOW GLOBAL OCEAN that the ocean would not be able to absorb as much
FLOWS carbon dioxide as its upper layers become more
stratified, leaving more CO2 in the atmosphere.
CONTEXT: Research found that rapidly melting What is Global Ocean Circulation?
Antarctic ice is dramatically slowing down the flow of Earth’s oceans have a worldwide circulation system that
water through the world’s oceans. moves ocean water in an endless loop around the planet
(that could take a thousand years to complete). The
global ocean circulation pattern is sometimes referred
Key-highlights of the study:
to as a conveyor belt.
Rapidly melting Antarctic ice is slowing down the flow The “overturning circulation” of the oceans is driven
of water through the world’s oceans. by the movement of denser water towards the sea floor.
It could have a disastrous impact on global climate, the Significance:
marine food chain and even the stability of ice shelves.
Heat distribution: The patterns of global ocean
As temperatures rise, freshwater from Antarctica’s circulation distribute heat around the planet.
melting ice enters the ocean, reducing the salinity
Bringing stability: The Ocean and the atmosphere
and density of the surface water and diminishing that
are closely connected and are responsible for
downward flow to the sea’s bottom.
maintaining Earth’s relatively stable climate,
The study found that deep-water circulation in the providing a hospitable environment for life.
Antarctic could weaken at twice the rate of decline in
Key regulator of climate: Ocean circulation is a
the North Atlantic.
key regulator of climate by storing and transporting
Disruption the base of food chain: Ocean overturning heat, carbon, oxygen, nutrients and freshwater all
allows nutrients to rise up from the bottom, with the around the world.
The irregularity in the gravitational field causes

11 OXYGEN MINIMUM ZONES anomalies, resulting in differences in the strength of
gravity at different locations on the Earth’s surface,
which influences the Earth’s shape.
CONTEXT: The Oxygen minimum zones are increasing The shape is also affected by the planet’s rotation,
in Oceans and water bodies across the world. gravitational forces, and internal structure.
What are Oxygen minimum zones?
The Oxygen Minimum Zone (OMZ) referring to the INDIAN OCEAN DIPOLE
zone in the water bodies like Ocean where the oxygen 13
(IOD)
saturation is at its lowest.
It is also known as shadow zone. It is a place where no
aquatic life is supported due to the low oxygen area in CONTEXT: With the El Nino phenomenon almost
the world’s oceans or large lakes. certain to affect the Indian monsoon this year, high hopes
This refers to depths of about 200 to 1000 meters are pinned on the development of a positive Indian Ocean
based on the local circumstances. Although, it is found Dipole (IOD) and its ability to counterbalance the El Nino
worldwide, but very prevalent along the western coast effect.
of continents.
It helps in controlling carbon and nitrogen cycling in
About Indian Ocean Dipole:
the oceans.
The IOD is an ocean-atmosphere interaction very
similar to the El Nino fluctuations in the Pacific Ocean,
INDIAN OCEAN GEOID playing out, as the name shows, in the Indian Ocean.
12
LOW (IOGL) It is also a much weaker system than El Nino, and thus
has relatively limited impacts.
A positive IOD helps rainfall along the African
CONTEXT: Researchers at the Indian Institute of Science coastline and also over the Indian sub-continent while
have revealed the secrets of the giant gravity hole that rests suppressing rainfall over Indonesia, Southeast Asia and
in the Indian Ocean. Australia.
What is the Indian Ocean Geoid Low The impacts are opposite during a negative IOD event.
(IOGL)? IOD, sometimes referred to as the Indian Nino, is a

similar phenomenon, playing out in the relatively
There is an enigmatic “gravity hole” in the Indian smaller area of the Indian Ocean between the
Ocean. Indonesian and Malaysian coastline in the east and
It is not the kind of “hole” that would allow the entire the African coastline near Somalia in the west.
ocean to be drained. However, there is a massive
anomaly in the Earth’s crust that has a much weaker
gravitational attraction than usual.
It is located about 600 miles below the surface of the
Earth.
This “gravity hole” is actually the Indian Ocean Geoid
Low (IOGL), which spans an area of more than two
million square miles.
Type of structure: Humongous structures
Shape: The gravity hole is not actually a perfect sphere,
as Earth’s gravitational field is not uniform due to
variations in density and mass distribution.
What forms it?

The distribution of mass within Earth is not
homogeneous, with denser regions in some areas and
less dense regions in others.
These variations in density and mass create differences
in gravitational attraction, leading to the formation of
the geoid.
What is Seafloor spreading?

The El Nino phenomenon:
Seafloor spreading is a geological process that creates
An El Nino event is the result of a weakening of
crusts, the outermost shell of Earth. Tectonic plates
wind systems that leads to lesser displacement of separate, allowing magma from the earth’s interior to
warmer waters. fill the gap in this phenomenon.
This results in the eastern side of the Pacific The magma cools to form a new oceanic crust.
becoming warmer than usual. During La Nina, the
These activities occur along mid-ocean ridges — large
opposite happens.
mountain ranges rising from the ocean floor.
Both these conditions, together called El Nino It can lead to a series of destructive natural happenings,
Southern Oscillation or ENSO, affect weather events from rising sea levels to earthquakes and more.
across the world.
Over India, the El Nino has the impact of suppressing
monsoon rainfall. ATLANTIC OCEAN IS
16
WIDENING
HIGH SALINITY IN THE
14 CONTEXT: The Atlantic Ocean, the world’s second-
DEAD SEA largest ocean, covering an incredible 106.5 million square
kilometers, is widening.
CONTEXT: The Dead Sea’s salinity level is indeed Why does the Atlantic Ocean continue to
impressively high, being approximately 10 times saltier
grow?
than the Mediterranean and three times saltier than Utah’s
Great Salt Lake. The mid-Atlantic ridge is a long chain of undersea
mountains that separates two tectonic plates: the North
American plate and the Eurasian plate.
About This movement causes magma from the Earth’s mantle
to rise to the surface, resulting in the formation of new
The Dead Sea, located at the border of Israel and crust. This is known as seafloor spreading.
Jordan, is known as the Earth’s lowest point.
The Dead Sea is landlocked in the Earth’s lowest
valley, creating a natural basin where minerals from the
surrounding area collect.
Intense sunlight further evaporates the water, leading to
a remarkable concentration of salts.
This unique process results in the Dead Sea being many
times saltier than the ocean, explaining why individuals
can effortlessly float on its surface without sinking.
The Dead Sea’s salinity level is indeed impressively
high, being approximately 10 times saltier than the
Mediterranean and three times saltier than Utah’s
Great Salt Lake.
SEAFLOOR SPREADING PACIFIC OCEAN IS

17
SHRINKING
SEAFLOOR SPREADING CONTEXT: Despite its massive size, the Pacific Ocean is
15 actually shrinking.
SLOWED: STUDY
About
CONTEXT: Seafloor spreading rates have slowed down The Pacific Ocean is the world’s largest ocean,
by roughly 35 per cent globally, according to a study that occupying approximately 63.8 million square miles.
analysed data from the last 19 million years.
That’s 46% of the total surface area of Earth.
Why is the Pacific shrinking? The Pacific plate shrinks as it moves deeper into the
Earth’s mantle, causing the ocean above it to contract.
This is due to the Pacific plate, the Earth’s largest
tectonic plate, being pushed beneath other plates in a It’s like removing pieces from a puzzle to make it
process known as subduction. smaller and more compact.
HYDROLOGICAL CYCLE
people, highlighted the deepening influence of climate
WORLD’S WATER CYCLE change on regional water resources.
Report emphasised SDG 13 (climate adaptation) by
18 SEVERELY IMPACTED BY focusing on climate-related impacts on water systems
CLIMATE CHANGE: WMO and calling for mitigation actions.
What is Hydrological cycle?

CONTEXT: As per World Meteorological Organization
Hydrological cycle is also known as the “water cycle”
(WMO’s) State of Global Water Resources 2022 report,
is the normal water recycling system on Earth.
the ongoing melting of snow, ice and glaciers compounded
the threat, exacerbating the risk of extreme weather events The hydrologic cycle involves the continuous circulation
such as floods. of water in the Earth-Atmosphere system.
At its core, the water cycle is the motion of the water
Findings of the Report: from the ground to the atmosphere and back again.
According to WMO, The circulation of water in the Of the many processes involved in the hydrologic cycle,
Earth-Atmosphere system has been significantly the most important are: Evaporation, Transpiration,
impacted by climate change and human activities. condensation, precipitation and runoff.
The effect on the hydrological cycle is leading to Process:
droughts and extreme rainfall events and the erratic Due to solar radiation, water evaporates, generally
water cycles unleashed widespread disruption, from the sea, lakes, etc. Water also evaporates
burdening livelihoods and economies. from plant leaves through the mechanism of
The report highlighted, the Asian Water Tower (AWT), transpiration.
the world’s largest reservoir of ice and snow after the As the steam rises in the atmosphere, it is being
Arctic and Antarctic regions which saw significant cooled, condensed, and returned to the land and
glacial melting in 2022. the sea as precipitation.
These alterations impacts the natural downward flow Precipitation falls on the earth as surface water
of major rivers — the Indus, Amu Darya, Yangtze and and shapes the surface, creating thus streams of
Yellow River in the region. water that result in lakes and rivers.
A part of the water precipitating penetrates
AWT covers the Third Pole, which includes the Tibetan the ground and moves downward through the
Plateau, the Himalayas, the Karakorum, the Hindu incisions, forming aquifers.
Kush, the Pamirs and the Tien Shan Mountains. Finally, a part of the surface and underground
water leads to sea.
The increasing pace of glacial melting in AWT, which During this trip, water is converted in all phases:
provides a reliable water supply to almost two billion gas, liquid, and solid.
FACTORS AFFECTING HYDROLOGICAL CYCLE

PHYSICAL FACTORS HUMAN FACTORS
Relief – the steeper the slope, the more quickly water will reach Forestry, Urbanisation, Mining,
the river. Deforestation, Reservoir/dam building
Vegetation (Type and density) – the more vegetation there is, the and Irrigation.
more will be absorbed/intercepted and then transpired back into
the atmosphere.
Size of basin– water comes from a bigger area so more water is in
the cycle compared to other areas.
Rock type: Some rocks are more permeable than others (allow
water to pass through them). Some rocks are better at storing water.
IMPACT OF CLIMATE PYQ (2021)

19 CHANGE ON WATER 6. Consider the following statements:
CYCLE 1. In the tropical zone, the western sections of the
oceans are warmer than the eastern sections
owing to the influence of trade winds.
CONTEXT: The climate crisis is impacting the water 2. In the temperate Zone, westerlies make the
cycle. eastern sections of oceans warmer than the
western sections
How is the climate crisis impacting the water correct?
cycle? (a) 1 only (b) 2 only
The temperature determines how much moisture the air (c) Both 1 and 2 (d) Neither 1 and 2
can hold. Correct Answer: (c)
The atmosphere can hold 7 percent more moisture per
1.8 degrees Fahrenheit (1 degree Celsius) of warming,
meaning that rising temperatures have a direct impact
PYQ (2020)
on the water cycle, or how much water evaporates and
7. With reference to Ocean Mean Temperature
how much is returned to the Earth and in what form. (OMT), which of the following statements is/are
So because the atmosphere can hold more water due correct?
to hotter temperatures, storms have more moisture,
1. OMT is measured up to a depth of 26°C isotherm
therefore they produce more intense precipitation which is 129 meters in the southwestern Indian
events. Ocean during January — March.
Warmer ocean surface temperatures feed moisture into 2. OMT collected during January — March can
storms, as well, and add more extreme amounts of be used in assessing whether the amount of
rainfall. This all means these storms naturally increase rainfall in the monsoon will be less or more than
the risk of major flooding. a certain long-term mean.
On the other hand, warming air temperatures cause Select the correct answer using the code given
increased evaporation. That further dries the surface of below:
the Earth and, increasingly, intensities the duration of (a) 1 only (b) 2 only
droughts.
(c) Both 1 and 2 (d) Neither 1 nor 2
Even in cold climes, if it gets too dry in the atmosphere, Correct Answer: (b)
it won’t snow, which is one of the major sources of fresh
water.
PYQ (2018)
Tracking Earth's water
8. With reference to ‘Indian Ocean Dipole (IOD)’
The vast majority of Earth's water – 96.5 percent – is sometimes mentioned in the news while
salt water found in the oceans, plus a small percentage, forecasting Indian monsoon, which of the
0.9 percent, of salt water found elsewhere. following statements is/are correct?
The remaining 2.5 percent is fresh water. 1. IOD phenomenon is characterised by a
However, the majority of that fresh water — 68.7 difference in sea surface temperature between
percent — is frozen in glaciers and ice caps. the tropical Western Indian Ocean and the
Another 30 percent of fresh water is underground, tropical Eastern Pacific Ocean.
and just 1.2 percent is surface or another kind of 2. An IOD phenomenon can influence an El
fresh water. Nino’s impact on the monsoon.
Of that 1.2 percent, 69 percent of fresh water is Select the correct answer using the code given
locked up in ground ice and permafrost, and the below:
remaining 31 percent is what makes up lakes, rivers
and swamps. (a) 1 only (b) 2 only
(c) Both 1 and 2 (d) Neither 1 nor 2
Correct Answer: (b)
to the right due to the Earth’s revolution around

PYQ (2021) the sun.
9. With reference to the water on the planet Earth, 3. Upwelling currents support the growth of
consider the following statements: phytoplankton and seaweed by bringing nutrient-
rich waters to the surface.
1. The amount of water in the rivers and lakes is
more than the amount of groundwater. Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
2. The amount of water I n polar ice caps and (a) 2 only 3 only
glaciers is more than the amount of groundwater. (b) 1 only 1 and 3 only
Which of the statements given above is/are 4. Consider the following statements:
correct?
1. The temperature of surface water decreases from
(a) 1 only (b) 2 only the equator towards the poles because the amount
(c) Both 1 and 2 (d) Neither 1 nor 2 of insolation decreases poleward.
2. The oceans in the northern hemisphere receive less
Correct Answer: (b)
heat due to their contact with larger extent of land
than the oceans in the southern hemisphere.
3. Gulf Stream drops the temperature near the eastern
PRACTICE QUESTIONS coast of North America.
How many of the above statements is/are correct
1. Consider the following statements about the
regarding the distribution of temperature of Ocean
processes that influence the temperature of the
water?
Ocean:
1. The ocean water is heated by absorption of the
sun’s radiation. (b) All three (d) None
2. Heat is produced due to friction caused by tidal 5. Consider the following statements:
currents. Statement-I:
3. Evaporation results in the ocean losing heat. NASA has launched the newest Surface Water and
How many of the statements given above are correct? Ocean Topography (SWOT) spacecraft to track nearly
all the water on the surface of the Earth.
(a) Only one Only two
Statement-II:
(b) All three None
About 71 percent of the Earth’s surface is water-
2. With reference to Ocean Mean Temperature (OMT),
covered, and the oceans hold about 96.5 percent of all
which of the following statements is/are correct?
Earth’s water.
1. OMT is measured up to a depth of 26 degree C
Which one of the following is correct in respect of
isotherm which is 129 meters in the south-western
the above statements?
Indian Ocean during January-March.
(a) Both Statement-I and Statement-II are correct
2. OMT collected during January – March can be
and Statement-II is the correct explanation for
used in assessing whether the amount of rainfall in
Statement-I
monsoon will be less or more than a certain long-
term mean. (b) Both Statement-I and Statement-II are correct
Select the correct answer using the code given below:
Statement-I
(a) 1 only 2 only
(c) Statement-I is incorrect but Statement-II is correct
(b) Both 1 and 2 Neither 1 nor 2
1. Deep ocean currents are primarily driven by global ANSWERS
wind systems.
1. (c) 2. (b) 3. (b) 4. (a) 5. (b)
2. Ocean currents in the Northern Hemisphere veer

CHAPTER 05
LOCATION IN NEWS
NATIONAL PARK/SANCTUARY/RESERVES
It was established as a national park in the year 1982.
BHITARKANIKA NATIONAL Home to a population of Chhattisgarh’s state bird, the
1 Hill Myna.
PARK ‘Unique landscape’: Can host species found in the
Himalayas, the Northeast, the Eastern and Western
CONTEXT: Migratory birds have embarked on their Ghats.
annual journey from the Himalayan region to the wetland Tirathgarh Waterfall is located in Kanger Valley
spots in Bhitarkanika national park. National Park.
Flora: It is a mixed humid deciduous type of forest (sal,
About teak, and bamboo trees) Fauna: Tigers, leopards, mouse
deer, wild cat, chital, sambar, flying squirrel, wild boar,
Odisha’s Bhitarkanika is India’s second largest
etc.
mangrove ecosystem after the Sunderbans.
Limestone caves: Kutumbasar, Kailash, and Dandak-
The National park is essentially a network of creeks
Stalagmites and Stalactites. Ophiocordyceps nutans
and canals that are inundated with waters from rivers
(fungi) can be found here.
Brahmani, Baitarani, Dhamra and Patasala forming a
unique ecosystem. It has therapeutic qualities.
Bhitarkanika is home to the largest congregation of the

endangered Salt Water Crocodile in the country. 3 KANO NATIONAL PARK
It has been designated as Ramsar site in August 2002.
Important species: geese, ducks, gulls, terns, and
skimmers. There were grebes, cormorants, darters, CONTEXT: African Cheetahs to be fed through
egrets, bitterns, ibises, finfoots, etc. traditional Boma technique in Kuno National Park.
KANGER VALLEY About Kuno National Park:

2
NATIONAL PARK Kuno National Park has spread over an area of 748.76
sq. km.
It is located in the Sheopur district of Madhya Pradesh.
CONTEXT: Bird watchers record over 200 bird species in Kuno River, one of the major tributaries of Chambal
Chhattisgarh’s Kanger Valley National Park. River flows through the entire length bisecting the
National Park division.
About Kuno Park is known for the leopard, Jackal, Chinkara.
Location: Near Jagdalpur in the Bastar region of Wildlife Institute of India and Wildlife Trust of India
Chhattisgarh It derives its name from the Kangar river, had shortlisted Palpur-Kuno Park as habitats for
which flows in its length. Cheetahs and Asiatic lions.
Cheetah which once roamed in the northern plains of protect 46 percent of the ice contained in the Andes
India became extinct in India in 1948. area of the Santiago Metropolitan Region.
Plans to reintroduce Cheetah in Kuno National Park The objective is to advance the protection of about
from South Africa are underway. 75,000 hectares, which contain glaciers holding 56
The Kuno has the potential to carry populations of percent of the water in the Metropolitan Region.
all four of India’s big cats the tiger, the leopard, the The new park provides official protection to 368
Asiatic lion and also cheetah, all four of which have glaciers, with 118 located in the Olivares River basin
coexisted within the same habitats historically before and 250 in the Colorado River basin.
they were exhausted thanks to overhunting and habitat Chile is among the world’s top 10 countries as
destruction. measured by glacier surface area, the government says.
Others include Canada, the United States, China and
Russia.
4 ORANG NATIONAL PARK
The Orang National Park also known as Rajiv Gandhi POBITORA WILDLIFE
Orang National Park is located on the north bank of 7
the Brahmaputra River in the Darrang and Sonitpur
SANCTUARY
districts of Assam and covers an area of 78.81 square
kilometers. CONTEXT: The Supreme Court has asked the
It was established as a wildlife sanctuary in 1985 but Centre and the Assam government to respond to a plea
was declared as a National Park in 1999. seeking directions to declare the area around Pobitora
It is also the 49th Tiger Reserve of the country, being Wildlife Sanctuary an eco-sensitive zone and remove all
notified in 2016. encroachments.
It is also known as the mini Kaziranga National Park

since the two parks have a similar landscape made up
About the location:
of marshes, streams, and grasslands. It is located on the southern bank of the river
Brahmaputra in Morigaon district, adjacent to
Guwahati in Assam.
5 ORANG NATIONAL PARK It was declared a reserve forest in 1971 and a wildlife
sanctuary in 1987.
The Orang National Park also known as Rajiv Gandhi
It is home to the highest population density of the
Orang National Park is located on the north bank of Indian One-Horned Rhinoceros species (around 102
the Brahmaputra River in the Darrang and Sonitpur rhinos in an area of 38.8 sq. km).
districts of Assam and covers an area of 78.81 square
Landscape: It is dominated by alluvial lowlands and
kilometers.
marshland.
It was established as a wildlife sanctuary in 1985 but
The Brahmaputra River offers a natural boundary
was declared as a National Park in 1999.
to the premises of the Pobitora Wildlife Sanctuary
It is also the 49th Tiger Reserve of the country, being on the north, while the GarangaBeel offers a
notified in 2016. natural boundary to its south.
It is also known as the mini Kaziranga National Park Flora:
since the two parks have a similar landscape made up 72% of Pabitora consists of wet savannah
of marshes, streams, and grasslands. of Arundodonax, Erianthusravennae,
Phragmiteskarka, Imperatacylindrica, and
Saccharum spp.
SANTIAGO GLACIERS
6 Water hyacinth (Eichorniacrassipes) is a major
NATIONAL PARK problem, especially to waterfowl, as it forms thick
mats on the water surface.
Fauna:
CONTEXT: Chile recently created a vast national park
to protect hundreds of glaciers that are melting owing to Besides rhinoceros, the other animals are leopard,
climate change. wild boar, Barking deer, wild buffalo, etc.
It is also home to more than 375 species of
resident and migratory birds, such as the
About the Santiago Glaciers National Park: Indian pied Hornbill, Osprey, Hill Myna, Kalij
The creation of Santiago Glaciers National Park to Pheasant, etc.
The Askot Musk Deer Sanctuary, established in 1986,

ARALAM WILDLIFE was established to protect the endangered Musk Deer
8 and its habitat.
SANCTUARY
The sanctuary area is known as ‘Green Paradise on the
Earth’.
About: It is located in Askot, a small hamlet in Uttarakhand’s
The Aralam Wildlife Sanctuary (AWS) is located in the Pithoragarh district.
southeast part of Kannur District of Kerala and covers In the sanctuary there are 2600 plants, 250 birds and 37
an area of 55 Sq. Km. mammal species like snow leopard, Himalayan black
It is located on the Western Ghats and it is contiguous bear, Himalayan tahr, blue sheep, serow besides musk
with the Brahmagiri Wildlife Sanctuary of Karnataka. deer.
Nagarhole National Park and Tiger Reserve lies to the Among the fauna are species like loong, monal,
east of Aralam Wildlife Sanctuary. kalij pheasant and cheer pheasant.
Habitat: Elephant, wild boar, leopard, mongoose, The sanctuary also has rare varieties of 2,600
nilgiri langur, hanuman langur, malabar giant Himalayan herbs and 250 varieties of birds and 37
squirrel, etc. varieties of reptiles.
What Are Eco-Sensitive Zones (ESZ)?

WAYANAD WILDLIFE
9 Eco-Sensitive Zone (ESZ) is a buffer or transition
SANCTUARY zone around highly-protected areas such as
National Parks and Wildlife Sanctuaries.
Kerala’s Forest department has launched the ‘Vanikaran’ The purpose of declaring ESZs is to create some
(afforestation) project to root out invasive plants and kind of “shock absorbers” to the protected areas by
restore natural forests. regulating and managing the activities around such
Major exotic invasive plants: Senna spectabilis, areas.
Eupatorium, Mikania micrantha, and Lantana
camara.
RAJASTHAN’S RAMGARH
About the sanctuary: 11
VISHDHARI SANCTUARY
Declared a sanctuary in 1973.
Wayanad Wildlife Sanctuary is the 2nd largest wildlife The Ramgarh Vishdhari Sanctuary in Rajasthan was
sanctuary in Kerala. It is part of the Nilgiri Biosphere notified as India’s 52nd tiger reserve.
Reserve. This is Rajasthan’s fourth tiger reserve after
Boundary: Northeast- Nagarhole National Park Ranthambore, Sariska and Mukundra.
and Bandipur National Park (Karnataka) Southeast- Ramgarh Vishdhari wildlife sanctuary is located in
Mudumalai National Park (Tamil Nadu) Bundi district of Rajasthan.
Geography: Part of the Deccan Plateau and Western It was designated as a wildlife sanctuary in 1982.
Ghats. Kabini River (a tributary of the Cauvery River)
Area: The area comprising two forest blocks of Bhilwara
flows through the sanctuary.
and territorial forest blocks of Bundi and Indargarh has
Forest types: South Indian Moist Deciduous forests, been identified as a Tiger Reserve.
West coast semi-evergreen forests, and plantations of
The Ramgarh Vishdhari Sanctuary will be spread
teak, eucalyptus, and Grewelia.
across 1,071 sq kms.
Significance: Ramgarh sanctuary falls under the buffer
ASKOT WILDLIFE zone of Ranthambore Tiger Reserve (RTR).
10
SANCTUARY Flora: It consists of Dhok, Khair, Salar, Khirni trees
with some Mango and Ber trees.
Askot Wildlife Sanctuary in Uttarakhand’s Fauna: It consists of birds and animals like Leopard,
Pithoragarh has been finally declared as an Eco- Sambhar, Wild boar, Chinkara, Sloth bear, Indian
Sensitive Zone (ESZ). Wolf, Hyena, Jackal, Fox, deer and Crocodile.
About
PERIYAR TIGER RESERVE ‘Veerangana Durgavati Tiger Reserve’ is a new protected
12
(PTR) area for big cats in Madhya Pradesh, the state with the
most tigers in the nation.
This newly designated Tiger Reserve will encompass
CONTEXT: Authorities have confirmed the presence of
areas within the Nauradehi (Wild Life) & Veerangana
a migratory bird (Kashmir flycatcher) for the first time
Drugavati Sanctuary, recognized for their ecological
inside the Periyar Tiger Reserve (PTR).
significance in preserving biodiversity, including flora,
fauna, geology, and zoology.
About
Presently, the sanctuary is home to approximately
Periyar Tiger Reserve (PTR) Administratively, Periyar
15 tigers, making it a vital habitat for the endangered
Tiger Reserve (PTR) falls in the Idukki, Kottayam, and
species.
Pathanamthitta districts of Kerala.
The Sanctuary was brought under Project Tiger in 1978
Madhya Pradesh is renowned for its six existing tiger
as the 10th Tiger Reserve in the country and named
reserve: Kanha, Bandhavgarh, Panna, Pench, Sanjay
Periyar Tiger Reserve.
Dubri, and Satpura.
It is also notable as an elephant reserve. Periyar Tiger
Reserve is also part of the World Heritage site “Western
Ghats” under UNESCO.
It is home to rare, endemic, and endangered flora and 15 MUNSIYARI
fauna and forms the major watershed of two important
rivers of Kerala, the Periyar and the Pamba.
CONTEXT: Uttarakhand Forest Department has
developed India’s First Lichen park.
SRIVILLIIPUTHUR
13 MEGAMALAI TIGER About
RESERVE Location: Munsiyari of Pithoragarh district.
This park is spread across 1.5 acres and its development
Srivilliputhur Megamalai Tiger Reserve is the fifth
tiger reserve in Tamil Nadu. began in 2019.
It lies in the Western Ghats The forest department have sent a proposal to the state
government for securing permission to open the park
Srivilliputhur-Megamalai Tiger Reserve is Tamil
Nadu’s fifth tiger reserve and India’s 51st. for the public and researchers.
Srivilliputhur was well-known as the Grizzled Giant

Squirrel Wildlife Sanctuary. About Lichen
Bengal tigers, elephants, gaurs, Indian giant squirrels, A lichen is a composite organism that arises from
leopards, Nilgiri tahrs, and other animals can be algae or cyanobacteria living among filaments of
observed here. multiple fungi species in a mutualistic relationship.
It’s a blend of tropical evergreen and semi-evergreen They come in many colours, sizes and forms.
forests, dry deciduous and moist mixed deciduous The properties are sometimes plant-like but lichens
woods, and grassland in this area. are not plants.
SMTR is also adjacent to the Kalakad-Mundanthurai
Lichens may have tiny, leafless branches, flat leaf-
reserve. The Srivilliputhur end is about 45 km from
like structures.
Virudhunagar town.
VEERANGANA DURGAVATI 16 HANLE, LADAKH

14
TIGER RESERVE
CONTEXT: The Hanle in Ladakh is all set to become
CONTEXT: Madhya Pradesh Government has officially India’s first Dark Sky Reserve.
announced the establishment of the “Veerangana
Durgavati Tiger Reserve,” marking the seventh tiger • The site is going to promote astronomy-tourism,
reserve in the state and 54th in the country. giving a boost to local tourism through science.
What is a dark-sky reserve (DSR)? The thick forests of Barbara are inhabited by giant
squirrels, making it a major contender to become a
A dark-sky Reserve (DSR) is an area, usually sanctuary for giant squirrels.
surrounding a park or observatory that restricts
One can find other species like sambar, deer, mouse
artificial light pollution.
deer and bison in the forest.
The International Dark-Sky Association (IDA) is
associated with the International Dark Sky Reserve
(IDSR) and International Dark Sky Park (IDSP). AGASTHYAMALA
An International Dark-Sky Association (IDA) was 19
BIOSPHERE RESERVE
founded in 1988 to reserve public or private land for
an exquisite outlook of nocturnal territories and starry
night skies. CONTEXT: The Shendurney Wildlife Sanctuary derives
In 1993, Michigan became the first state in the United its name Chenkurinji (Glutatravancorica), a species
States to designate a tract of land as a “Dark Sky endemic to the Agasthyamala Biosphere Reserve.
Reserve” at the Lake Hudson State Recreation Area.
Agasthyamalai Biosphere Reserve (ABR)
Located in the Western Ghats
17 DEBRIGARH
The Agasthyamalai Biosphere Reserve (ABR) was
established in 2001.
CONTEXT: Debrigarh, a wildlife sanctuary in Odisha’s It straddles the border of Kollam and
Bargarh district, has been made completely free from any Thiruvananthapuram Districts in Kerala and Tirunelveli
human settlement. and Kanyakumari Districts in Tamil Nadu, South India
at the southern end of the Western Ghats.
It consisting mostly of tropical forests
About It is also a unique genetic reservoir of cultivated plants
Located in the western part of Odisha, it is nestled especially cardamom, jamune, nutmeg, pepper and
between the Hirakud Dam and Reservoir. plantain
It is a dry forest. Three wildlife sanctuaries, Shendurney, Peppara,
Historical connection: It finds a special place in the Neyyar and Kalakad Mundanthurai Tiger reserve are
national map because of its historic association with included in the site.
the freedom fighter, Surendra Sai. Agastyamalai is also home to theKanikaran, one of the
He took shelter here while planning his rebellion against oldest surviving ancient tribes in the world.
the British.
Major species: Tigers, leopards, bison, hyena, spotted About Chenkurinji:
deer, Indian hare, monitor lizard and chameleons, Chenkurinji (Glutatravancorica) is a species endemic
among other animals. to the Agasthyamala Biosphere Reserve.
Belonging to the Anacardiaceae family, the tree was
once abundant in the hills on the southern parts of
18 BARBARA FOREST the Aryankavu Pass in Kerala’s Kollam district.
The Shendurney Wildlife Sanctuary derives its
CONTEXT: The government has decided to open Barbara name Chenkurinji (Glutatravancorica), a species
Forest in Odisha for public to boost eco-tourism. endemic to the Agasthyamala Biosphere Reserve.
About Barbara forest

20 ETIMOGA MUDFLAT
The Barbara forest is located near Chilika Lake in
coastal Odisha touching three districts Khordha,
Nayagarh and Ganjam. CONTEXT: Etimoga Mudflats become a prime ‘winter
It is about 5 kms away from Banapur, an ancient stopover’ for 34 migrant bird species for feeding in the
Buddhist heritage site. Central Asian Flyway (CAF).
It is dubbed as Asia’s largest teak and sal forest.
It is the only forest in India guarded by the jawans of About
Central Reserve Police Force (for protecting forest Etimoga mudflat is located in Kakinada Bay, near
resources). Coringa sanctuary (Andhra Pradesh).
It is situated at the mouth of River Krishna, which It houses around 250 species of birds including three
empties into the Bay of Bengal. important raptors -- birds of prey, namely the Laggar
The mudflat is surrounded by the Godavari estuary. Falcon, the Shaheen Falcon, and Bonelli’s Eagle.
It is one of the last surviving mudflats on the eastern It is also home to wildlife such as the Indian Pangolin,
coastline of India. Slender Loris, and pythons.
It is a continuation of the Kumbabhishekam mudflat. The biodiversity-rich area is surrounded by a chain of
After the disturbance at Kumbabhishekam mudflat, all seven hillocks or inselbergs that serve as a watershed,
migratory birds are now visiting the Etimoga mudflat. charging 72 lakes, 200 natural springs, and three check
dams.
It is a prime destination for the endangered ‘Great
Knot’ (Calidris tenuitostris). Several megalithic structures, rock-cut temples, Tamil
Brahmi inscriptions, and Jain beds add to the historical
Most of the migrants being sighted here are ‘Wader
significance of the region.
species’. There are demands for declaring ‘Etimoga
Mudflat’ as an extension of the Coringa Wildlife
Sanctuary.
INFRASTRUCTURE
21 WIDI RESERVE
INDIA-BHUTAN-CHINA
23
CONTEXT: The development rights to an entire TRI-JUNCTION
Indonesian archipelago with more than 100 tropical
islands, is set to be auctioned.
CONTEXT: According to defence sources, China has set
up a ropeway near the India-Bhutan-China tri-junction
About and is strengthening roads and other infrastructure along
the entire eastern sector.
‘Widi Reserve’ is an untouched 100-island Indonesian
archipelago.
The uninhabited Widi Reserve is based in a marine- About
protected zone in the “Coral Triangle” area of eastern
The People’s Liberation Army (PLA) has installed a
Indonesia.
ropeway close to the Torsa Nala on their side near the
It is spread out over 10,000 hectares (25,000 acres) confluence point (India-Bhutan-China tri-junction).
northeast of Bali.
A tripoint, trijunction, triple point, or tri-border area
It is described as “one of the most intact coral atoll is a geographical point at which the boundaries of three
ecosystems left on Earth”. countries or subnational entities meet.
Concerns: Impact on local communities, threat to
ecosystems (rainforests, mangroves, lagoons, lakes, and
coral reefs).
ARITTAPATTI VILLAGE-
TAMIL NADU’S FIRST
22
BIODIVERSITY HERITAGE
SITE
CONTEXT: The Tamil Nadu Government issued a

notification declaring Arittapatti, Madurai biodiversity
heritage site.
About
Arittapatti village is rich in ecological and historical
significance.
About Doklam The proposed route will start at Mago, which borders
Bhutan and continue through Tawang, Upper
Doklam (or Zhonglan or Donglong) is a disputed area Subansiri, Tuting, Mechuka, Upper Siang, Debang
between China and Bhutan just like Jakarlung and Valley, Desali, Chaglagam, Kibithu, and Dong before
Pasamlung. coming to an end at Vijayanagar, which is close to the
It is an area with a plateau and a valley that lies on the Myanmar border.
Bhutan-China border, near India. With this project, Arunachal Pradesh will have
It is located between Tibet’s Chumbi valley to the North, three national highways Frontier Highway East-
Bhutan’s Ha valley to the East, and India’s Sikkim state West Industrial Corridor Highway Trans-Arunachal
to the West. Highway
The Doklam plateau in western Bhutan is claimed by

both China and Bhutan. TAWANG, ARUNACHAL
India does not claim Doklam but supports Bhutan’s 25
claim. China’s claims in the territory of Doklam:
PRADESH
Zompelri ridge on the south and the confluence of the
Torsa Nala with Amo Chu on the east. CONTEXT: Indian, Chinese troops clash in Arunachal’s
Tawang sector Tawang district of Arunachal Pradesh
India-China Border: is wedged between the Himalayan ranges of Tibet and
Bhutan.
India shares 3488 Km of the border with Chinathat
runs along the States of Jammu & Kashmir,
Himachal Pradesh, Uttarakhand, Sikkim, and About
Arunachal Pradesh.
Situated at 10,000 feet above sea level, it has Tibet to
Both countries have differing perceptionsowing
its northern side, SeLa Pass to its east and Bhutan, to
to the Un-demarcated boundary, which leads to
its southwest Inhabitants: Monpas Losar and Torgya
transgressions and face-offs as each side patrols up
are two major festivals of Monpas Tawang is encircled
to the areas.
between the Gudpi and the Chong-Chugmi mountain
Border Guarding Force: The Indo-Tibetan Border ranges, while the Chu River flows through the forests
Police Force (ITBP) is the Border Guarding Force at next to the town.
Indo-China Border. The centre of the town is the ancient Tawang
Line of Actual Control (LAC): It is divided into the Monastery (the second largest in Asia after the original
western (Ladakh), middle (Himachal Pradesh and one in Lhasa) built-in 1680.
Uttarakhand), and eastern (Arunachal Pradesh and Indian citizens need Inner Line Permits (ILP) to enter
Sikkim) sectors. Arunachal Pradesh.
LAC in the eastern sector consisting of Arunachal As Arunachal Pradesh falls under restricted area,
Pradesh and Sikkim is called the McMahon Line official permission is required to enter the state.
which is 1,140 km long. Disputed region: China claim large parts of Arunchal
Pradesh, including Tawang.
ARUNACHAL PRADESH PATROLLING POINT-15

24
FRONTIER HIGHWAY 26 (PP15) AT THE GOGRA-HOT
SPRINGS
CONTEXT: Centre Approves 1500-Km Arunachal
Pradesh Frontier Highway Along LAC.
CONTEXT: Indian and Chinese troops have now declared
to complete the disengagement process from patrolling
About point-15 (PP15) at the Gogra-Hot Springs area in eastern
Ladakh near LAC by this month.
To be developed by: Union Ministry of Road Transport
and Highways (MoRTH)
The road will run close to the Line of Actual Control Important friction points
(LAC) with China. The regions, PP15 and PP17A, are located in an area
It is seen as one of India’s biggest and toughest road where India and China largely agree on the LAC
construction projects. alignment.
The other two being PP14 in Galwan Valley and the

north bank of Pangong Tso. 28 THE SELA TUNNEL
Important disputed areas in Ladakh
CONTEXT: The strategically-significant Sela Tunnel
Pangong Tso lake
project in Arunachal Pradesh is nearing completion.
Galwan Valley, where Shyok and Galwan rivers meet
Daulat Beg Oldi (DBO), a key northern region close
to the Karakoram Pass. Sela Tunnel project:
Hot Springs-Gogra area of the LAC
The project, being executed by the Border Roads
Demchok which is close to the southernmost part of Organisation, includes two tunnels and a link road.
the LAC in Ladakh.
While Tunnel 1 will be 980 metres long single-tube,
Chushul, located on the southern bank of Pangong
Tunnel 2 will be 1,555 metres with one bi-lane tube for
Tso Lake, has an airstrip and is near Rezang La pass
traffic and one escape tube for emergencies running
on the LAC.
alongside.
Spanggur Gap along the LAC has roads leading to it
from either side. India’s Chushul-Demchok road in The link road between the two tunnels will be 1,200
the area is a critical communication link. metres.
Samar Lungpa Tunnel 2 will be one of the longest tunnels to have been
Trig Heights constructed above an altitude of over 13,000 feet.
Chumar The total length of the project, including the tunnels,
Dumchele the approach and the link roads, will be around 12 km.
Kongka La
Where is it being constructed?
Located in West Kameng district of Arunachal
KHAMBATKI GHAT Pradesh, the tunnel project will provide an alternate
27 axis to the Sela pass, which is at 13,700 feet.
PROJECT
It will be on the BCT Road – the Balipara, Charduar
and Tawang axis, which is more than 300 km long.
CONTEXT: The new 6-Lane tunnel at Khambatki Ghat
on Pune-Satara highways (NH-4) is a twin tunnel with 3
29 DEEPORBEEL
lanes each & currently under construction is expected to be
completed by 2023.
CONTEXT: The Northeast Frontier Railway (NFR)
is planning to construct an elevated corridor in Deeper
About Khambattaki Ghat Project: Beel to end elephant deaths on railway track, crossing the
The Khambattaki Ghat project is a new initiative Ramsar Site area.
towards saving time and money while accelerating
highway development.
About
Two new three-lane twin tunnels have been constructed
on this ghat route to reduce the length of the Pune- DeeporBeel, a freshwater lake, is located to the south-
Satara route and save fuel. west of Guwahati city, in Kamrup district of Assam.
The new six-lane tunnel at Khambatki Ghat on Pune- It is a listed wetland under the Ramsar Convention in
Satara Highway (NH-4) is a twin tunnel with three November 2002, for undertaking conservation measures
lanes each. on the basis of its biological and environmental
importance.
The development of this corridor has been considered
important from the point of view of increased mobility Dipor Bil is considered as one of the biggest lakes of the
level of the people. Brahmaputra valley of Lower Assam.
This twin tunnel will facilitate traffic on Mumbai- It is surrounded by steep highlands on the northern and
Bengaluru National Highway and reduce traffic for southern sides and its main sources of water are the
Pune, Satara, Solapur. Kalmani and Basistha Rivers.
WATER BODIES
North: It is bounded by Ukraine, Russia, and a
30 SUTLEJ RIVER small portion of Belarus.
East: It is connected to the Sea of Azov through
the Strait of Kerch.
CONTEXT: Moderate flood in Sutlej River South: Turkey
West: Bulgaria and Romania
About Surrounding Countries: Ukraine, Russia, Georgia,
Turkey, Bulgaria, and Romania.
Origin: The Sutlej River originates from the Rakshastal
Connected Waterways: The Bosporus Strait, located
Lake in Tibet, which is situated near the sacred Mount
in Turkey, connects the Black Sea to the Sea of
Kailash.
Marmara, which then leads to the Mediterranean Sea.
It emerges from the Himalayas in the southwestern
The Yellow Sea is located between North Korea and
region of Tibet, near the India-China border.
China. It is an arm of the western Pacific Ocean and is
After entering India, it passes through Himachal situated to the west of the Korean Peninsula and to the
Pradesh, and Punjab before eventually joining the east of the Chinese mainland.
Indus River in Pakistan.
33 YELLOW SEA
31 CHITE LUI RIVER
CONTEXT: 55 Chinese sailors feared dead in nuclear
CONTEXT: Chite Lui River is in danger as it turns into a submarine accident in Yellow Sea.
dumping ground in Aizawl, Mizoram.
About
About:
Located between Mainland China and the Korean
Chite Lui is not just a river for the people of the hilly peninsula, the marginal sea of the Pacific Ocean, which
north-eastern state. It holds sentimental values for them. is the northern part of East China Sea, is called the
Situated in an alluvial valley at an altitude of about 1,000 Yellow Sea.
metres, the river starts its journey from Bawngkawn The name of Yellow Sea comes from the golden yellow
range in north Aizawl and flows for around 20 km colour that it gets from the sand particles and storms
in eastern Aizawl before joining River Tuirial at the from the Gobi desert.
southern end of the city. Besides, the Bohai Sea and Hai He River adds to the
The river is close to the heart of the local population. colour of the Yellow sea by bringing in deposits of sand
Popular Mizo poet Rokunga wrote verses about Chite and silt.
Lui.
Stories and songs about the river are popular in
DAPORIJO BRIDGE OVER
Mizoram and even among the Mizo tribes in Myanmar. 34
SUBANSIRI RIVER
32 BLACK SEA
CONTEXT: The Border Roads Organisation (BRO)
constructed the Daporijo bridge over Subansiri river in
CONTEXT: A deal allowing Ukraine to export grain via Arunachal Pradesh in a record span of just 27 days.
the Black Sea expires on July 17 and with Moscow saying
it sees no grounds for an extension there are fears it may
collapse. About Daporijo bridge
This Bridge is one of the two over River Subansiri
which connect Daporji in North Subansiri dist. with
About rest of state.
The Black Sea is located in Southeastern Europe. This and the other bridge at Tamin sustaining more
It is bordered by several countries. than 600 villages and troops strength of around 3000
personnel manning the LAC which includes disputed This river is very lean until it arrives at Mohammadi
Areas of Asaphila and Maza. Kheri which is about 100 kilometers from its starting
The bridge is of utmost importance in strategic point.
connectivity as it links roads leading upto the Line of It is a tehsil of Lakhimpur Kheri district and at this
Actual Control (LAC) between India and China. district; the river meets some other tributaries.
Tributaries: The tributaries and sub-tributaries of
Subansiri River
Gomti are-
Subansiri River (gold river), originates in the Tibet
Sukheta
Plateau and enters India through Miri hills in
Arunachal Pradesh. Choha
It is the largest tributary of Brahmaputra River. Andhar Choha
What are Non-perennial river?

35 MISSISSIPPI RIVER The non-perennial rivers are those rivers that have no
water flow for the whole year.
For e.g. - Godavari, Krishna, etc. These rivers are
CONTEXT: Record low water levels on the Mississippi non- perennial mainly because they do not originate
River in 2022 from the glacial areas like Ganga, Yamuna, Indus,
etc.
About The Godavari is the second-longest river after the

Ganga in India.
The Mississippi River is the second longest river in
North America, flowing 2,350 miles from its source
at Lake Itasca through the center of the continental
United States to the Gulf of Mexico. 37 SISSERI RIVER BRIDGE
Flow: The source of the Mississippi is in the state of
Minnesota, near the border with Canada. The Sisseri River Bridge is located at lower Dibang
It then flows south through the middle of the USA until Valley in Arunachal Pradesh. The bridge is 200m long
it reaches its mouth in the state of Louisiana, where it and provides connectivity between Dibang Valley and
then flows out into the Gulf of Mexico. Siang.
Major tributaries: the Minnesota River, the St. Croix It would help the development of Lower Dibang Valley
River, the Wisconsin River, the Illinois River, the and East Siang, the strong infrastructure in Arunachal
Missouri River, the Ohio River and the Arkansas River. Pradesh would also act as a bridge between India and
Other world rivers: Nile, the Amazon and the Yangtze South-East Asian countries.
Rivers The bridge was constructed under ‘Project Brahmank’
of Border Roads Organisation (BRO).
36 GOMTI RIVER
38 SUKHNA LAKE
CONTEXT: Irrigation department of the Uttar Pradesh
has declared the River Gomti as a “non-perennial river”.
CONTEXT: Recently, 49 migratory birds species spotted
at Chandigarh’s Sukhna Lake during a survey.
About the River:
River Gomti starts from Gomat Taal which is famous About the survey:
because of Fulhaar jheel that is close to Madho Tanda
situated in Pilibhit, India. The most common species at Chandigarh’s Sukhna
This river covers about 900 kilometers which is about Lake was the Indian spot-billed duck with 39 sightings;
560 miles and it flows through Uttar Pradesh and joins followed by 22 jungle babbler and 18 common moorhen
the Ganges close to Saidpur, Kaithi in Ghazipur. and great cormorant each has been spotted.
This river starts at its origin and after crossing 20 The Chandigarh Bird Club conducts an annual survey
kilometers, it joins the small river and the name is of Sukhna Lake to commemorate the ‘Birdman of
Gaihaaee. India’, Dr Salim Ali, on his birth anniversary.
The feasibility study for developing Atlanta bay major

Do you Know? Harbour is under process.
The Punjab and Haryana high court has declared Sukhna There is availability of Natural break and is well
Lake a “living entity” or “legal person” with rights, duties connected by road. Also, sufficient land can be
and liabilities of a living person. reclaimed from the sea.
This transshipment hub is on the route from East &
NE India to East & SE Asia, Australia-New Zealand
The Sukhna Lake: countries.
It is a man-made Lake and was built in 1958 by Le It is also on the route, of Coal, Sand & others
Corbusier, the architect of Chandigarh. construction materials, Iron ore etc., to Bangladesh and
Located in the foothills of the Shivalik Hills, it was Myanmar.
designed to collect runoff water from the Hills.
The Lake, which is in the process of being officially 41 GULF OF GUINEA (GOG)
notified as a wetland, also has a nearby wildlife
sanctuary that is home to Sambar, pangolin, wild boars,
red jungle fowl, cobras and other species. CONTEXT: INS Sumedha is on an Extended Range
Operational Deployment and is currently operating in the
Atlantic Ocean along the West Coast of Africa.
39 ANANG TAL LAKE
During this period, INS Sumedha operated in the Gulf
Centre orders restoration of historic 1000-year-old of Guinea (GoG) undertaking a 31 days anti-piracy
patrol.
Anang Tal lake in Delhi’s Mehrauli.
The lake is situated in Mehrauli, Delhi and is claimed
Do you Know?
to be created by Tomar King, Anangpal II, in 1,060 AD.
He is known to have established and populated Delhi in It is believed that the Gulf of Guinea today accounts for
7% and 4.5% of the world’s gas and oil reserves, respec-
the 11th century.
tively.
The millennium old Anang Tal signifies the beginning
of Delhi.
About the location:
Anang Tal has a strong Rajasthan connection as
Maharaja Anangpal is known as nana (maternal It is the most north-eastern part of the tropical Atlantic
grandfather) of Prithviraj Chauhan whose fort Rai Ocean, located off the western coast of Africa.
Pithora is on the list of the ASI. It is located at 0°0’N and 0°0’E, at the intersection of
the Prime Meridian and the Equator.
The region is 3 million square kilometres, with 6,000
NORTH ANDAMAN’S kilometres of coastline.
40
ATLANTA BAY It has a relatively narrow continental shelf.
Because of the rivers that pour into it and the region’s
heavy rainfall, it has warm tropical waters with relatively
CONTEXT: The Central Government is assessing the low salinity.
feasibility of developing a Bulk Cargo trans-shipment hub The Volta and Niger Rivers are two of its primary
in Atlanta Bay near Diglipur in Andaman and Nicobar tributaries.
Islands.
This is in addition to the Rs 44,000 crore Galathea bay 42 NORD STREAM 2 PIPELINE
projects near the Southern tip of the Great Nicobar
Island.
CONTEXT: Amid tensions between Russia and Ukraine,
pressure is mounting on Germany to stop the Nord Stream
About Atlanta Bay: 2 gas pipeline project.
The Atlanta Bay has a natural draft of 19-20m, there
is availability of natural break and it is well connected
by road. What is Nord Stream 2 Pipeline Project?
Considering the strategic location and other facilities Nord Stream 2 is an underwater twin pipeline that
available, a Bulk Cargo trans-shipment hub can be would transport natural gas from Russia directly to
developed in Atlanta Bay. Germany.
At a length of it is to follow the route of the existing It would transport natural gas from Russia directly to
Nord Stream twin pipeline underneath the Baltic Sea. Germany.
1,230 kilometres, Nord Stream 2 is being built by Nord Stream 2 AG, a
It will carry 55 billion cubic meter of gas per year. consortium incorporated in Switzerland.
The pipeline crosses into the exclusive economic Moscow-based, state-owned Gazprom is the project’s
zones of five countries: Russia, Germany, Denmark, sole shareholder.
Finland, and Sweden.
located at the border between the Adriatic and Ionian

43 ADRIATIC SEA Seas.
The Adriatic Sea salinity is lower than the
Mediterranean Sea because the Adriatic collects a
CONTEXT: The Adriatic Sea is in news amid Russia- third of the fresh water flowing into the Mediterranean,
Ukraine War. acting as a dilution basin.
Major rivers discharging into the Adriatic include the
About: Soca, Krka, Po, Neretva, Bojana, Drin, and Vjose.
The Adriatic Sea is a semi-enclosed sea separating the Fishes and tourism are significant sources of income
Italian Peninsula from the Balkans. all along the Adriatic coast.
The Adriatic Sea is the northernmost arm of the
Mediterranean Sea, extending from the Strait of
Otranto to the northwest and the Po Valley.
44 BLACK SEA AND RUSSIA
In the southeast, the Adriatic Sea connects to the Ionian
Sea at the 72-km wide Strait of Otranto. CONTEXT: Recently, Russia re-joined the Black sea
The countries share boundaries with Adriatic are Grain deal which has drawn attention towards the
Albania, Montenegro, Bosnia and Herzegovina, significance and impacts of the deal on Global food supply
Croatia, Slovenia and Italy. chains where India is also looking forward for deal’s
The Adriatic contains around 1,300 islands, mostly inception.
located along the eastern coast.
Adriatic Sea is divided into three basins, the northern
being the shallowest and the southern being the deepest,
About the Black Sea Grain initiative:
with a maximum depth of 1,233 metres (4,045 ft). The deal was mediated by the United Nations (UN)
The Otranto Sill, which is an underwater ridge, is and Turkey.
Objective: To provide for a safe maritime humanitarian About

corridor for Ukrainian exports (particularly for food
grains) from three of its key ports, namely, West Java is a province of Indonesia on the western
part of the island of Java, with its provincial capital in
Chornomorsk, Bandung.
Odesa West Java is bordered by- Jakarta to the west Java Sea
Yuzhny/Pivdennyi in the Black Sea. to the north Central Java to the east Indian Ocean to
It aims to tackle rising food prices due to the the south Jakarta is congested, prone to earthquakes,
geopolitical conflict. and rapidly sinking into the Java Sea.
The tectonics and seismicity of Jakarta and adjacent
areas are highly influenced by the convergence of the
VOLCANO Australian Plate toward the Eurasian Plate.
Prone to Natural disasters: Indonesia, a vast
archipelago of more than 270 million people, is
frequently struck by earthquakes, volcanic eruptions,
45 STROMBOLI VOLCANO and tsunamis because of its location on the ‘Ring of
Fire’, an arc of volcanoes and fault lines in the Pacific
Basin.
CONTEXT: Stromboli Eruption Triggers Earthquake
and Tsunami on Italian Volcanic Island.
47 KAMCHATKA PENINSULA
About Stromboli Volcano:
CONTEXT: Two volcanoes in the ‘Kamchatka Peninsula’
The Stromboli volcano, located off the coast of Sicily,
erupted recently.
in the Tyrrhenian Sea, sits on the island of Stromboli.
Stromboli is a basaltic volcano, which is one of the
most common types on Earth. About
Stromboli is one of the four active volcanoes in Italy.
The Kamchatka Peninsula lies along the so-called
The other three are Mount Etna Mount Vesuvius Pacific “Ring of Fire.”
Vulcano Mount Stromboli has been in almost Location: It lies between the Sea of Okhotsk on the
continuous eruption for the past 90 years. west and the Pacific Ocean and the Bering Sea on the
It is nicknamed the “lighthouse of the Mediterranean” east.
because of its continually fiery peak. Kamchatka is home to 29 active volcanoes.
Strombolian Eruption: Strombolian eruptions are a The peninsula has a high density of volcanoes.
type of volcanic eruption, named after Stromboli. The most active volcanoes in Kamchatka: are
Strombolian eruptions are driven by the continuous Shiveluch, Klyuchevskaya, Bezymianny, and Karymsky.
formation of large gas bubbles within the magma. Shiveluch is one of the largest and most active volcanoes
in Kamchatka. Most of Kamchatka is tundra supporting
mosses and lichens, with thickets of Kamchatka alder.
46 WEST JAVA The area is a designated UNESCO World Heritage
Site.
Species Diversity: Snow ram, northern deer, sable and
CONTEXT: An Earthquake of magnitude 5.4 centered wolverine, salmonoid fish, sea otter, brown bear, and
has been reported in West Java province. Stellar’s sea eagle.
ISLANDS
About:
48 TRITON ISLAND Satellite images indicate the nearly 2,000-foot-long
airstrip could accommodate turboprop aircraft and
drones, raising questions about its intended purpose.
CONTEXT: China is reportedly constructing an airstrip
on Triton Island in the South China Sea, an area disputed While the exact timeline of construction remains
by Taiwan and Vietnam. unclear, satellite imagery suggests the project began
recently.
Triton Island, part of the Paracel group, has seen
previous tensions as China vies for control over the The cone has been built up by continuous volcanic
region. activity over the past 150,000 years.
China’s militarization efforts extend to the Spratly The island covers an area of around 325 hectares and
group as well, with built-up artificial islands containing this is only about 30 per cent of the volcanos mass - the
airstrips and military facilities. rest is under the sea.
The construction of the airstrip adds to concerns Even so, it is only about half the size of other cone
over China’s expansive territorial claims in the South volcanoes like Mount Ruapehu, Tongariro or
China Sea. Taranaki.
It is a tourist magnet, with its alien landscape and
spectacular hydrothermal features.
49 ISLE OF RUM
CONTEXT: The quest to explore Mars has been an

51 SOLOMON ISLANDS
ambitious and collaborative effort involving space agencies
from across the globe. CONTEXT: A recent leaked document has revealed that
the Solomon Islands in the South Pacific have reached a
deal with China which outlines an unprecedented level of
About:
security cooperation.
As part of the joint NASA and European Space Agency
(ESA) Mars Sample Return Campaign, the Isle of Rum
has been chosen as the sole UK site for rock sampling. Solomon Islands:
This selection marks a significant milestone in The Solomon Islands is part of the ethnically
mankind’s endeavour to understand the Red Planet and Melanesian group of islands in the Pacific and lies
its geological history. between Papua New Guinea and Vanuatu.
The collection of rocks from Rum holds invaluable The islands, which were initially controlled by the
clues about Mars’ past and its environmental British Empire during the colonial era, went through
conditions. the hands of Germany and Japan and then back to the
U.K., after the Americans took over the islands from the
Japanese during World War II.
The islands became independent in 1978 to become a
constitutional monarchy under the British Crown, with
a parliamentary system of government.
Nevertheless, its inability to manage domestic ethnic
conflicts led to close security relations with Australia,
which is the traditional first responder to any crisis in
the South Pacific.
The Solomon Islands had cultivated strong ties with
Taiwan, which ended with the emergence of the current
government in Honiara.
50 WHAKAARI WHITE ISLAND 52 TUSCAN ARCHIPELAGO
CONTEXT: Scientifically and emotively, we think every CONTEXT: In the Tuscan Archipelago, the seagrass
volcano has its own “personality”. However, volcanoes meadows capture carbon up to 35 times faster than tropical
share behaviour traits — and this could form the basis for rainforests.
an eruption warning system.
About Tuscan Archipelago Location:

About Whakaari Island:
The Tuscan Archipelago is a chain of islands between
Whakaari/White Island is currently New Zealand’s
the Ligurian Sea and the Tyrrhenian Sea, west of
most active cone volcano.
Tuscany.
It is located in the Bay of Plenty sitting 48 kilometres
It contains seven major islands.
offshore.
Origin: The origin of the archipelago dates to the

Triassic period. 54 GALAPAGOS ISLANDS
Climate: Mediterranean climate with high insolation
all year round.
CONTEXT: The Galapagos Islands are estimated to be
The archipelago is characterized by a Mediterranean
worth $800 million if one goes by the size of the recent
climate with high insolation all year round.
“debt for nature” swap deal of Ecuador.
The Tuscan Archipelago had deep connections with the
Ancient Greeks. Archaeologists have found remnants
of Greek terra-cotta wine jars on its seafloor. About
Galapagos Islands It is a volcanic archipelago in the
KATCHAL ISLAND IN THE Pacific Ocean.
53 Discovered in 1535 by the bishop of Panama, Tomás
NICOBARS de Berlanga.
Formed of lava piles, it consists of 13 major islands.
CONTEXT: The United States National Aeronautics and Only five of the islands have human populations.
Space Administration (NASA) recently highlighted the Administratively a province of Ecuador.
loss of mangrove cover on Katchal Island, a part of India’s In 1978 the islands were designated a UNESCO World
Nicobar archipelago. Heritage site
A visit to the Galapagos Islands in 1835 helped Charles
Darwin formulate his theory of evolution by natural
Katchal Island selection.
The Island of Katchal, was earlier referred to as Humboldt Current, Panama Flow, and Cromwell
‘Tihnyu’ in the local language. Current influence the Galapagos marine life.
Katchal is home to both indigenous and non-indigenous
people and comprises of the Nicobarese Tribes, which
are the original inhabitants along with migrated 55 SNAKE ISLAND
Tamilians, who joined towards the end of the British
rule.
CONTEXT: Ukraine has mentioned that it experienced
A special permission is required to visit to the Island “significant losses” to the Russian military in airstrikes on
and is not open to tourists or outsiders without the Zmiinyi Island, also known as Snake Island, in the Black
permission and supervision of the local administration. Sea.
The Katchal Island is the largest Island among all the
other Nicobar Islands and was comprised of 35 villages
prior to the Tsunami. About Zmiinyi Island:
The highest peak within the Island of Katchal is around Zmiinyi Island is also known as Snake or Serpent
835 feet high. Island.
There are about 5 different languages spoken within It is a small piece of rock less than 700 metres from end
this Island, including Tamil, Telugu, Nicobari, Hindi to end, that has been described as being “X-shaped”.
and Santhali. It is located 35 km from the coast in the Black Sea,
The Government of India has declared the Nicobar to the east of the mouth of the Danube and roughly
Islands to be an Aboriginal Tribal Reserve Area, to southwest of the port city of Odessa.
protect the tribes and natives from any kind of outside
exploitation or over modernization of the zone, Black Sea:
restricting even tourists without permission. The Black Sea is one of the marginal seas of the
The small and large hills of the Katchal Island are made Atlantic and the ocean’s 13th largest sea.
of Calcareous Sandstone and marble slates and in the It is bordered by;
beautiful tropical forest of Katchal one will find lots of Ukraine to the north
Pythons, Black Monkeys and Pigs.
Russia to the northeast
The main source of earning and the base of their Georgia to the east
economy used to lie only in the trade of Coconut,
Turkey to the south
Betelnut or Arecanut product and bi-products, especially
for the natives and village dwellers. Bulgaria and Romania to Northwest
What is an Isthmus?
An isthmus is a narrow strip of land that connects two
larger landmasses and is bordered by water on two
sides.
It can be a natural formation or an artificial land
bridge.
About the location:

The Kra Isthmus is a narrow strip of land in Thailand
that connects the Malay Peninsula to the mainland of
Asia.
The Kra Isthmus is located in southern Thailand,
separating the Gulf of Thailand to the east from the
Andaman Sea to the west.
Kra Canal:
The island, which has been known since ancient times There have been longstanding discussions and proposals
and is marked on the map by the tiny village of Bile that to construct a canal across the Kra Isthmus, known as
is located on it, belongs to Ukraine. the Kra Canal.
The idea of constructing a canal across the Kra Isthmus
has been discussed for centuries, dating back to the
56 KRA ISTHMUS Ayutthaya Kingdom in the 17th century.
This project would involve building an artificial
CONTEXT: Recently, the initial idea was of a 90-km waterway that would link the Gulf of Thailand with
canal joining the Andaman Sea and Gulf of Thailand has the Andaman Sea.
been backed by China. The canal would potentially revolutionize maritime
trade routes in the region.
OTHERS
Muslims, Christians and Jews and is a flashpoint for
57 WEST BANK internecine violence.
Israel captured the West Bank, which measures 5,628
square kilometres, in what is known as the ‘Six-Day
CONTEXT: Amid the backdrop of the war between War’ in 1967 when it fought and defeated Egypt, Syria,
Israel and Hamas, tensions are rising in the West Bank. and Jordan.
About 58 MURMANSK PORT

The West
Bank is land
CONTEXT: India’s engagement with Russia’s Arctic
to Israel’s
region has been strengthening with India-bound goods
east.
constituting the maximum share of cargo handled this year
It lies on the by ‘Murmansk Port’.
West Bank
of the River
Jordan – About the location:
hence its
The seaport of Murmansk is one of the largest ice-free
name – and is
ports in Russia.
bordered by
Israel to its It is located on the Kola Peninsula at the coast of
north, west Barents Sea.
and south. It is about 2,000 km northwest of Moscow.
It borders Jerusalem – which houses sites sacred to The port is navigated all year round.
The main port capabilities are located on the western

coast of Kola Bay, among them the mooring berths of International North-South Transport
the commercial port (including passenger area), fishing Corridor:
port, ship-repair yard, shipyard, oil terminal, and FSUE
INSTC trade route is 7200 Km long and the transport
Atomflot premises.
of freight is through a multi-mode network of roads,
ships, and railways.
This route connects India and Russia through Iran
and Azerbaijan.
Russia, India, and Iran are the founding member
states of INSTC.
The agreement was signed in 2002.
There are 13 member states of the INSTC project
– India, Iran, Russia, Azerbaijan, Armenia,
Kazakhstan, Belarus, Tajikistan, Kyrgystan,
Oman, Turkey, Syria and Ukraine.
Bulgaria is the Observer State. The Baltic countries
On the eastern coast of Kola Bay there is a number of
like Latvia and Estonia have also expressed
small fish and fleet maintenance terminals.
willingness to join the INSTC.
59 CHABAHAR PORT
60 PALAU
CONTEXT: Under the new move to pursue arbitration,
India and Iran has drafted a foreign arbitration clause under CONTEXT: The U.S. Coast Guard will have an
rules framed by the UN Commission on International expanded right to board vessels in Palau’s waters under
Trade Law which will help firm up longer-term agreement a new maritime law enforcement agreement that comes
on Chabahar. after incursions by Chinese ships into the Pacific island
country’s exclusive economic zone.
About Chabahar Port:
The Chabahar Port is a key pillar of India’s India- About Palau Island:
Pacific visionto connect Eurasia with the Indian Ocean
Region. Palau is a country in the western Pacific Ocean that
consists of coral and volcanic islands surrounded by
Located in Iran, it is the commercial transit center for
single barrier reef.
the region and especially Central Asia.
Palau lies in the southwest corner of Micronesia
The portwill also be part International North-South
(country spread across the western Pacific Ocean
Transport Corridor network connecting India.
comprising more than 600 islands), with New Guinea
Notably, the first rail transit cargo from Russia to to the south, and the Philippines to the west.
Indiaentered Iran recently through the Sarakhs border
crossing, marking the official launch of the eastern
section of the North-South railway corridor.
This is in addition to the Rs 44,000 crore Galathea bay

Palau became the 76th country to sign the International
projects near the Southern tip of the Great Nicobar
Solar Alliance framework agreement.
Island.
Its major populated islands are Babelthuap (Babeldaob),
Koror, Malakal, Arakabesan, and Peleliu. About Atlanta Bay:
There is concern that the low-lying islands could The Atlanta Bay has a natural draft of 19-20m, there
be badly affected by rising sea levels possibly due to
is availability of natural break and it is well connected
climate change.
by road.
Considering the strategic location and other facilities
61 GABON available, a Bulk Cargo trans-shipment hub can be
developed in Atlanta Bay.
The feasibility study for developing Atlanta bay major
CONTEXT: Recently, Military officers in Gabon have
seized power, placing President Ali Bongo under house Harbour is under process.
arrest after he was declared the winner of a disputed There is availability of Natural break and is well
election. connected by road. Also, sufficient land can be
reclaimed from the sea.
About the location: This trans-shipment hub is on the route from East &
Gabon is a central African country, is rich in natural NE India to East & SE Asia, Australia-New Zealand
resources. countries.
Located on the Atlantic Ocean, it borders Cameroon, It is also on the route, of Coal, Sand & others
Equatorial Guinea, and the Republic of Congo. construction materials, Iron ore etc., to Bangladesh
It is sparsely populated, with a population of 2.3 million and Myanmar.
(2021) and forests covering 85% of its territory.
Gabon, the fourth largest oil producer in Sub-Saharan
Africa, posted strong economic growth over the past 63 TURKMENISTAN
decade, driven mainly by oil and manganese production.
CONTEXT: At the invitation of President of

Turkmenistan, the President of the Republic of India, Shri
Ram Nath Kovind paid a State visit to Turkmenistan on
1-4 April 2022.
This visit is significant as it is the first-ever visit by an

Indian President to Turkmenistan.
About Turkmenistan:
Turkmenistan, one of the former USSR’s Republics,
was proclaimed an independent State on 27 October
Key Facts: 1991.
India is now the second-largest destination for It shares borders with Kazakhstan in the north,
Gabonese exports. Uzbekistan in the north and northeast, Iran in the
Over 50 Indian companies have set up manufacturing South, and Afghanistan in the Southeast.
units in the Gabon Special Economic Zone.
It has an area of 488,100 square km and stretches 650
km from north to south and 1,100 km from east to
NORTH ANDAMAN’S west.
62 The main river of Turkmenistan is the ‘Amu Darya’,
ATLANTA BAY
which enters the country from Afghanistan and
flows along the north eastern borders before it enters
CONTEXT: The Central Government is assessing the Uzbekistan.
feasibility of developing a Bulk Cargo trans-shipment hub The Karakum canal carries the waters of Amu Darya
in Atlanta Bay near Diglipur in Andaman and Nicobar across the desert from the East to the West and is the
Islands.
main source of drinking water and irrigation.
64 ISTANBUL 66 PALESTINE AND ISRAEL
CONTEXT: A deadly bombing in Istanbul has killed at CONTEXT: India, at the UN Security Council open
least eight and many injured. debate on the Middle East, has reiterated its firm and
unwavering commitment to the peaceful resolution of
the Palestine issue and supported a negotiated two-state
About solution.
Istanbul, formerly known as Constantinople, is the

largest city in Turkey. Where is the West Bank?
The city was founded as Byzantium in the 7th century
It is a landlocked territory near the Mediterranean coast
BCE by Greek settlers from Megara.
of Western Asia, bordered by Jordan to the east and by
Location- South of Istanbul lays the Marmara Sea the Green Line separating it and Israel on the south, west
North- Black Sea Western part of the city is in Europe and north. The West Bank also contains a significant
Eastern part is in Asia. section of the western Dead Sea shore.
The vital watercourse that divides Istanbul is the
Bosphorus.
SAUDI ARAMCO FINDS

65 NEW GAS FIELDS IN FOUR
REGIONS
CONTEXT: Saudi Aramco (Saudi Arabian Oil Company)

has discovered several new natural gas fields.
The new gas fields:

Central region - Shadoon
Southeastern region - Shehab and Shurfa
Northern border with Iraq - Umm Khansar
Eastern region – Samna
Two of the gas fields, Samna and Umm Khansar, are
“non-conventional”.
Non-conventional deposits, also known as shale, are
usually trapped in tight pore spaces, requiring special CENTRAL ASIA AND
67
extraction techniques. RUSSIA
Shale gas:
CONTEXT: Central Asia and Russia was in News amid
Shale gas refers to natural gas that is trapped within Russia-Ukraine War since for a year now.
shale formations.
Shales are fine-grained sedimentary rocks that can
be rich resources of petroleum and natural gas. About Central Asia:
Sedimentary rocks are rocks formed by the Central Asia consists of five Republics which emerged
accumulation of sediments at the Earth's surface as independent entities as a consequence of the Soviet
and within bodies of water. disintegration in 1991.
Common sedimentary rocks include sandstone, These five states include Republic of Kazakhstan,
limestone, and shale Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan and
Uzbekistan. However, some people include region and a marine eco-region called the South China
Afghanistan, Mongolia, and Tibet and Xinjiang Sea Oceanic Islands.
provinces of China due to the geographical continuity The largest islands in Southeast Asia are New Guinea,
and ethnic or cultural affinities. which is shared by Indonesia and Papua New Guinea;
These countries are transition economies and are going and Borneo, shared by Malaysia, Indonesia, and
through difficult process of liberalisation and Brunei.
Privatisation. Sumatra, Sulawesi, Java, Sumbawa, and Flores are
A strong Presidency with weak legislature and judiciary the largest islands of Indonesia. Luzon and Mindanao
dominates the political system of all these countries. are the largest islands of the Philippines.
Democracy is yet to take roots and the region is Other major Filipino islands are Negros, Samar,
grappling with the problem of national identities. Palawan, Panay, and Mindoro.
The region holds importance geo strategically due to
its location but such an energy rich area lacks direct
Access to sea, making it vulnerable for intimidation by NORTHERN SEA ROUTE
69
the neighbours. (NSR)
SOUTH-EAST ASIAN AND CONTEXT: As per recent information, Murmansk,

68
ISLAND COUNTRIES popularly called the capital of the Arctic region and the
beginning point of the Northern Sea Route (NSR), is
witnessing the rising trend of Indian involvement in cargo
CONTEXT: The South China Sea is an important traffic. India has been showing greater interest regarding
economic and strategic sub-region of the Indo-Pacific the NSR for a variety of reasons.
because it serves as a vital commercial gateway for a large
portion of the world’s merchant shipping.
What is Northern Sea Route (NSR)?
The South-east Asian countries: The Northern Sea Route (NSR) is the shortest shipping
route for freight transportation between Europe and
The South China Sea Islands are made up of more than
countries of the Asia-Pacific region.
250 islands, atolls, cays, shoals, reefs, and seamounts.
It straddles four seas of the Arctic Ocean.
The islands are mostly low and small, with few people
living on them. The countries bordering the South Running to 5,600 km, the Route begins at the boundary
China Sea have overlapping territorial claims to the between the Barents and the Kara seas (Kara Strait)
islands and surrounding seas. and ends in the Bering Strait.
CHENNAI-VLADIVOSTOK
70
SEA ROUTE
CONTEXT: India and Russia have scheduled a

stakeholder meeting in September to work out the details
for operationalising the Chennai-Vladivostok maritime
route.
About the route

The Chennai-Vladivostok Maritime route connects
Chennai on India’s east coast with Vladivostok,
Russia’s eastern port city, opening a plethora of
opportunities for trade and investment for both
countries.
Vladivostok is the end point of the Trans-Siberian
The South China Sea Islands are divided into two eco- Railway, the fourth in terms of cargo turnover, and the
regions: a tropical moist broadleaf forest terrestrial eco- first free seaport of the Far East.
The Vladivostok-Chennai route passes through the Sea Countries maritime Borders in South China
of Japan past the Korean peninsula, Taiwan and the
Sea:
Philippines in the South China Sea, past Singapore and
through the Strait of Malacca, to emerge into the Bay Several countries are bordering the South China
of Bengal and then cuts across through the Andaman Sea: Peninsular Malaysia, Thailand (via the Gulf of
and Nicobar archipelago to Chennai. Thailand), Philippines, Singapore, East Malaysia,
This sea route covers a distance of approximately 5,647 Brunei, Indonesia, Vietnam, China, and Taiwan.
nautical miles or about 10,500 km.
Present route LITHIUM DISCOVERY IN

72
At present, the two countries are linked through the
JAMMU & KASHMIR
traditional European route which passes through
Red Sea, Mediterranean Sea and Baltic Sea.
CONTEXT: Geological Survey of India for the first time
Operationalised in 2000, the circuitous route spans established Lithium inferred resources (G3) of 5.9 million
from the Nhava Sheva Port in Mumbai to the Port of tonnes in the Salal-Haimana area of the Reasi district of
St. Petersburg in Russia and goods take an average Jammu and Kashmir.
of 40 days to cover the distance of 8,675 nautical
miles or about 16,000 km.
Lithium Triangle:
Lithium Triangle is an intersection of Chile, Bolivia
and Argentina, known for high quality salt flats.
Salar de Uyuni in Bolivia, Salar de Atacama in Chile
and Salar de Arizaro in Argentina contains over
45%of known global lithium reserves.
Beneath Salar de Uyuni, the world’s largest salt flat
lays the world’s greatest lithium deposits.
71 CHINA’S ‘NINE-DASH LINE’
CONTEXT: Recently, the Chinese government said it has

“overlapping claims” with Vietnam over maritime rights
in parts of the East Sea, Indonesia showed the concerns
and rejected China’s offer for any negotiations and said
that Jakarta’s economic interests are threatened by China’s
Nine-Dash Line.
About Nine Dash Line
The dash lines mean the ocean, islands and reefs all belong to 73 GUREZ VALLEY
China and that China has sovereign rights.
The “nine-dash line” can be understood as Beijing’s

claim that encircles as much as 90 per cent of the
CONTEXT: The Gurez valley in north Kashmir, which
contested waters. was once inaccessible to civilians due to frequent shelling
from Pakistan, is now set to connect with the Mushkoh
The line runs as far as 2,000km from the Chinese
valley in Kargil’s Drass Sector, Ladakh, where India and
mainland to within a few hundred kilometres of the
Pakistan battled in 1999.
Philippines, Malaysia and Vietnam.
About
Situated near the Line of Control (LoC), the Gurez 75 SRIHARIKOTA
valley is bordered by the Kishanganga river, which
serves as a demarcation line in several areas.
CONTEXT: India’s third lunar, the Chandrayaan-3,
Gurez valley stands out in Kashmir as one of the few took off from the Satish Dhawan Space Center (SDSC) in
habitations where villages consist solely of log houses Sriharikota — a spindle-shaped island on the east coast of
without any urban concrete materials. It is also a habitat Andhra Pradesh.
for ibex, musk deer, and marmots.
At an average altitude of 8,000 feet (2,400 meters), the
valley is surrounded by snow-capped mountains. It has About the location:
diverse fauna and wildlife including the Himalayan
Sriharikota is a barrier island off the Bay of Bengal
brown bear and the snow leopard
coast located in the Shar Project settlement of Tirupati
Nanga Parbat (the ninth highest mountain in the world, district in Andhra Pradesh, India.
and actually situated in Pakistan), the pyramidal Habba
It houses the Satish Dhawan Space Centre, one of
Khatoon and other snow-capped mountains that loom
the two satellite launch centres in India (the other
over this valley, as well as the Kishengnga River that
runs through it, are a sight to behold. being Thumba Equatorial Rocket Launching Station,
Thiruvananthapuram).
During the Kargil war, most villagers were forced to
leave the Gurez valley. However, the situation has now Sriharikota separates the Pulicat Lake from the Bay of
become peaceful. Bengal and is where the town of Pulicat is located.
Reasons to choose the location:

74 NYOMA
There are two primary reasons for selecting Sriharikota as
the launch site.
CONTEXT: Indian government laid the foundation for One, it is on the east coast which facilitates the
an airfield in Nyoma – a strategically important location launching of the rockets in an easterly direction.
in eastern Ladakh. Two, its proximity to the equator.
By launching a rocket eastwards, one can take advantage
About of Earth’s rotation.
For a launch site close to equator the magnitude of
Nyoma is a small village located in the south of the
the velocity imparted due to Earth’s rotation is about
Union Territory of Ladakh in India. It is located 150
450 m/s, which can lead to substantial increase in the
km from Leh on the bank of the Indus River at an
payload for a given launch vehicle.
elevation of 4,180m (13710 ft).
Since 2010, domestic tourists with Inner-Line-Permits
and foreigners with Protected-area-permit are permitted 76 SIRI FORT
to visit Nyoma village and the monastery.
The Nyoma village lies on the Leh-Loma-Hanle road,
41 km southeast of Chumathang and 87 km south of CONTEXT: A tomb-like structure was discovered in the
Chushul. Siri Fort area by the Archaeological Survey of India (ASI).
The Indus river flows through a wide gorge in a
southwestern direction after entering Ladakh.
About the site:
The higher plains of the Chushul valley block the Indus
river, and it takes a 90-degree bend at Dungti. Nyoma is Siri Fort was built in the 13th Century by Alauddin
situated 33 km west of this 90-degree bend on the right Khilji, considered to be the most powerful ruler of the
bank of the Indus river, and it is joined with the closeby Khilji dynasty (Delhi sultanate).
village of Mood. It was used as a garrison town where his army used to
Some major villages located nearby Nyoma are Loma reside.
and Mahe. Hanle, the largest town in southern Ladakh, Hauz Khas village in Delhi was an extension of the
is situated 80 km to the southeast of Nyoma village. fort, which was designed to meet the water needs of
The Nyoma tehsil and subdivision includes the Indus the army.
valley of Skakjung, the Rupshu plains, and the Hanle The fort is currently in ruins and the only structure that
valley covering the entire southern Ladakh. remains is its boundary walls.
The Tomb architecture during Delhi The primary objective of the CNG terminal will be
to develop CNG receiving infrastructure facilities for
sultanate:
India through Gujarat coast.
Since the Delhi sultanate had a significant influence on the The state-run GMB will continue to operate the berths
capital of Delhi: on the south side of the port.
Indo-Islamic Fusion: The art and architecture of Delhi CNG is natural gas compressed under pressure so that
Sultanate also represented a fusion of Islamic and more of it occupies lesser volume in the fuel tank.
Indian styles. It is a fuel gas mainly composed of methane (CH4).
This is evident in Hindu motifs such as lotus and bell- CNG is compressed to a pressure of 200 to 250 kg/
shaped domes in Islamic buildings. cm2. In this compressed form, it occupies less than 1
For example, the Qutub Minar features intricate percent of its volume at atmospheric pressure.
carvings of Hindu deities, along with Arabic
inscriptions.
Use of Red Sandstone: The Delhi Sultanate rulers ASURGARH IS ODISHA’S
extensively used locally available materials such as red 79 OLDEST FORTIFIED
sandstone, which was abundant in the region.
SETTLEMENT
77 MODHERA VILLAGE The Asurgarh fortified settlement, which was excavated
by the Archaeological Survey of India (ASI) in
Modhera has become India’s first village to become a Odisha’s Kalahandi district, has been ascertained to be
net renewable energy generator. the oldest among the major fortified settlements in the
State.
It will be the first modern village to have a solar-based
ultra-modern electric vehicle charging station. It dates back to the ninth century BC.
It is India’s first grid-connected megawatt-hours The landscape of Asurgarh attracted iron using people
(MWh) scale battery energy storage system. to begin their settlement around the eighth-ninth
century BC.
People in Modhera would be saving 60% to 100 % on
electricity bills. The excavation revealed three periods of human
occupation without any hiatus.
Modhera was well known for the Sun temple, now it
will also be known as a solar-powered village. This place was once inhabited by urbanised and civilised
people of 500 BC to 500 AD and served as a political
The heritage lighting and 3-D projection at the Sun
and cultural hub.
Temple would operate on solar energy.
It has four entrances in each direction and each entrance
The 3-D projection will inform visitors about the history
enshrines a different deity.
of Modhera.
The east entrance is presided by Goddess Ganga,
whereas the west entrance is ruled by Kala Pahad.
WORLD’S FIRST CNG The Vaishnavi image is installed in the south and Lord
Budharaja is worshipped in the north direction.
78 (COMPRESSED NATURAL
The fort’s presiding deity is Goddess Dokari or Old
GAS) TERMINAL Lady who is enshrined inside the fort.
The Prime Minister has laid the foundation stone for

the “world’s first CNG (Compressed Natural Gas) WORLD’S HIGHEST
terminal” at Bhavnagar in Gujarat.
80 TUNNEL AT SHINKU LA
It will be “world’s first CNG (Compressed Natural Gas)
terminal along with the world’s fourth largest lock gate PASS
system.
The world’s highest tunnel will be constructed by the
The CNG project is a part of an ambitious mega project
Border Roads Organisation (BRO) at Shinku La Pass
of brownfield expansion of Bhavnagar port.
at 16,580 feet. This tunnel will connect Himachal
The port will be built under the BOOT (Build, Own, Pradesh to Ladakh.
Operate and Transfer) policy of the state government.
The construction of this tunnel by the Border Roads
The proposed development of a brownfield port Organisation (BRO) will begin by July 2022. By
terminal is planned in the northern part of existing the year 2025, the construction of this tunnel will be
Bhavnagar port in Gujarat. completed.
This tunnel will connect Ladakh’s Zanskar Valley to Charaideo, more than 400 km east of Guwahati, was
Himachal Pradesh. the first capital of the Ahom dynastyfounded by Chao
Project Yojak has been set up by the central government Lung Siu-Ka-Pha in 1253.
to execute this ambitious project. The country is celebrating the 400th birth anniversary
The tunnel’s south portal will be at Shinku La. of Lachit Barphukan,a legendary Ahom general whose
The tunnel’s north portal will be at Lakhang. battle against the Mughals in 1671.
Shinku-La Tunnel, also known as Shinkula Tunnel
or Shingo-La Tunnel, is a planned motorable tunnel
linking Himachal Pradesh’s Lahaul Valley and
SANTINIKETAN INSCRIBED
Ladakh’s Zanskar Valley in Northern India. 83 ON UNESCO WORLD
HERITAGE LIST
81 KONARK SUN TEMPLE
CONTEXT: Santiniketan, founded in 1901 by the iconic
Konark is going to be the first model town in Odisha
poet and philosopher Rabindranath Tagore, has earned a
to shift from grid dependency to green energy. The
coveted spot on the UNESCO World Heritage List.
Odisha government has planned to run the Sun Temple
completely on solar energy.
The Sun Temple built in the thirteenth century was About
conceived as a gigantic chariot of Sun God, with
twelve pairs of exquisitely ornamented wheels pulled Santiniketan Ashram was originally founded by
by seven pairs of horses at Konark on the coastline of Maharshi Devendranath Tagore (Rabindranath’s
Odisha, India. father) in 1863.
“Konarka”, the place bears a name composed of two
World elements: Kona meaning corner and ARKA This is India’s 41st World Heritage site and India stands
meaning the Sun. 6th on the World Heritage List.
The Sun god worshiped in Ark Kshetra is also called Later on Rabindranath himself founded the Brahmo
Konark. Vidyalaya school and later on in the year 1901 he
The temple is attributed to king Narasimhadeva I of the established Santiniketan.
Eastern Ganga Dynasty about 1250 CE. Shantiniketan was founded on the principles of the
It is dedicated to the Hindu Sun God Surya. ancient Indian Gurukul system, where education
This temple was called the “Black Pagoda” in European was provided in a natural setting, fostering a strong
sailor accounts. connection between students and their environment.
It forms part of the golden triangle of Odisha, along In 1913, Rabindranath Tagore won the Nobel Prize in
with Puri and Bhubaneswar, and attracts tourists, Literature.
pilgrims, and history and art lovers.
In 1921, Rabindranath Tagore founded Visva Bharati.
It was declared a UNESCO world heritage site in 1984.
Visva-Bharati Universitywas later expanded to
The alignment of the Sun Temple is in the east-west
include a wide range of disciplines, including arts,
direction.
sciences, and humanities.
It became a Central University and an Institution
AHOM BURIAL SITES IN of National Importance in 1951, and is now one
82 of the most prestigious universities in India.
ASSAM
CONTEXT: The Centre has decided to nominate Assam’s

84 SHIKHARJI JAIN TEMPLE
Charaideo Maidams, the Ahom equivalent of the ancient
Egyptian pyramids for the UNESCO World Heritage list.
CONTEXT: After the Central government assured
members of the Jain community that the sanctity of
About Assam’s Charaideo Maidams: their holy place, Sammed Shikharji on Parasnath hills in
Jharkhand would conserve, the members of the Santhal
They belong to the late medieval (13th-19th century tribe in the State have staked claim to the hill as their
CE), built under the mound burial traditionof the Tai
Marang Buru (hill deity).
Ahom community in Assam.
About
PYQ (2022)
he Shikharji Jain Temple is of great importance for
people following Jainism. Moreover, Ashtapada, Girnar, 1. Consider the following pairs: (2022)
Dilwara Temples of Mount Abu and Shatrunjaya along
Region often mentioned
with Shikharji Temple is considered the ‘Pancha Tirth’
in the news: Country
for people belonging to Svetamabara.
It is said to be the place where twenty of the twenty-
1. Anatolia Turkey
four Tirthankaras in the Jain religion left their physical 2. Amhara Ethiopia
bodies. 3. Cabo Delgado Spain
They finally achieved Moksha, the independence from 4. Catalonia Italy
the cycle of life and death, here. How many pairs given above are correctly
Modern history states that the Shikharji Jain Temple matched?
was built by Vastupala and Visaladeva. Both of them (a) Only one pair (b) Only two pairs
were reputed officers in the King’s court at that time.
(c) Only three pairs (d) All four pairs
The temple is simply full of ancient idols, statues and
inscriptions which are dated even earlier than the Correct Answer: (b)
14th century. The current structure of the temple was
designed and constructed by Jagat Seth in the year 1768
CE. PYQ (2022)
At the same time, the Sanskrit texts and inscriptions,
mentioned at the bottom of every image, were written 2. Which one of the lakes of West Africa has become
dry and turned into a desert?
in 1678.
(a) Lake Victoria (b) Lake Faguibine
DATTA PEETHA- (c) Lake Oguta (d) Lake Volta

85 Correct Answer: (b)
CHIKMAGALUR SHRINE
CONTEXT: Karnataka High Court permitted Datta PYQ (2022)

Jayanti celebrations at the disputed Datta Peetha shrine.
3. Gandikota canyon of South India was created by
which one of the following rivers?
About (a) Cauvery (b) Manjira
Location: Bababudangiri Hills/ Datta Peetha (c) Pennar (d) Tungabhadra
(Karnataka)
Correct Answer: (c)
Also known as Sri Dattatreya Bababudan Swamy
Peetha-Dargah.
The cave shrine’s name highlights its syncretic identity. PYQ (2022)
Here Muslim and Hindu devotees have long paid
obeisance with syncretic rituals. 4. Consider the following pairs:
Guru Dattatreya: Believed to be an incarnation of Peak Mountains
Shiva, Vishnu, and Brahma as one being.
1. Namcha Barwa Garhwal Himalaya
Baba Budan: the 16th-century Sufi saint who is believed
to have introduced the coffee plant to India. Dada 2. Nanda Devi Kumaon Himalaya
Hayat, an 11th-century Sufi saint made this cave his 3. Nokrek Sikkim Himalaya
abode.
Which of the pairs given above is/are correctly
The history of the shrine was published in the Mysore matched?
Gazette in 1930.
(a) 1 and 2 (b) 2 only
Shrine was deemed a “major Muzarai temple” under
the Mysore Religious and Charitable Institutions Act, (c) 1 and 3 (d) 3 only
of 1927. The report filed in 1989 codified the existing Correct Answer: (b)
syncretic practices.
general, serves as the formal head of Solomon

PYQ (2018) Islands.
5. In which one of the following States is Pakhui 3. The Solomon Islands has recently established a
Wildlife Sanctuary located? security agreement with United States of America
(USA).
(a) Arunachal Pradesh
Which of the above statements are incorrect?
(b) Manipur
(a) 1 and 2 only (b) 2 and 3 only
(c) Meghalaya
(d) Nagaland (c) 1 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3
4. Consider the following statements in relation to
Correct Answer: (a)
the ‘Orkney Island’, which has recently been in the
news:
1. Orkney Islands have proposed its intent to split
PRACTICE QUESTIONS from the UK and become a self-governing territory
of Norway.
1. Which of the following statements is/are incorrect?
2. The Island is situated on the North-Eastern coast
1. Minicoy Island is the largest of the Lakshadweep of Norway.
group.
3. It is an archipelago of nearly 70 islands, of which
2. Pamban Island is a rocky island and represents the only 20 are inhabited.
extension of the peninsular landmass.
4. It was under Norwegian and Danish rule until
Select the correct answer using the codes given the late 15th century, after which it came under
below: Scotland.
(a) 1 only (b) 2 only How many of the above statements is/are correct?
(c) Both 1 and 2 (d) Neither 1 nor 2 (a) Only one (b) Only two
(c) Only three (d) All four
Statement-I 5. Consider the following statements regarding Tonga
Pitti Island is an uninhabited coral islet in the Union Island:
Territory of Lakshadweep. 1. The island located in the South Pacific Ocean.
Statement-II 2. The island is situated near the Tonga Trench, the
It has been declared a Bird Sanctuary under the third-deepest oceanic trench in the world.
Wildlife Protection Act, 1972. 3. This island is located along the Pacific Ring of
Which of the following is correct with regard to the Fire.
above statements? How many of the above statements is/are correct?
(a) Both Statement-I and Statement-II are correct (a) Only one (b) Only two
and Statement-II is the correct explanation for
Statement-I
6. Which geographical region is located to the west of
(b) Both Statement-I and Statement-II are correct the Jordan River in the Middle East?
Statement-I (a) Sinai Peninsula (b) Gaza Strip
(c) Statement-I is incorrect but Statement-II is correct (c) West Bank (d) Golan Heights
7. In which geographical region is the Yellow Sea
located?
(a) Between North Korea and China
1. Solomon Islands is a nation in Polynesia, a sub-
(b) Between Australia and China
region of Oceania in the southwestern Pacific
Ocean. (c) Between Australia and Indonesia
2. The British monarch, represented by a governor- (d) None of these
8. Which river flows through Gurez Valley, making it 1. It connects the eastern and western parts of the
a prominent geographical feature of the region? Arctic Ocean.
(a) Indus River 2. It runs along the Russian Arctic coast from Kara
Gates strait between the Barents Sea and the Kara
(b) Jhelum River Sea, along Siberia, to the Bering Strait.
(c) Kishanganga River 3. The navigation distance via the Northern Sea Route
(d) Sutlej River (NSR) from a Northwest-European port to the Far
East is approximately 60% longer compared to the
9. Nyoma, recently mentioned in news, lies on the route via the Suez Canal.
bank of which river and is situated in proximity to
which major town in southern Ladakh? How many of the statements given above are correct?
(a) Zanskar River; Chumathang (a) Only one (b) Only two
(b) Brahmaputra River; Leh
(c) Yamuna River; Hanle ANSWERS
(d) Indus River; Hanle
1. (d) 2. (b) 3. (c) 4. (c) 5. (b)
10. With reference to the Northern Sea Route (NSR),
often mentioned in news, consider the following 6. (c) 7. (a) 8. (c) 9. (d) 10. (b)
statements:

TEST NO. & DATE SUBJECT TEST NO. & DATE SUBJECT
TEST: 01 17 MARCH, 2024 PAPER 1 (GS) TEST: 11 21 April, 2024 PAPER 1 (GS)
PAPER 2 PAPER 2
TEST: 02 17 MARCH, 2024 TEST: 12 21 April, 2024
(CSAT) (CSAT)
PAPER 2 PAPER 2
(CSAT) (CSAT)
PAPER 2 PAPER 2
(CSAT) (CSAT)
TEST: 07 07 APRIL, 2024 PAPER 1 (GS) TEST: 17 01 MAY, 2024 PAPER 1 (GS)
PAPER 2 PAPER 2
TEST: 08 07 APRIL, 2024 TEST: 18 01 MAY, 2024
(CSAT) (CSAT)
TEST: 09 14 APRIL, 2024 PAPER 1 (GS) TEST: 19 05 MAY, 2024 PAPER 1 (GS)
PAPER 2 PAPER 2
TEST: 10 14 APRIL, 2024 TEST: 20 05 MAY, 2024
(CSAT) (CSAT)
CHAPTER 06
MISCELLANEOUS
dependent. These are lithium cobalt, nickel, vanadium,

CENTRE IDENTIFIED 30 niobium, germanium, rhenium, beryllium, tantalum,
1 and strontium.
CRITICAL MINERALS
MINERAL MAJOR APPLICATION
CONTEXT: The Centre recently released a list of ‘30 Lithium Rechargeable batteries, ceramics
critical minerals’ that it considers essential for economic
development and national security of the country. Cobalt Rechargeable batteries and superalloy
Nickel Stainless steel, superalloys,
What is a Critical Mineral? rechargeable batteries
A mineral is labelled as critical when the risk of supply
Vanadium Alloying agent for iron and steel,
shortage and associated impact on the economy is
batteries
(relatively) higher than the other raw materials.
Put simply, the report defines critical minerals as “those Niobium Steel and superalloys, construction,
minerals which are essential for economic development transportation
and national security, the lack of availability of these
Germanium Fiber optics and nigh vision
minerals or even concentration of existence, extraction
applications
or processing of these minerals in few geographical
locations may lead to supply chain vulnerability and Rhenium Superalloys, aerospace and machinery
disruption”. use
What are the selected elements? Beryllium Alloying agent in aerospace and
machinery use
The elements/minerals selected as critical have either
high economic importance, high supply risk, or have Tantalum Electronic components, mostly
both parameters high. capacitors and in superalloys
A total of 30 minerals were found to be most critical
Stronium Aluminium pigments and fillers, gas,
for India, out of which two are critical as fertiliser
magnets
minerals:
Antimony, Beryllium, Bismuth, Cobalt, Copper,
Gallium, Germanium, Graphite, Hafnium, Indium,
Lithium, Molybdenum, Niobium, Nickel, PGE, INDIA JOINS US-LED
2
Phosphorous, Potash, REE, Rhenium, Silicon, CRITICAL MINERAL CLUB
Strontium, Tantalum, Tellurium, Tin, Titanium,
Tungsten, Vanadium, Zirconium, Selenium and
Cadmium. CONTEXT: Recently, India joined Mineral Security
Partnership (MSP), a US-led collaboration that aims to
Import-dependence catalyse public and private investment in critical mineral
Ten minerals on the list are 100 per cent import- supply chains globally.
The MSP includes Australia, Canada, Finland, About the Mission

France, Germany, Japan, the Republic of Korea,
Sweden, UK, the European Commission, Italy, and The mission aims to increase organic farming to 5,000
now India. hectares in the next five years, with an annual target of
1,000 hectares.
About Minerals Security Partnership (MSP): The Kerala Agriculture Department will designate at
least 10% of the area in state-run farms for organic
It will focus on the supply chains of minerals such
farming practices.
as Cobalt, Nickel, Lithium and also the 17 ‘rare earth’
The alliance is seen as primarily focused on evolving Selected beneficiaries/farms under the organic
an alternative to China, which has created processing farming schemes are required to continue this practice
infrastructure in rare earth minerals and has acquired for at least five years.
mines in Africa for elements such as Cobalt. The initiative involves implementing a comprehensive
Goal: organic farming protocol in alignment with national
The goal of the MSP is to ensure that critical minerals and international standards.
are produced, processed, and recycled in a manner
A key focus will be on adding value to organic
that supports the ability of countries to realize the
products and ensuring that farmers have access to high-
full economic development benefit of their geological
quality seeds and production equipment/materials.
endowments.
This grouping is aimed at catalysing investment from This will be facilitated through various organizations
governments and the private sector to develop strategic like Krishikoottam collectives, Karshika Karma Sena,
opportunities. Kudumbasree, Krishisree Centre, and Agro Service
Need: Demand for critical minerals, which are essential Centers.
for clean energy and other technologies, is projected to
expand significantly in the coming decades. What is Organic farming?
Significance: The MSP will help catalyse investment
Organic farming is an agricultural method that
from governments and the private sector for strategic
focuses on cultivating and producing crops
opportunities — across the full value chain — that
while minimizing the use of synthetic pesticides,
adhere to the highest environmental, social, and
governance standards. fertilizers, genetically modified organisms
(GMOs), and growth regulators.
What are rare earth elements? Organic farming relies on natural substances and
There are 17 Rare Earths are cerium (Ce), dysprosium processes to maintain soil fertility, control pests and
(Dy), erbium (Er), europium (Eu), gadolinium (Gd), diseases, and foster the growth of crops.
holmium (Ho), lanthanum (La), lutetium (Lu),
neodymium (Nd), praseodymium (Pr), promethium Key Initiatives for Organic Farming in India-
(Pm), samarium (Sm), scandium (Sc), terbium (Tb),
thulium (Tm), ytterbium (Yb), and yttrium (Y). National Programme for Organic Production
(NPOP): The NPOP is a central government initiative
REEs are classified as light RE elements (LREE) and
that sets out standards for organic production, accredits
heavy RE elements (HREE).
certifying agencies, and regulates the organic food
Some REEs are available in India — such as market in India. It aims to provide certification and
Lanthanum, Cerium, Neodymium, Praseodymium and quality assurance for organic products.
Samarium, etc.
Paramparagat Krishi Vikas Yojana (PKVY): Launched
Others such as Dysprosium, Terbium, and Europium, by the Ministry of Agriculture and Farmers Welfare,
which are classified as HREEs, are not available in PKVY aims to promote traditional indigenous practices
Indian deposits in extractable quantities.
along with organic farming. It supports organic farming
by providing financial assistance to farmers to take up
organic farming practices.
KERALA FORMS ORGANIC
Mission Organic Value Chain Development for North
3 FARMING MISSION TO Eastern Region (MOVCDNER): This initiative targets
BOOST AGRICULTURE the northeastern states to develop organic value chains.
It includes capacity-building, research, certification,
and infrastructure development to support organic
CONTEXT: The Kerala Government has created an farming practices in the region.
Organic Farming Mission to encourage the adoption of National Project on Organic Farming (NPOF): The
sustainable organic and climate-smart farming practices in NPOF encourages organic farming by providing
the State. financial assistance and supporting infrastructure
development for various activities related to organic Highly increased use of inorganic fertilizers and
farming. pesticides,
Participation in Global Organic Trade: The Improved irrigation facilities, and
government has actively participated in international Improved farm implements and crop protection
trade and agreements related to organic products. It has measures.
focused on exploring and expanding export markets
for organic produce, adhering to the standards and
regulations of importing countries. REGENERATIVE
Promotion of Organic Clusters: Various state 5 AGRICULTURE & ITS
governments have established clusters to promote
organic farming. These clusters provide support for
INCREASING NEED
organic cultivation, processing, certification, and
marketing.
CONTEXT: The Regenerative agriculture has been
receiving much attention from all the stakeholders, as can
be effective in building resilience of agroecosystems.
INDO-US COOPERATION IN
4
AGRICULTURE What is Regenerative Agriculture?
Regenerative agriculture is a holistic approach to
CONTEXT: As for supporting India’s view to strengthen agriculture that focuses on the interconnection of
the “global strategic partnership” with USA, the farming systems such as, soil health, food quality,
contributions of Rockefeller and Ford Foundation during biodiversity improvement, water quality and air quality.
1950-60s , in development of India’s green revolution and It was used by Indigenous communities centuries ago,
supporting Agriculture sector must be focused. long before industrial agriculture occurred.
Principles Involved:
India’s Agriculture sector and Green
Minimize soil distribution through conservation tillage
Revolution:
Diversify crops to replenish nutrients and disrupt pest
In India, the green revolution was launched under the and disease life cycles
guidance of geneticist M. S. Swaminathan. Retain soil cover using cover crops
The Green Revolution was a period that began in the Integrate livestock, which adds manure to the soil and
1960s during which agriculture in India was converted serves as a source of carbon sinks.
into a modern industrial system by the adoption of
technology, such as the use of high-yielding variety
(HYV) seeds, mechanised farm tools, irrigation ANNUAL MEET ON
facilities, pesticides and fertilizers. 6
COTTON CROP
Aim:
The green revolution’s primary aim was to
introduce high-yielding varieties (HYVs) of CONTEXT: The two-day Annual Group Meeting 2022-
cereals to alleviate poverty and malnutrition. 23 of All India Coordinated Research Project (AICRP) on
cotton crop commenced at Punjab Agricultural University
Benefits of Green Revolution: (PAU), Ludhiana.
There are undoubtedly positive effects on the overall

food security in India.
All India Coordinated Research Project
The Green Revolution within India led to an increase in
(AICRP):
agricultural production, especially in Haryana, Punjab,
and Uttar Pradesh. The All India Coordinated Research Project
The green revolution led to the high productivity of (AICRP), a landmark in the history of
crops through adapted measures, such as: agricultural research was extended to fruit crops
Increased area under farming,
during Fourth Five Year Plan.
Double-cropping, which includes planting two In this system, both central research institutes
crops rather than one, annually, and State Agricultural Universities (SAUs) work
as a team to find solutions to various problems.
Adoption of HYV of seeds,
Cotton farming patterns: Till the 1980s, the public sector had a firm control on
the seed market and supplied OPV seeds to farmers.
It is a Kharif crop that comes from the natural fibres Towards the end of the decade, the government allowed
of cotton plants, which are native to tropical and development and distribution of hybrid varieties by
subtropical regions. private players.
Being renewable and biodegradable, cotton is the most This trend has continued, but poses a threat to the
environmentally friendly raw material for the textile country’s crop diversity and the traditional varieties that
are more suited to the local climates.
industry as compared to its synthetic alternatives.
Cotton plants have a large growing period which What are Hybrid seeds?
can extend up to 200 days. A hybrid is created by crossing two different varieties
Growing cotton starts between December and March. of the same plant.
These plants require a relatively high temperature (21- Crossing involves taking the pollen from the male
30°C) over a long growing season. flower of one plant and transferring it to the female
flower parts of a different plant.
Cotton is a less water-intensive crop as it is a xerophyte,
which can grow in dry, arid environments. Once the ovary of the female flower is pollinated,
it will begin to swell and form a fruit. The seeds that
develop inside that fruit are hybrid seeds.
Varieties of cotton:
Hybrid seeds are listed as F1 types, as opposed to open
India is the country to grow all four species of cultivated pollinated (OP) types.
cotton;
arboreum Open pollinated seeds result from a simple sharing of
Herbaceum (Asian cotton) pollen between two like parent plants.
barbadense (Egyptian cotton)

hirsutum (American Upland cotton).
hirsutum represents 94% of the hybrid cotton
PEARL MILLET
production in India and all the current Bt cotton 8 CULTIVATION ZONES IN
hybrids are G. hirsutum.
INDIA
India is the only country that grows cotton as hybrids
and the first to develop hybrid cotton back in 1970.
CONTEXT: According to a new study, India’s
About Bt-Cotton: core pearl millet or Bajra production zone has shifted
to 18 districts spread across eastern Rajasthan and
Bt Crops are transgenic crops that produce the same Haryana between 1998 and 2017.
toxin as the bacterium Bacillus thuringiensis in the
plant cell, thereby, protecting the crops from pests.
Pearl Millet and Zone Distribution in India:
The bacterium secretes specific proteins known as “cry
proteins” that are toxic to insects. India classifies pearl millet cultivation zones based
on rainfall patterns and soil types.
Zones are classified as;
7 HYBRID SEEDS IN INDIA The arid regions of Rajasthan, which receive
less than 400 millimeters (mm) of rainfall, are
categorized as Zone ‘A1’.
CONTEXT: The increase in the share of private Semi-arid regions in north and central India,
companies in India’s seed market has promoted use of including southern Rajasthan, Haryana, Gujarat,
these seeds. Hybrid seeds could threaten the country’s crop and Uttar Pradesh, which receive more than 400
diversity and the hardy traditional varieties suited to grow mm of rainfall per year, form Zone ‘A’.
in their native climate. Semi-arid regions with heavy soils in southern
India and central western India with over 400
mm of rainfall from Zone B.
Background
The origin of hybrids can be traced to India’s Green International Year of Millets:
Revolution in the 1960s, when the government’s effort Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) and United
was primarily to increase agricultural productivity. Nations have recognized 2023 as International Year
For this, the National Seed Corporation was set up to of Millets or IYM2023 for awareness about health
develop, store and distribute high yield variety seeds. and nutritional benefits of millets.
Key Findings of the study:

PYQ (2021)
Sub-classifications: The paper revised ‘A’ into three
subzones — ‘G’, ‘AE1’, and ‘AE2’. 2. How is permaculture farming different from
Zone ‘G’ covers Gujarat while AE1 covers conventional chemical farming?
eastern Rajasthan and Haryana.
1. Permaculture farming discourages monocultural
Zone ‘AE2’ covers 12 districts spread across Uttar
Pradesh and Madhya Pradesh. practices but in conventional chemical farming,
monoculture practices are predominant.
‘AE1’, which is now India’s core pearl millet
production area with 39 percent production, saw an 2. Conventional chemical farming can cause
increase in production of 46 kilograms per hectare, increase in soil salinity but the occurrence
owing to an increase in rainfall.
of such phenomenon is not observed in
The researchers noted that technological investments permaculture farming.
in irrigation, fertilization and new varieties that
favored intensified cultivation practices also led to 3. Conventional chemical farming is easily possible
an increase in the zone’s pearl millet production. in such regions.
‘AE2’ saw an average increase of 1,860 kg per hectare in 4. Practice of mulching is very important in
bajra production between 1998 and 2017.
permaculture farming but not necessarily so in
Shifting trends: The paper also noted that climate
conventional chemical farming.
change is contributing to more rainfall in Zone
‘G’ covering seven districts in Gujarat. Select the correct answer using the code given
This has led to farmers changing their cultivation below.
patterns and switching from pearl millet to cash
(a) 1 and 3
crops.
(b) 1, 2 and 4
The Pearl Millet:
(c) 4 only
The three major millets cultivated in India are Jowar,
Bajra, and Ragi. (d) 2 and 3
Bajra is also known as the pearl millet. Correct Answer: (b)
Scientific name: Pennisetumglaucum
It is cultivated mainly in the semiarid tropics,
almost exclusively by subsistence and small-scale PYQ (2021)
commercial farmers.
Optimal temperature requirement: Pearl millet 3. With reference to ‘palm oil’, consider the
grows best at temperatures between 27 to 32 degrees following statements:
Celsius (81 to 90 degrees Fahrenheit). 1. The palm oil tree is native to Southeast Asia.
Temperature Tolerance: Pearl millet is known
for its ability to withstand high temperatures, 2. The palm oil is a raw material for some industries
even exceeding 40 degrees Celsius (104 degrees producing lipstick and perfumes.
Fahrenheit).
3. The palm oil can be used to produce biodiesel.
Which of the statements given above are correct?
PYQ (2021) (a) 1 and 2 only
1. Among the following, which one is the least (b) 2 and 3 only
water-efficient crop?
(c) 1 and 3 only
(a) Sugarcane
(d) 1, 2 and 3
(b) Sunflower
Correct Answer: (b)
(c) Pearl millet
(d) Red gram
Correct Answer: (a)
PYQ (2020) PYQ (2020)
4. What is the use of biochar in farming? 5. What is/are the advantages/advantages of zero
tillage in agriculture? (2020)
1. ‘Biochar can be used as a part of the growing
medium in vertical farming. 1. Sowing of wheat is possible without burning the
2. When biochar is a part of the growing medium, residue of the previous crop.
it promotes the growth of nitrogen fixing 2. Without the need for nursery of rice saplings,
microorganisms. direct planting of paddy seeds in the wet soil is
3. When biochar is a part of the growing- medium, possible.
it enables the growing medium to retain water 3. Carbon sequestration in the soil is possible.
for a longer time.
Select the correct answer using the code given
Which of the statements given above is/are below:
correct?
(a) 1 and 2 only
(a) 1 and 2 only
(b) 2 and 3 only
(b) 2 only
(c) 3 only
(c) 1 and 3 only
(d) 1, 2 and 3
(d) 1, 2 and 3
Correct Answer: (d)
Correct Answer: (d)


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2 THEMATIC CURRENT AFFAIRS: YEARLY COMPILATION

All the Best!!

 Fujiwhara Effect.................................07  New map of Earth’s tectonic plates..........25

WIND.............................................. 11  Turkey & its relation to earthquakes.........30

 Rising Antarctic ice melt to dramatically slow

DRAINAGE...................................... 43  Indian Ocean Dipole (IOD)....................64

4. SOIL GEOGRAPHY...................... 53-68 5. LOCATION IN NEWS................... 69-96

SOIL GEOGRAPHY........................... 53 NATIONAL PARK/SANCTUARY/

 Ocean Waves......................................59  Pobitora Wildlife Sanctuary...................70

 Arittapatti village- Tamil Nadu’s first  Isle of Rum........................................82

 Sutlej River........................................77  Gabon..............................................86

 Chite Lui River...................................77  North Andaman’s Atlanta Bay................86

 Black Sea...........................................77  Turkmenistan.....................................86

 Yellow Sea.........................................77  Istanbul.............................................87

Building Basics (Cyclones)

Formation of a cyclone Low Pressure Area (L)

Factors responsible for cyclone formation:

Commonly used names:

The Geographic Location

ARABIAN SEA (WEST COAST BAY OF BENGAL

What is the general trend of cyclones?

FACTORS AFFECTING CYCLONES IN FACTORS AFFECTING CYCLONES

Cyclone Hazard Zone in India

Factors influencing formation &

BOMB CYCLONE HURRICANES

 Factors that influence the onset of the Southwest

Intertropical convergence zone (ITCZ)

When is the Atlantic hurricane season? (The

2023 ATLANTIC CONTEXT: Derecho storms are becoming more frequent

CONTEXT: The above-normal 2023 Atlantic hurricane About Derecho:

 The word comes from the Spanish word ‘la derecha’

CONTEXT: With typhoon Hinnamnor and another

 Typhoon Hinnamnor, known in the Philippines as

Azores Categories of Cyclones:

What is a GLOF? Cyclone Mandous

 The WMO/ESCAP expanded to include five more  Tauktae: May 2021

Other Major Cyclones

BUILDING BASICS (CLOUD)

Different types of clouds:

CONTEXT: Recently, an unusually-shaped rainbow

 The cloud in question resembles a pileus cloud, and the

What is a pileus cloud?

12 CLOUDBURSTS  Mini cloudburst: Some scientists term rainfall

What is Cloudburst? 2. Why are dewdrops not formed on a cloudy night?

BRUSHING BASICS (WIND)

13 HEAT WAVES IN INDIA The General Occurrence:

 Denmark: A heatwave occurs when the mean of the

 This heatwave has also brought the wet bulb

List of Major Local Winds and their Type or Nature:

Zonda eastern slope of the Andes in Argentina

What are Heat belts?

(d) All of the above climates

4. On 21st June, the Sun

 The three major heat zones of the Earth are:

In the Bay of Bengal east of India, interactions between El

INDIAN OCEAN DIPOLE

CONTEXT: With the El Nino phenomenon almost

ocean to be drained. However, there is a massive

Fujiwhara Effect.................................07 New map of Earth’s tectonic plates..........25

WIND.............................................. 11 Turkey & its relation to earthquakes.........30

Rising Antarctic ice melt to dramatically slow

DRAINAGE...................................... 43 Indian Ocean Dipole (IOD)....................64

Ocean Waves......................................59 Pobitora Wildlife Sanctuary...................70

Arittapatti village- Tamil Nadu’s first Isle of Rum........................................82

Sutlej River........................................77 Gabon..............................................86

Chite Lui River...................................77 North Andaman’s Atlanta Bay................86

Black Sea...........................................77 Turkmenistan.....................................86

Yellow Sea.........................................77 Istanbul.............................................87

Factors that influence the onset of the Southwest

The word comes from the Spanish word ‘la derecha’

Typhoon Hinnamnor, known in the Philippines as

The WMO/ESCAP expanded to include five more Tauktae: May 2021

The cloud in question resembles a pileus cloud, and the

12 CLOUDBURSTS Mini cloudburst: Some scientists term rainfall

Denmark: A heatwave occurs when the mean of the

This heatwave has also brought the wet bulb

The three major heat zones of the Earth are:

Types of seismic waves: There are three basic types of

There are three main types of plate boundaries:

The lithosphere is the outermost layer of Earth,

Earth’s axial tilt (also known as the obliquity of the

The NISAR satellite will use two frequency bands: the

The capital is Ankara, and its largest city and seaport

Zone III is classified as a Moderate Damage Risk

Roughly 90 percent of all earthquakes occur along the

The dunes are susceptible to aerodynamic lift. This is

neo-tectonic mountain-building process, like

It is because of these characteristic features that this is

Warm and It is present in regions that Temperatures: Not very high

Temperate/ Temperate/Moderate Climate Temperatures: The temperatures are in comfort ranges

Seti River cuts through the Mahabharat range and,

About Ganga Basin It is joined by Dhar River near Indo-China border.