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The speed, wavelength and frequency of any wave are

RADIOLOGY LECTURE NOTES related by the equation:
LESSON 1- PRINCIPLES OF RADIOLOGY
C= λV
INTRODUCTION TO XRAYS

• Wilhelm Conrad Rontgen was a German

mechanical engineer and physicist
• November 8, 1895: Roentgen’s discovery of
Xrays

XRAY PRODUCTION AND THE XRAY TUBE

Bremsstrahlung Spectrum
• Bremsstrahlung is the electromagnetic
radiation emitted in the form of photons
when a charged particle is decelerated upon
striking against another charged particle.
• This radiation gives a continuous X-ray
spectrum.
• This is also known as "braking radiation"
• X-rays are produced from the conversion of
kinetic energy of electrons into
electromagnetic radiation when they are
decelerated by interaction within a target
material.
• It is characterized by a continuous
distribution of radiation which becomes
more intense and shifts toward higher
frequencies when the energy of the
bombarding electrons is increased
• Bremsstrahlung radiation arises from
energetic electron interactions with an
atomic nucleus of the target material.
• In a "close" approach, the positive nucleus
attracts the negative electron, causing
The electromagnetic spectrum consists of a number deceleration and redirection, resulting in a
of different types of waves which includes radio loss of kinetic energy that is converted to an
x-ray.
waves, visible light and X-rays
• The X-ray tube itself is composed of the
cathode and the anode, which are housed in
an evacuated (vacuum) glass envelope.
• The vacuum is important to ensure that
particles of air do not interfere with X-ray
production.
• The tube is surrounded by oil for electrical
insulation and heat dispersion, and lead
housing to prevent unwanted X-ray leakage.

These waves all travel at the same speed (c) but have • The X-ray beam leaves through a small exit
a different wavelength (λ) and frequency (v), with window in the tube housing.
frequency being inversely proportional to the • A filter is placed over this window to absorb
wavelength. the very low energy X-rays that would be
completely absorbed by the patient, and
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therefore would not contribute to image • Their kinetic energy is transformed into X-
formation. rays (1-5%) and heat (95-99%).
• Higher energy X-rays will pass through the
filter and be used for image formation. Stationary Anode
• Stationary anodes are found in older or
smaller X-ray machines with a low output.
• The tungsten target is fixed in a block of
copper, which is a good heat conductor and
carries heat away from the target.
• The target is placed at an angle to reduce
the size of the focal spot and to direct the X-
ray beam towards the radiographed object.

Rotating Anode
• The rotating anode is used in high output X-
ray machines as it has a higher heat loading
capacity.
• A molybdenum disc is mounted on a rotor
assembly, which can spin at high speed.
THE CATHODE • Heat loss from this type of anode is largely
by convection from the surface of the disc.
The cathode is the negative electrode in the x-ray • The rotating anode is used in high output X-
tube and is comprised of an electron emitter and ray machines as it has a higher heat loading
focusing cup. capacity.
• A molybdenum disc is mounted on a rotor
The cathode is a wire filament made of tungsten. assembly, which can spin at high speed.
When a small electrical current is passed through • Heat loss from this type of anode is largely
this filament it heats up (> by convection from the surface of the disc.
2200°C) and a cloud of free electrons is formed
• The edge of the disc is bevelled and is fitted
around it.
with a strip of Tungsten (the focal track).
Heating of the anode is spread around the
This process of electron release from the heated
focal track and rotating anodes are more
cathode is called thermionic emission.
resistant to heat damage (or melting) than
stationary anodes.
A focussing cup sits around the cathode to keep the
cloud of electrons tightly together in a beam • The angle of the bevel acts to reduce the
size of the focal spot.
• The electron beam is accelerated towards
kV and mAS
the anode by applying a large potential
difference (or voltage) across the X-ray • kilovoltage (kV)
tube; the cathode is negatively charged and • tube current (mA, milliamperes)
the anode is positively charged. • exposure time (seconds)
• The electrons strike the anode target and
are rapidly decelerated. Kilovoltage (kV)
• Their kinetic energy is transformed into X- • The kilovoltage (kV) is the potential
rays (1-5%) and heat (95-99%). difference applied across the X-ray tube. It
affects the energy and therefore the
penetrating power of the X-rays.
THE ANODE • " The higher the kV, the faster the electrons
will travel towards the anode, and the
• The electron beam is accelerated towards higher the energy of the X-rays produced.
the anode by applying a large potential • High energy X-rays penetrate matter more
difference (or voltage) across the X-ray easily, resulting in more blackening of the
tube; the cathode is negatively charged and X-ray film.
the anode is positively charged. • Use of low kV will produce lower energy X-
• The electrons strike the anode target and rays that penetrate tissues less easily,
are rapidly decelerated. resulting in a paler image.
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• " If the kV is increased by 10kV, then the induction (which requires an AC or

exposure is doubled. alternating current).
• Kilovoltage peak (kVp) is the peak potential • An alternating electric current reverses its
applied to the x-ray tube, which accelerates direction many times per second (100 times
electrons from the cathode to the anode in per second or 50 Hz) and is the form in
radiography or computed tomography. which electric power is delivered to the X-
• Tube voltage, in turn, determines the ray machine.
quantity and quality of the photons • A diode is an electrical component that only
generated. allows current to flow in one direction.
• An increase in kVp extends and intensifies • Rectifier circuits are composed of four
the x-ray emission spectrum, such that the diodes that are arranged in a specific
maximal and average/effective energies are configuration to only allow electrons to flow
higher and the photon number/intensity is in one direction through the circuit.
higher.
• In the X-ray generator, this ensures that
The mA is the current applied to the cathode filament. electrons always flow in the correct
• The higher the mA, the hotter the filament direction across the X-ray tube (i.e. cathode
gets, and the more electrons are produced to anode) irrespective of the change in
and accelerated across the tube. polarity caused by the alternating current.
• The exposure time is the duration over • Rectifier circuits produce a rectified
which the X-rays are being produced. waveform, which allows
• The longer the time, the more X-rays that • X-ray production throughout the entire AC
are produced. cycle and improves efficiency (X-ray output
• The mA and exposure time are generally is doubled, meaning exposure time can be
considered together as the composite factor cut in half).
mAs (milliampere-seconds)
• The mAs affects the quantity of X-rays Note that the direction and polarity of the output
produced. voltage (rectified waveform) does not reverse; it only
• The time is usually kept as short as possible flows in one direction and is a direct current (DC)
to avoid blurring of the image due to that pulsates.
movement (with mA therefore kept
relatively high).
Single-phase generators use a single-phase AC input
• If the mAs is doubled, then the exposure is
and produce the greatest voltage ripple (the variation
doubled.
between peak and minimum voltage), which reduces
X-ray tube performance.
THE XRAY GENERATOR
Three-phase generators use three separate AC input
• The x-ray generator supplies the power and lines, each with a different phase of the AC
permits selection of x-ray tube voltage, tube waveform. Three-phase generators have much lower
current, and exposure time. voltage ripple and are much more efficient at
producing X-rays, but are also much more expensive.
The major electrical components of X-ray generators High frequency generators convert low-frequency
include: low-voltage input into a high-frequency low-voltage
• Transformers waveform, which is then transformed into a high-
• Diodes and rectifier circuits frequency high-voltage output waveform.
• Filament circuits
• Kilovolt and milliampere meter

• Very high voltages (20,000 to 150,000 V) are

needed for X-ray production.
• The most important job of the X-ray
generator is to provide high voltage current
to the X-ray tube for X-ray production.
• The high voltage required is obtained using a
step-up transformer, which converts low
input voltage into high output voltage INTERACTION OF XRAYS WITH MATTER
through the process of electromagnetic
Result of X-ray photons encountering matter
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• Transmission - they pass through

unchanged.
• Absorption - the photoelectric effect.
• Scattering - Compton effect or
Compton scattering

Transmission
• When X-rays pass through matter without
any interaction they are not deflected and do
not lose energy;they are unchanged.
• The X-rays reach the radiographic film or
image detector and are used to form the
image.
• Radiography does not allow differentiation
between soft tissues and fluid (i.e. they have
Scattering
the same opacity).
• When an X-ray is scattered it is deflected by
• For example, the cardiac wall cannot be
the atoms of the object, and may travel in
distinguished from the blood in the cardiac
any direction (Compton effect).
chambers; the bladder wall cannot be
• Scattered radiation has lower energy than distinguished from urine in the bladder
the primary X-ray beam.
lumen.
• Since scattered radiation moves in all
directions it plays no useful part in X-ray IMAGE AND CONTRAST KV
image formation, but simply produces an
overall film blackening and reduces image
• Radiography does not allow differentiation
quality.
between soft tissues and fluid (i.e. they have
the same opacity).
Scattered radiation is also an important factor to be
• For example, the cardiac wall cannot be
considered in radiation protection.
distinguished from the blood in the cardiac
chambers; the bladder wall cannot be
Scattering is the main interaction with matter when
distinguished from urine in the bladder
X-rays have high energy (kV>100).
lumen
The quantity of scattered photons is proportional to:
• The contrast obtained with the photoelectric
• X-ray energy (proportional to the kV).
effect is relatively good.
• Tissue thickness and density.
• The photoelectric effect highlights the
• Radiographic field size. differences in density and atomic number
between tissue types; denser tissues with
Differential Absorption and Radiographic
greater atomic number produce greater X-
Image Formation
ray attenuation.
• The contrast obtained with the Compton
The radiographic image is formed by the difference in
effect is poor because it only depends on
X-ray beam absorption between the different body
tissue density and not on the atomic
tissues (e.g. bone, soft tissue, fat).
number.
The degree of absorption (or attenuation) of X-rays • The Compton effect produces scattered X-
by a particular tissue depends on: rays which decrease the image contrast by
causing a diffuse blackening of the
• Tissue thickness (increased thickness =
radiographic image.
increased absorption)
• The contrast of the radiographic image
• Tissue composition
varies with the selected kilovoltage (KV).
Density (higher density = higher absorption)
• The contrast progressively decreases as the
• Atomic number (higher atomic number =
kV increases.
higher absorption)
• When the kV is low (<70 kV), the
• X-ray energy (higher energy / kV = greater
radiographic image is more contrasted than
penetrating power = decreased attenuation)
when the kV is high.
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• The abdomen has low inherent contrast • Collimators are used for X-ray, gamma-ray,
(mainly soft tissue and fat opacity structures and neutron imaging because it is not yet
with similar opacity). possible to focus these types of radiation
• For abdominal radiography we want to into an image using lenses, as is routine
maximize the contrast between fat and soft with electromagnetic radiation at optical or
tissue in order to see the margins of the near-optical wavelengths.
abdominal organs. beam collimator
• The thorax has high inherent contrast (it
contains tissues with a greater difference in CONVENTIONAL (SCREEN FILM) RADIOGRAPHY
their opacity e.g. air-filled lungs, soft tissues • The radiographic film is poorly sensitive to
of the heart, overlying ribs). X-rays.
• For thoracic radiography, a high kV and low • A large quantity of X-rays (meaning a large
mAs technique can be used, which will help patient dose) would be required to produce
decrease the visibility of the ribs (to enable adequate blackening of the film without the
better assessment of the lungs) and reduce use of intensifying screens. Intensifying
motion blur. screens are used to amplify the effect of the
X-rays.
SCATTER REDUCTION • When the phosphorescent crystals in the
intensifying screen absorb the X-rays, they
The main methods of scatter reduction are to: emit a proportional amount of light which
• Use a grid then exposes the radiographic film
• Use collimation (to keep the radiographic • Intensifying screens are integrated into both
field size as small as possible) sides of the light-proof X-ray cassette.
• Use a lower kV (if possible / appropriate) • The radiographic film is placed into the
cassette in between the two screens.
Grids • Intensifying screens have two important but
• Grids are used to reduce the amount of opposing properties: the speed (ability to
scattered radiation reaching the X-ray film produce light and therefore amplify the
or detector, whilst still allowing the primary effect of the x-rays) and the sharpness (or
X-ray beam to pass through. spatial resolution).
• A grid is generally used when radiographing • Fast screens produce a large amount of
body parts greater than 10cm thick, where light, but their spatial resolution is reduced
scattered radiation tends to become due to diffusion of the light within the
significant. screen. Fast screens are preferred for large
• Grids are flat plates that consist of a series body parts (abdomen) or when movement
of thin lead strips separated from each artefacts are an issue (thorax).
other by a radiolucent spacing material. • For smaller areas (e.g. long bones), it is
• The spacing material allows primary X-rays recommended to use a slow screen that will
to pass through. produce better detail and resolution. It is
• The lead strips stop the scattered radiation, therefore recommended to have both types
which tends to approach the grid at an angle of screens/cassettes available.
• Following exposure, the radiographic film is
Xray Collimator then processed in a darkroom. There are
• The X-ray collimator is made of lead five sequential steps to film processing:
shutters that are used to adapt the size of 1. Developing
the radiographic field to the body area being 2. Rinsing
radiographed 3. Fixing
• There are two types of 4. Rinsing
Collimator 5. Drying.
1. Fixed (Dental X-ray)
2. Adjustable
DIGITAL RADIOGRAPHY
• In X-ray optics, gamma ray optics, and • Digital Radiography has now largely
neutron optics, a collimator is a device that replaced screen-film radiography.
filters a stream of rays so that only those • With digital radiography, the same X-ray
traveling parallel to a specified direction are tube and X-ray table can be used.
allowed through. • Two main types of digital radiography
systems are currently available:
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• Computed Radiography (CR)

• Come Digital Radiography (DDR)

Computed Radiography (CR) Systems

• CR System use imaging cassettes.
• CR cassettes contain a 'storage phosphor'
plate, which consists of crystals with similar
properties to those used in intensifying
screens.
• The main difference with digital systems is
that following absorption of the X-ray
photons the energy is stored in the crystals
rather than being released as light
immediately.
• The CR plate is subsequently 'read' by a
machine, which scans the plate with a laser
beam.
• The phosphor plate is subsequently erased
by bright light and can be re-used.
Note:
Conventional xray- xray tas process sa processor
tas may product na tas lagay yung file sa folder
CR- take photo, tas transfer casettesa machine tas
pwede sa internet like mga icloud
DR- take photo tas direkta na sa comp na. easiest sa
lahat

DR Systems
LESSON 2- EVALUATION OF RADIOGRAPHIC QUALITY
• DDR systems do not require a plate reader.
• They use digital detector plates that can be EVALUATION OF RADIOGRAPHIC QUALITY
wireless or linked to the computer via a
cable. Evaluation of a radiograph involves consideration of:
• The plates can be built into the X-ray table. • The projections (or views) acquired
• The electronic detector captures the • Image quality
radiographic image directly, which is • Image artefacts
displayed on the computer screen almost
instantaneously RADIOGRAPHIC PROJECTIONS
• There are several advantages of digital • The radiographic image is a two-
radiography over conventional radiography: dimensional (2D) image of a three-
dimensional (3D) object.
• Higher contrast resolution (wider exposure
latitude - over / underexposure is less of a • For complete radiographic evaluation of an
problem) object (allowing assessment of all three
dimensions) it is necessary to take two
• Image manipulation:
orthogonal projections (e.g. dorsoventral
o Filters (edge enhancement, alter
and lateral projections, or craniocaudal and
greyscale)
mediolateral projections).
o Adjust contrast and brightness
o Zoom • For more complex body parts (carpi, tarsi,
skull), more than two projections may be
o Rotate the image
required (e.g. special oblique projections).
o Measurements and annotation
• Fewer exposures needed (soft tissues and
bone can be assessed on the same image)
• Distortion can occur as a result of
converting a 3D object into a 2D image,
• Quicker (no film processing required)
particularly when the object lies at an angle
• Digital images are easier to store and share to the image receptor.
• Magnification is a form of distortion that
occurs as a result of the X-ray beam
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divergence. The degree of magnification

increases as the distance between the
object and the image receptor increases.

• The following steps can be followed to

minimize magnification and distortion:
• Keep object as close to image
receptor as possible
• Keep focus-film distance as large The contrast of the image is dependent upon:
as possible (distance between the • The inherent contrast of the body part. The
tube and image receptor; usually range of radiographic densities (governed by
around 1m) the atomic numbers and physical density of
• Keep object parallel to image the tissues) varies between different
receptor regions of the body.
• Ensure X-ray beam is o The thorax has high inherent
perpendicular to the table/image contrast; the abdomen has poor
receptor inherent contrast.
• Ensure X-ray beam is centered on • The energy of the X-ray photons in the
the object primary beam (proportional to the kV).
Image contrast is inversely proportional to
IMAGE QUALITY the KV (increasing the kV decreases the
contrast).
Density
• When a conventional radiograph is too pale, Summary of ways to improve image contrast:
it is usually due to under-exposure (not • Use a lower kV
enough X-rays reaching the film) or under- • Reduce scatter
development. • Grid
When a conventional radiograph is too dark, • Collimation
it is usually due • Lower kV
• to over-exposure (too many X-rays reaching • Correct any processing errors (conventional
the film) or overdevelopment (less radiography)
common).
• Change the developer
• Ensure developer is at the correct
temperature
• Ensure correct development time

Movement Blur
• Movement blur can be caused by patient
motion (most common cause) or movement
of the table or image receptor.

• To reduce movement blur the exposure time

should be kept as low as possible and
sedation/general anesthesia should be used
when necessary.
Contrast
• Contrast is the difference in density between Geomentric Unsharpness
two adjacent areas on a radiograph. • Geometric unsharpness is caused by
• A very contrasted image appears mainly aspects of the geometry of the X-ray beam.
black and white, and contains relatively few • It is dependent on the focal spot size (which
shades of grey. should be as small as possible), the film-
• A poorly contrasted image contains a long tube distance (should be large; usually
scale of grey shades. around 1m) and the object-film distance
(should be small).
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each other on lateral projections of the

lumbar spine or abdomen

IMAGE ARTIFACTS
Xray Artifact (or Artefact) is a non-anatomical image
observed in radiography.
• Artefacts are generally less common with
digital radiography, but there are a few that
can occur:
• The image can be very grainy
(quantum mottle) due to marked
under-exposure (discussed above
Centring and Collimation under 'image quality').
• Good centring is important to decrease the • The margins of structures can be
distortion of the area of interest, which is lost with marked over exposure.
caused by the Xray beam divergence.
• A radiolucent halo can be seen
• The region of interest should be in the surrounding metal
centre of the primary beam. implants (Uberschwinger
• The primary beam should also be artefact*).
appropriately collimated so that it only • Ghost images may arise because of
contains the region of interest. incomplete erasure of the CR plate
before use.
Positioning * an artifact of digital processing that may be
• The body part to be radiographed should be mistaken for bone lysis
well positioned, paying particular care and
attention to avoid unwanted rotation. • Moire artefact (bands seen across the
• For example, the sternum should be image) can arise with CR systems as a
superimposed with the thoracic spine on a result of interference between the sampling
dorsoventral projection of the thorax. frequency of the laser reader and the
• The costochondral junctions should be number of lines per centimeter in the grid.
superimposed with each other on lateral
projections of the thorax.
• The transverse processes of the lumbar LESSON 3- RADIATION PROTECTION
vertebrae should be superimposed with
each other on lateral projections of the BIOLOGIC EFFECTS OF XRAYS
lumbar spine or abdomen
• X-rays are a form of ionizing radiation.
Movement Blur • When X-rays interact with matter via either
• Movement blur can be caused by patient the photoelectric effect or the Compton
motion (most common cause) or movement effect, an electron is ejected from the atom
of the table or image receptor. turning it into a positive ion (called
• To reduce movement blur the exposure time ionization).
should be kept as low as possible and • The ejected electron (or free electron) can
sedation/general anesthesia should be used also result in the ejection other electrons
when necessary. therefore producing further ionization
events (called indirect ionization).
Positioning
• The body part to be radiographed should be The damaging effects are due to intracellular
well positioned, paying particular care and ionization, which interferes with the molecular
attention to avoid unwanted rotation. chemistry of the cells.
• For example, the sternum should be
superimposed with the thoracic spine on a The precise nature of any damage will depend on:
dorsoventral projection of the thorax. • the tissue irradiated
• The costochondral junctions should be • the characteristics of the radiation
superimposed with each other on lateral • the dose of radiation received
projections of the thorax. • the duration of exposure
• The transverse processes of the lumbar
vertebrae should be superimposed with
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Cellular damage is mainly caused by the action of • Eyes. Irradiation of the eyes can cause
electrons on DNA molecules. cataract development even at low doses;
keratitis can also occur due to lachrymal
Electrons can induce genetic code alterations gland destruction.
resulting in mutations or cellular death. • Gonads. Irradiation of the gonads can induce
temporary or permanent infertility
DNA damage can occur via two different depending on the dose of radiation received.
mechanisms.
1. DIRECT EFFECTS- the DNA molecule is
ionised by the electron directly. This is a Stochastic effects of ionizing radiation are random
minor mechanism with X-rays used in chance events.
diagnostic imaging. • They are caused by radiation-induced
2. INDIRECT EFFECTS - the electrons cause cellular mutations that can result in cancer
ionization of water molecules, which leads or hereditary / genetic effects (with
to the production of free radicals. These free germline mutations); theoretically, injury to
radicals then recombine with DNA a single cell could result in manifestation of
molecules and produce disease.
DNA damage. • The probability of the effect occurring
increases with the dose, but the severity of
• Some cells are more sensitive to ionizing the effect is independent of the dose
radiation than others. received (i.e. the subject will either develop
• Cell sensitivity varies with the phase of the cancer or they will not).
cell cycle; cells that are undergoing mitosis • Stochastic effects do not have a threshold
are most sensitive, whilst cells in interphase dose and can therefore occur even with very
are more resistant. low doses.
• Cells are also more sensitive when they are • The clinical consequences are insidious and
poorly differentiated and dividing rapidly. can appear a long time after the exposure
• Muscle and nervous tissue are the most occurred.
resistant because they are composed of • Stochastic effects are the principle health
well differentiated cells. risk from low dose radiation.
• The cells environment can also affect its
radiosensitivity. Stochastic effects:
• No threshold dose
The biologic effects of ionizing radiation exposure can • Probability increases with dose
be classified as either deterministic or stochastic
• Severity is not related to dose
Deterministic effects (or tissue reactions) of ionizing • Random occurrence
radiation are related directly to the absorbed
radiation dose; as the dose increases the severity of This is the reason for the application of the ALARA
the effect increases (but not the probability). principle
(As Low As Reasonably Achievable) when dealing
Higher doses are required to produce deterministic with sources of radiation.
effects (compared with stochastic effects), and there
is a threshold dose below which the effect does not The stochastics effects that can result from frequent
occur. low-dose irradiation include:

Deterministic effects: 1. CARCINOGENESIS. The risk of some cancers

(e.g. leukaemia, thyroid tumours) is more
• Have a threshold dose
important in populations with radiation
• Dose and severity are proportional exposure.
2. EMBRYONIC / FOETAL DAMAGE. The effects
Local irradiation of tissues can result in immediate depend on the stage of embryonic/fetal
effects such as inflammation and necrosis, or development. The embryo is highly
delayed effects such as atrophic fibrosis. radiosensitive before the 9th day. Exposure
during this period can induce embryonic
The consequences of local irradiation also depend on death, which is not normally noticed. During
the affected tissue: the period of organogenesis cellular death
or mutation can induce fetal malformation.
• Skin. Irradiation of the skin can cause
cutaneous erythema, dermatitis and fibrosis.
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SOURCES OF RADIATION EXPOSURE • This is the principle of the inverse square

In diagnostic radiology, there are three main sources law.
of radiation: • The inverse square law states that the
1. Primary beam intensity of radiation at a given point is
2. Scattered radiation inversely proportional to the square of the
3. Leakage radiation distance between that point and the source
of the radiation
• The primary beam is very energetic; it is
1000 times more intense than scattered In equine radiography, cassette holders should be
radiation. At no time should any part of an used to keep personnel as far away as possible from
assistant be placed within the primary the horse and the primary beam.
beam, even if protected with lead clothing.
• Scattered radiation is produced by the object
exposed to the primary beam (e.g. the
animal and X-ray table).
• Leakage radiation from the X-ray tube is
normally prevented by the lead shielding of
the tube.

PROTECTIVE MEASURES
• Exposure to ionizing radiation can be
reduced by following some simple basic
principles. Every exposure must be justified,
and any assistant that will be exposed to
scattered radiation (i.e. any staff member
remaining in the X-ray room) must be Barrier
indispensable to handling.
• A barrier containing a material that absorbs
• Steps must then be taken keep the dose X-rays can be used.
received by the staff to the minimum • The most commonly used material is
possible level (ALARA principle).
Lead . X-ray attenuation follows an
• There are three principle ways to reduce exponential law; therefore, no matter how
exposure to ionizing radiation, which relate thick it is, a barrier will never stop all of the
to: X-rays from passing through.
1. Exposure time
• The goal of barriers is to reduce the dose as
2. Distance
much as possible. Lead shielding covers the
3. Barriers
X-ray tube to prevent leakage radiation.

LEGISLATION GOVERNING THE USE OF XRAY

The use of X-rays in veterinary practice is governed

by the:
1. REPUBLIC ACT NO. 7431 "Radiologic
Technology Act of 1992."
Exposure time 2. Basic Radiation Protection and Safety
• The radiation dose received is directly Standards on the Use of Radiation Devices
proportional to the length of the exposure in Planned Exposure Situations
time. 3. AO 2013-0031 Requirements for the
• When the exposure to radiation is Operation of a
continuous (e.g. for fluoroscopy and Therapeutic X-ray Facility Utilizing Medical
scintigraphy), the dose received can be Linear Accelerators
lowered by reducing the length of the
procedure REPUBLIC ACT NO. 7431 "Radiologic Technology Act
of 1992."
Distance Statement of Policy.- It is the policy of the State to
• The dose received decreases when the upgrade the practice of radiologic technology in the
distance from the source of radiation Philippines for the purpose of protecting the public
increases. from the hazards posed by radiation as well as to
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ensure safe and proper diagnosis, treatment and

research through the application of machines and/or
equipment using radiation.

Basic Radiation Protection and Safety Standards on

the Use of Radiation Devices in Planned Exposure
Situations
In 2004, Administrative Order (AO) Nos. 149 and 164
and its Department of Health (DOH) Memorandum
Circular 323 were issued to align with the 1996
International Basic Safety Standards (IBSS) No. 115. In
2014, the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA)
published General Safety Requirements (GSR) Part 3
and superseded IBSS No. 115.
This Administrative Order is hereby issued repealing
Administrative Order (AO) Nos. 149 and 164 and its
DOH
Memorandum Circular 323, and other relevant
Administrative Orders issued by the DOH to adopt
relevant provisions of the IAEA GSR Part 3.
The implementation and enforcement of this AO shall
be consistent with the mandate of the Food and Drug
Administration (FDA) through the Implementing
Rules and Regulations (IRR) of the Republic Act 9711
known as the "Food and Drug Act of 2009"

Obiective
To ensure the protection of medical, occupationally
exposed person and members of the public from the
harmful effects of using ionizing radiation devices in
planned exposure situations