Qo Penseum SQL, or Structured Query Language, is a special purpose programming language that is essential for anyone aspiring to build a career in the IT industry. It is as fundamental as alphabets are to any spoken language. Whether you are a developer, tester, data analyst, data engineer, or cloud engineer, knowing SQL is @ must. Purpose of SOL SQL is a special purpose programming language that differentiates it from other general purpose programming languages like C, C++, JavaScript, or Java. Its main purpose is to manipulate sets of data. inulating Data with Sl In SQL, we manipulate sets of data to perform various operations. Some common operations include: * Retrieving data from a database * Inserting new data into a database * Updating existing data ina database * Deleting data from a database ‘SOL and Databases SQL is closely associated with databases. Itis used to interact with databases and perform operations on the data stored in them. Some popular databases that use SQL include MySQL, Oracle, SQL Server, and PostgreSQL. ‘SOL and Al In this course, we will be offering a free three-hour session on the introduction to SQL with the assistance of Al. This means that Al technology will be used to enhance the learning experience and provide additional support and guidance. Benefits of Learning SOL Learning SQL has several benefits, including * Improved career prospects: SQL is a highly sought-after skill in the IT industry. Having SQL knowledge can open up @ wide range of job opportunities* Efficient data manipulation: SQL allows for efficient and effective manipulation of large sets of data. This is particularly useful for data analysis and data engineering tasks. * Integration with other technologies: SQL can be easily integrated with other technologies and programming languages, making it a versetile tool for data management and analysis. Conclusion SQL is a crucial skill for anyone aspiring to build a career in the IT industry. It is a special purpose programming language that is used to manipulate sets of data. Leaming SQL can greatly enhance your career prospects and enable you to efficiently work with databases and perform data manipulation tasks. # SQL and Relational Databases SQL (Structured Query Language) is a language used to interact with relational databases. It is not limited to relational databases only, but can also be used with other types of data sources. SQL has become a widely used query language, and many other query languages have been influenced by SQL. ‘SOI Standards * SQL is both an ANSI (American National Standards Institute) and an ISO (International Organization for Standardization) standard. * This means that each relational database vendor must implement at least the standard SQL, ensuring compatibility across different databases. * However, most databases also have additional features that are not part of the standard. Learning SOL * Once you have learned SQL, it becomes relatively easy to pick up other query languages due to their relationship with SQL * In this course, we will focus on teaching you the standards-based SQL. * When learning a specific database product, you may need to familiarize yourself with its additional features. Note: The provided text is incomplete and ends abruptly. # Database Basics What is a database? A database is a container that helps us organize data in a logical way. It provides a more efficient way of storing and retrieving data compared to using spreadsheets. ‘Similarities between spreadsheets and databases * Spreadsheets and databases both use rows and columns to store data. * Both can be used to organize and manipulate data. Differences hetween spreadsheets and databases* Databases are designed to handle larger amounts of data and are more efficient for data storage and retrieval * Spreadsheets are typically used for smaller datasets and are more suitable for calculations and analysis. Why use a database? * Databases allow for efficient storage and retrieval of data. * They provide a structured and organized way to manage large amounts of data * Databases can handle complex relationships between different sets of data. Datahase vs Spreadsheet analagy * Think of a database as containing the data that might be contained in multiple spreadsheets. “ While a spreadsheet may contain data for a specific purpose, a database can hold data that relates to multiple spreadsheets or datasets. Key terms: * Database: A container that helps organize data in a logical way. * Spreadsheet: A tool used to organize and manipulate data using rows and columns. * Data storage: The process of storing data in a structured manner. * Data retrieval: The process of accessing and retrieving stored data. * Efficiency: The ability to perform tasks quickly and effectively. Database Tables What is a database table? * A database table is a collection of related data organized in rows and columns * Itis similar to a spreadsheet, where each row represents a record and each column represents a field or attribute. Key features of a database table: * Rows: Each row in a table represents a single record or data entry. * Columns: Each column in a table represents a specific attribute or field. * Primary key: A unique identifier for each row in the table. * Relationships: Tables can be related to each ather through common attributes or keys Example: Consider a database for a university:“The "Students” table would have columns like "Student ID", ‘Name’, "Major", etc. * Each row in the "Students! table represents a single student record. The "Courses" table would have columns like ‘Course ID", "Course Name’, "Instructor", ete. * Each row in the “Courses' table represents a single course record. Database Design and Structure A database is a collection of organized data that is stored and accessed electronically. It is designed to be the central repository of information for a particular business or application. In database design, there are several considerations to take into account, such as the logical split of data and how to spread it across different databases Tables in Relational Databases In a relational database, data is stored in tables. A table is similar to a spreadsheet, where each column represents a specific attribute or piece of information, and each row represents a record or instance of that data “Tables store data in a structured manner, allowing for efficient querying, adding new deta, and deleting old or unused data * Each table has a name, which is used to identify and reference it within the database. * Columns within a table also have names, representing the specific attributes or properties of the data being stored Data Restrictions in Columns Columns in a table have restrictions in terms of the size and type of data they can store. These restrictions ensure data integrity and consistency within the database. Some common restrictions include: * Size: Columns can have @ maximum length or size for the data they can store. For example, a column may be limited to storing a maximum of 50 characters. * Type: Columns can have a specific data type, such as text, numeric, date, or boolean. This ensures that only valid data of the specified type can be stored in the column. * Constraints: Columns can have additional constraints, such as being required (not allowing null values) or having a unique constraint (ensuring that each value in the column is unique). Example: Consider a database for a university. We can have a table called "Students' with the following columns: * Student ID (numeric, unique) * Name (text) * Age (numeric) * Major (text)* GPA (numeric) In this exemple, the “Students” table represents the collection of student data. Each column represents a specific attribute of a student, such as their ID, name, age, major, and GPA. The column restrictions ensure that the data stored in each column is valid and consistent. By organizing data into tables and defining the structure end restrictions of each column, a database provides a reliable and efficient way to store and manage data. It serves as the single source of truth for the information related to a particular business or application. # Data Columns * Data columns can be required or not required. * In the given example, the email address column is not required as it contains null data * Each row in the database will have all the data for the required columns. Querying the Database To retrieve data from the database, we need to ask questions or queries. * Queries are written in SQL (Structured Query Language). * Example query: "What are all the contacts in my database that have a last name starting with the letter F?" * Querying the database involves asking questions and expecting the database to provide an answer. * Sometimes the database may not have an answer, either because the data doesn't exist or for other reasons. # Database Design and Limitations Introduction In database design, it is important to consider the structure and organization of data to ensure efficient querying and retrieval of information. However, certain design choices can lead to limitations in the types of questions that can be asked. Example: Contacts Database Consider an example of a contacts database with columns for first name, last name, and email address. Let's explore the limitations of this design when trying to retrieve information about a contact's email addresses. imitation: Single £ If we want to know all the email addresses that a person named John has, we can only retrieve one email address. This limitation arises when a contact has multiple email addresses. seston thie Gea When a contact has multiple email addresses, the current database design does not provide a straightforward solution to rettieve all of them. Adding additional columns like "email 2” or "email 3” is nota scalable solution as it imposes limitations on the number of email addresses a contact can haveImpact of Limitations The limitations in the database design can hinder the ability to ask certain questions and retrieve desired information. It restricts the flexibility and usefulness of the database. Importance of a Good Database Design A. good database design should aim to overcome these limitations and provide a flexible structure that allows for efficient querying and retrieval of information. It should be able to handle scenarios where a contact can have multiple email addresses. Possible Solutions To address the limitations of the current database design, alternative approaches can be considered: One-to-Many Relationship: Instead of storing email addresses directly in the contacts table, a separate table can be created to store email addresses. This table can have a foreign key referencing the contact it belongs to. This allows for a one-to-many relationship, where a contact can have multiple email addresses. Normalization: By normalizing the database, we can eliminate data redundancy and improve data integrity. This can involve splitting the contacts table into multiple tables, such as a table for contact information and a separate table for email addresses. This allows for more flexibility in querying and avoids the limitations of the current desian Joining Tables: To retrieve all the email addresses for a contact, a join operation can be performed between the contacts table and the email addresses table. This allows for combining the relevant information from both tables and retrieving all the email addresses associated with a specific contact. Conclusion The limitations in the database # Database Design and Normalization Red Flags in Database Design “If column names have numbers in them, itis generally a red flag indicating a potential issue with the database design. * While not always the case, it is often a sign that something is wrong. Database Normalization * Database normalization is a process that allows us to design a database in a way that enables us to ask better questions later on.“The goal is to organize the data in a logical and efficient manner. * By normalizing the data, we can reduce redundancy and improve data integrity. Example of Database Nommalization * Let's consider a simple example where we have a contact table with an email column that contains multiple email addresses separated by numbers. “To normalize this data, we would create a separate table called "email" and move the email data out of the contact table. The email table would have its own primary key and a foreign key that links it to the contact table. * This illustrates the relational aspect of database design, where we establish relationships between tables using keys. Benefits of Database Normalization * Improved data integrity: Normalization helps to eliminate data redundancy and inconsistencies, ensuring that the data remains accurate and reliable. * Efficient data storage: By organizing the data into separate tables, we can optimize storage space and improve database performance. * Flexibility in querying: Normalized databases allow for more complex and efficient queries, as the data Is structured in a logical and organized manner. Levels of Database Normalization * Database normalization is typically divided into multiple levels, known as normal forms“The most commonly used normal forms are First Normal Form (NF): Eliminates duplicate data by ensuring that each column contains only atomic values. Second Normal Form (2NF): Builds upon 1NF and eliminates partial dependencies by ensuring that each non-key column is fully dependent on the primary key. Third Normal Form (3NF): Builds upon 2NF and eliminates transitive dependencies by ensuring that each non-key column is only dependent on the primary key. Boyce-Codd Normal Form (BCNF): Builds upon 3NF and eliminates all non-trivial dependencies by ensuring that each determinant is a candidate key. Fourth Normal Form (4NF) and Fifth Normal Form (SNF): Address more complex dependencies and are used in specific cases. Considerations for Database # Database Design and Normalization Introduction Database design is the process of creating a structured and efficient database that can store and rettieve data effectively. Normalization is a technique used in database design to eliminate data redundancy and improve data integrity. Relationships * Relationships between tables are established using keys. * Arelationship can be one-to-one, one-to-many, or many-to-many. * In a one-to-one relationship, each record in one table is associated with only one record in another table * In a one-to-many relationship, each record in one table can be associated with multiple records in another table. * Ina many-to-many relationship, multiple records in one table can be associated with multiple records in another table. Example Let's consider three tables: Person, Contact, and Email Person Table * Contains information about individuals. * Each person has a unique identifier (primary key)Contact Table * Contains information about the contacts of each person * Each contact has a unique identifier (primary key) * Each contact is associated with a person through a foreign key relatianship. Email Table * Contains information about the email addresses of each contact. * Each email has a unique identifier (primary key). * Each email is associated with a contact through a foreign key relationship. Database Design Goals * The main goal of database design is to ensure that the database structure allows for efficient querying and retrieval of data. * The design should enable the user to ask relevant questions and obtain meaningful answers. * The design should be flexible enough to accommodate future data requirements. Nomnalization * Normalization is the process of organizing data in a database to eliminate redundancy and improve data integrity, * Itinvolves breaking down a large table into smaller, more manageable tables. * Normalization reduces data duplication and ensures that each piece of data is stored in only one place. * There are different levels of normalization, known as normal forms (e.g., first normal form, second normal form, etc.). * Normalization is an art that requires careful consideration of the specific requirements and constraints of the database. Conclusion * Database design and normalization are essential for creating efficient and effective databases. * The design should enable the user to ask relevant questions and obtain meaningful answers * Normalization helps eliminate data redundancy and improve data integrity. “The level of normalization depends on the specific requirements and constraints of the database. #SQL Basics Introduction ta SQL. * SQL is a powerful declarative language used for querying databases* Database design determines the types of questions that can be asked later using SQL. SQL Statements * SQL statements are used to interact with databases. "An SQL statement is an expression that tells the database what action to perform. “The basic syntax for executing commands against a database is known as an SQL statement * An SQL statement is composed of several components and must be a valid SQL expression. “Each SQL statement should end with a semicolon. Building an SOL Expression * An SQL expression is built using keywords and specific syntax. “The SELECT statement is used to retrieve data from a database. * The FROM keyword specifies the table from which to retrieve data * The SELECT statement can include column names to specify which columns to retrieve. * Example: SELECT first_name, last_name FROM person; Components of an SOL Statement * SELECT: Specifies the columns to retrieve from the database. * FROM: Specifies the table from which to retrieve data. * WHERE: Filters the data based on specified conditions. * ORDER BY: Sorts the retrieved data in ascending or descending order. * GROUP BY: Groups the retrieved data based on specified columns. * HAVING: Filters the grouped data based on specified conditions. * LIMIT: Limits the number of rows returned by the query. Example SOL Statements Retrieve all columns from the ‘person’ table: SELECT * FROM person;Retrieve specific columns from the "person table: SELECT first_name, last_name FROM person; Retrieve data from the ‘person’ table with a condition: SELECT * FROM person WHERE age > 30; Retrieve data from the “person” table with sorting: SELECT * FROM person ORDER BY last_name ASC; Retrieve data from the "person' table with grouping: SELECT gender, COUNT(*) FROM person GROUP BY gender ; Retrieve data from the "person’ table with grouping and filtering: SELECT gender, COUNT(*) FROM person GROUP BY gender HAVING COUNT(*) > 10; Retrieve a limited number of rows from the "person" table: SELECT * FROM person LIMIT 10; # SQL Basics ‘SOL Expression Siructure * Every valid SQL expression ends with a semicolon * SQL expressions consist of keywords and identifiers. * Keywords are special words that have a specific meaning in SQL. * Identifiers refer to things inside the database.‘SQL Keywords * Keywords are written in uppercase. * "SELECT" is a keyword used to retrieve data from a database * "FROM" is a keyword used to specify the table from which to retrieve data. ‘SOL Identifiers "Identifiers are written in lowercase. *“first_name’ and "person' are identifiers in this example. * Identifiers refer to specific columns or tables in the database. SOL Clauses * SQL statements can be broken down into individual tokens, such as keywords and identifiers. “SQL statements can also be broken down into clauses. "The "SELECT" clause specifies the columns to retrieve from the database Example: SELECT first_name FROM person; In this example, "SELECT" is the keyword, firstname’ is the identifier, and ‘person’ is the table name. The "SELECT' clause specifies that we want to retrieve the "firstname" column from the "person" table.