SHIP CONSTRUCTION – SHORT NOTES / Q & As

 EXPLAIN THE TERM KEEL

Keel: The keel is a member, or series of members, running longitudinally that forms the structural
base of a ship. The keel always corresponds to a ship's centreline. It is a major component in
providing longitudinal strength and efficiently distributes local stresses when the ship is dry docked.
There are two types of keels used to build ships of a certain size, the flat keel and the duct keel.

 EXPLAIN WITH THE USE OF A DIAGRAM THE FLAT PLATE KEEL

Flat plate keel:

 EXPLAIN WITH THE USE OF A DIAGRAM THE DUCT KEEL

Duct keel:
  EXPLAIN THE TERM GIRDER

Girders: A girder is a longitudinal member used in the construction of the bottom of a ship. They can
be solid or not and can be placed above the keel (centre girder) or spaced equal distances from it
(side girders). They can be continuous or divided by floor sections (intercostal side girders). The
centre girder is always one continuous piece and must be fastened to the keel with a continuous
weld. Girders must extend as far as possible from the forward to the aft end of a ship.

 EXPLAIN THE TERM FLOORS

Floors: These are made up of cross members that are mounted perpendicular to the keel and
girders. There are three main types of floor: solid, plate and bracket.

 EXPLAIN WITH THE USE OF A DIAGRAM A PLATE FLOOR

Plate floor

 EXPLAIN WITH THE USE OF A DIAGRAM A SOLID FLOOR

Solid Floor
  EXPLAIN WITH THE USE OF A DIAGRAM A BRACKET OR OPEN FLOOR

Bracket or Open Floor

 EXPLAIN THE TERM FRAMES

Frames: These are vertical members that make up the framing of the vertical part of the hull. Frame
type and spacing vary considerably depending on the ship's construction.

 EXPLAIN WITH THE USE OF A DIAGRAM SHELL FRAMING

Shell Framing
  EXPLAIN THE TERM DECK BEAMS

Deck beams: These are transverse members that connect the top ends of the frames, forming the
transverse framing for the deck.

 EXPLAIN WITH USE OF A DIAGRAM LONGITUDINAL FRAMING, DECK AND SHELL.

Longitudinal framing, deck and shell

 EXPLAIN THE TERM DECK GIRDERS

Deck girders: These are longitudinal members that combine with the beams to form the longitudinal
framing of the deck.

 EXPLAIN THE TERM LONGITUDINALS

Longitudinals: A very general term to identify any small longitudinal member that can be used for
several purposes. This term is used more specifically in longitudinal framing.

 EXPLAIN THE TERM WEB FRAMES

Web frames: Oversized members that replace a frame at certain locations on a ship.

 EXPLAIN THE TERM BRACKET

Bracket: A general term that identifies any part used to connect two members.

 EXPLAIN THE TERM BEAM KNEE

Beam knee: Bracket located at the end of deck beams that connect the beam and frame to the shell
plating.
  EXPLAIN THE TERM PILLAR

Pillar: Vertical member inside a ship that connects the deck to the ship's bottom, where it is installed
between two tweendecks, especially around hatches. They are quite bulky and complicate cargo
handling inside holds.

 EXPLAIN THE TERM PLATING

Plating: The plating of a hull is the series of plates that form the watertight shell of the hull. There is
bottom plating, deck plating and side shell plating.

 EXPLAIN THE TERM BILGE PLATING

Bilge plating: Longitudinal plating that connects the side shell plating to the bottom plating.

 EXPLAIN THE TERM TANK TOP

Tank top: Watertight series of plates attached to a ship's bottom framework.

 EXPLAIN THE TERM DOUBLE BOTTOM

Double bottom: The double bottom is the watertight space between the bottom plating and the tank
top. Its height varies according to the size and type of ship, but it is generally between 0.75 and 1.5
metres. A double bottom is divided into several watertight compartments by watertight floors and
girders. These compartments can be used to store fuel, oil and ballast water. They are often used to
adjust a ship's list and trim.

A double bottom maintains a ship's watertight integrity when the bottom is damaged. The tank top
greatly increases a ship's longitudinal strength and forms a platform to carry the ship's cargo and
machinery.

 EXPLAIN WITH THE USE OF A DIAGRAM TRANSVERSELY FRAMED DOUBLE BOTTOM

Transversely framed double bottom

  EXPLAIN WITH THE USE OF A DIAGRAM LONGITUDINALLY FRAMED DOUBLE BOTTOM

Longitudinally framed double bottom

 EXPLAIN THE TERM TRANSVERSE FRAMING

Transverse framing: Transverse framing is used primarily for ships less than 120 metres in length.
The floors, frames and beams form rings spaced closely together. Longitudinal strength is provided
by the keel, centre girder, side girders, deck girders, the entire bottom, deck and side shell plating,
and the tank top. Transverse framing ensures good cross sectional strength to handle overall
stresses, vertical loads, rolling and dry docking. However, on very long ships, sheer stresses can
cause deformations between the rings.

 EXPLAIN THE TERM LONGITUDINAL FRAMING

Longitudinal framing: Longitudinal framing is mandatory for very large ships, oil tankers and bulk-ore
carriers. The rings are formed of floors, deck beams and web frames that replace the frames. These
rings are farther apart than in transverse framing. The longitudinal reinforcement members are deck
girders, girders, the keel and a large number of deck, bottom and side longitudinals. The
longitudinals are slender but there are very many of them.
  EXPLAIN THE TERM MIXED FRAMING

Mixed framing: Mixed framing combines longitudinal and transverse framing. One type of framing is
used in one part of the ship and the other type is used in another part. The most common
combination is longitudinal framing for the bottoms and the deck, and transverse framing for the
sides.

 EXPLAIN STRESSES AND CONSTRAINTS ON SHIP STRUCTURE

Static stresses and constraints: These stresses are measured when the ship is not under way. They
are often caused by a poor longitudinal distribution of mass. Even if the ship's total weight is
balanced by the total force of buoyancy, these forces may not be distributed evenly along the full
length of the ship.

Hogging and sagging can be amplified by the movement of waves passing along the hull. A crest of
waves at each end of a ship combined with a trough amidships will amplify sagging, while a crest
amidships combined with a trough at both ends will amplify hogging.

The stresses caused by these situations can be calculated using the load curves table, the stress and
sheer curves table, and the bending moments table. Manual or electronic calculators also exist to
find the value of the stresses on the hull. The maximum permissible stress values can be found in the
ship's stability book.

 EXPLAIN THE TERM HOGGING

Hogging: If the forces of buoyancy are concentrated around the section amidships and the ends are
loaded, the ship will tend to move downwards at the bow and stern while the section amidships will
tend to move upwards. In this situation, the deck's structural members are being subjected to tensile
stress while the bottom structure is under compressive stress. This phenomenon can be compared
to a beam supported in the centre and loaded with weights on the ends.

 EXPLAIN WITH THE USE OF A DIAGRAM HOGGING

Hogging
  EXPLAIN THE TERM SAGGING

Sagging: If the forces of buoyancy are concentrated under the bow and stern of the ship and the
section amidships is loaded, the ship will tend to move upwards at the ends and trough amidships. In
this situation, the deck's structural members are under compressive stress while the bottom
structure is being subjected to tensile stress. This phenomenon can be compared to a beam that is
supported at both ends and loaded with weights in the middle.

 EXPLAIN WITH THE USE OF A DIAGRAM SAGGING

Sagging
  EXPLAIN WHAT IS MEANT BY DYNAMIC STRESSES AND CONSTRAINTS

Dynamic stresses and constraints: When a ship is under way, some situations create additional
stresses. They are caused primarily by the effect of waves on the hull in rough seas. Two of these are
pounding and panting.

 EXPLAIN THE TERM POUNDING

Pounding: When a ship sails in heavy seas, it pitches. It can happen that the bow rises over the crest
of a wave and emerges completely out of the water. When the bow comes back down on the water,
it can be subjected to a major impact, which is pounding. The hull plating at the bow end of the ship
must be reinforced to avoid bending of the plating. This stress can also occur at the ship's stern, but
to a lesser degree.

 EXPLAIN THE TERM PANTING

Panting: When waves hit the bow and stern of a ship, they create variations in pressure that tend to
push the plating in and out. This is panting. The framing at the ship's ends must be reinforced to
prevent exaggerated movement of the hull plating.

 EXPLAIN PANTING & POUNDING ARRANGEMENT WITH RESPECT TO FORE PEAK TANK

At sea, the forward part of shell plating is subjected to panting (movement like breathing in –
breathing out) due to varying water pressure due to encountering waves and pounding due to
slamming in heavy weather. These local stresses are considerably different and extra strengthening
of forward shell plating is must.

Hence, Construction within Fore Peak Tank differs from that of the rest of the ship. The
cellular double bottom arrangement in the rest of the ship is discontinued in these tanks.

Pounding Arrangement: Solid plate floors are fitted at every frame space in the pounding region.
Center and side girders are extended forward to few floors to resist the distortion of bottom due to
slamming and it is discontinued as the width of bottom gets narrow.

Panting Arrangement: Additional stiffening for panting is provided in the fore peak structure in form
of panting beams (metal beams running port to stbd) and stringers.

1. Horizontal Side stringers spaced vertically about 2m apart and supported by panting beams are
fitted at alternate frames.

2. Panting beams are fitted to resist the in and out motion of shell plating either side of fore and aft
line and connected to the frames by triangular brackets.

3. They are supported by partial wash bulkhead at the centreline as required.

4. Side stringers spaced vertically about 2m apart and supported by web frames or perforated flats
spaced not more than 2.5m apart.

5. Breast hooks are fitted between and at each level of panting stringer in the vicinity of stem.
Collision bulkhead forms the aft most portion of the Fore peak tank. Usually, Port and Stbd chain
lockers are fitted at the aft portion and at higher level. Anchor chains are stowed here and their
bitter ends are secured at chain locker bulkhead which can be released in case of emergency. They
must be marked properly.
  EXPLAIN THE TERM WATERTIGHT BULKHEADS

Watertight bulkheads: A watertight bulkhead is a transverse bulkhead mounted on the tank top and
it must extend right to the uppermost continuous deck.

Watertight bulkheads are installed to:

Divide the ship into watertight compartments and thereby limit flooding if the hull plating is
damaged;

Improve the transverse strength of the structure;

Prevent distortion of the hull plating;

Support the deck girders and longitudinals;

Rigidly attach the tank top to the upper deck;

Greatly slow the spread of fire.

The number and location of watertight bulkheads on a ship depend on the length and type of ship
and the location of the machinery space. The SOLAS Convention determines the number and
location of these bulkheads. But in general, there is a watertight bulkhead (collision bulkhead) at the
bow that should be located between 0.05L and 0.075L (L = length between perpendiculars of a ship),
a watertight bulkhead at the stern that should form a watertight aft compartment (after peak) that
encloses the stern tube, and a watertight bulkhead at each end of the machinery space (where the
aft bulkhead may be the after-peak bulkhead).

All members that pass through a watertight bulkhead, such as ventilation ducts, piping and electric
wiring, must be mounted so as to maintain the watertight integrity of the bulkhead.

That is why remote controlled stopcocks are generally found on certain pipes that pass through
watertight bulkheads.

 EXPLAIN THE TERM WATERTIGHT DOORS

Watertight doors: In some situations, it is necessary to pierce bulkheads to allow crew or passengers
through. In this case, a sliding watertight door is installed. An example of this situation is the
watertight door that is found on some ships between the machinery space and the shaft tunnel.
Liners have many of these doors that allow passengers to go between the different sections of the
ship. These watertight doors are usually hydraulically activated. Local control stations must be
located on either side of the door. In addition, a remote control station (generally located in the
wheelhouse) must be placed outside both compartments separated by the watertight bulkhead.

Chapter II-1, Regulation 15 of the SOLAS Convention governs the installation and operating
requirements for these doors.

Extract, Regulation 15,

7.1.6: [A watertight door] shall be provided with an audible alarm, distinct from any other alarm in
the area, which will sound whenever the door is closed remotely by power and which shall sound for
at least 5 s but no more than 10 s before the door begins to move and shall continue sounding until
the door is completely closed. In the case of remote hand operation it is sufficient for the audible
alarm to sound only when the door is moving. Additionally, in passenger areas and areas of high
ambient noise the Administration may require the audible alarm to be supplemented by an
intermittent visual signal at the door; and

7.1.7: shall have an approximately uniform rate of closure under power. The closure time, from the
time the door begins to move to the time it reaches the completely closed position, shall in no case
be less than 20 s or more than 40 s with the ship in the upright position.

 EXPLAIN WITH THE USE OF A DIAGRAM WATERTIGHT BULKHEAD

Watertight bulkhead
  EXPLAIN SHELL EXPANSION PLAN

- It is a two dimensional drawing of a three dimensional surface of the ship’s hull form.
- This plan is very useful for the following information: It is used for marking the location of a
hull Damage on this plan by identifying the strake number, letter and frame number so that
the exact location of the damage and also suggested repairs are marked in a localised copy.
- The shell expansion can be used for finding areas of painting surfaces such as topside, boot
topping and bottom areas by applying Simpson’s rules directly.
- In the shell expansion the vertical scale used is different from the horizontal scale and a
suitable adjustment has to be made when calculating areas.
- This becomes useful in solving disputes concerning areas of preparation and painting.
- It gives information on the thickness of the original strake which is indicated by the number
in the circle shown in the strake.
- The quality of steel used is also shown by letters A, B, D, E and AH, BH, DH, EH.

 SHELL AND DECK PLATING

The shell plating forms the watertight skin of the ship and at the same time, contributes to the
longitudinal strength and resists vertical shear forces. Internal strengthening of the shell plating may
be both transverse and longitudinal.

The bottom and side shell plating consists of a series of flat and curved steel plates butt welded
together. The vertical welded joints are referred to as ‘butts’ and the horizontal welded joints as
‘seams’. Stiffening members both longitudinal and transverse are generally welded to the shell.

Bottom shell plating

Throughout the length of the ship the width and thickness of the keel plate remain constant where a
flat plate keel is fitted. Its thickness is never less than that of the adjoining bottom plating. Keel
strake is on the center line.

Strakes of bottom plating to the bilges have their greatest thickness over the 40% of the ship’s length
amidships, where the bending stresses are highest. The bottom plating then tapers to a lesser
thickness at the ends of the ship, apart from increased thickness requirements in way of the
pounding region.
Side shell plating

As with the bottom shell plating, the greater thickness of the side shell plating is maintained within
40% of the vessel’s midship length and then tapers to the rule thickness at the ends. The thickness
may be increased in regions where high vertical shear stresses occur, usually in way of transverse
bulkheads in a vessel permitted to carry heavy cargoes with some holds empty. There is also a
thickness increase at the stern frame connection, at any shaft brackets, and in way of the hawse
pipes, where considerable chafing occurs. Further shell plate thickness increases may be found at
the panting region.

The uppermost strake of plating adjacent to the main deck is called ‘sheer strake’. As the sheer
strake is at a large distance from the neutral axis it has a greater thickness than the other strakes of
side shell plating. The upper edge is dressed smooth and the welding of bulwarks to the edge of the
sheer strake is not permitted.

The connection between the sheer strake and main deck can present a problem and a rounded
gunwale may be adopted to solve this problem where the plating is heavy. This is often the case over
the midship portion of large tankers and bulk carriers. The radius of a rounded gunwale must be
adequate (not less than 15 times the thickness).

A smooth transition from rounded gunwale to angled sheer strake/deck stringer connection is
necessary at the ends of the ship.

All openings in the side shell have rounded corners and openings for sea inlets etc. are kept clear of
the bilge radius if possible. Where this is not possible openings on or in the vicinity of the bilge are
made elliptical.
Bilge keel

Most ships are fitted with some form of bilge keel, the prime function of which is to help damp the
rolling motion of the vessel. Other relatively minor advantages of the bilge keel are protection for
the bilge on grounding and increased longitudinal strength at the bilge.

The damping action provided by the bilge keel is relatively small but effective, and virtually without
cost after the construction of the ship. It is carefully positioned on the ship so as to avoid excessive
drag when the ship is under way. This bilge keel then generally runs over the midship portion of the
hull, often extending further aft than forward of amidships and being virtually perpendicular to the
turn of the bilge.

Decks

The weather decks of ships are cambered to facilitate the draining of water from the decks in heavy
weather. The camber may be parabolic or straight, the latter being preferred in many cases to allow
panel lines to be used for the production of the deck panels. There may be advantages in fitting
horizontal decks in some ships, particularly if containers are carried and regular cross-sections are
desired. Short lengths of internal deck or flats are as a rule horizontal.

Decks are arranged in plate panels with transverse or longitudinal stiffening, and local stiffening in
way of any openings. Longitudinal deck girders may support the transverse framing and deep
transverses the longitudinal framing.

Deck plating

The heaviest deck plating will be found abreast the hatch openings of the strength deck. Plating that
lies within the line of the hatch openings contributes little to the longitudinal strength of the deck
and it is therefore appreciably lighter. As the greatest longitudinal bending stresses will occur over
the midship region, the greatest deck plate thickness is maintained over 40% of the length amidships
and it tapers to a minimum thickness permitted at the ends of the ship. Locally, the plating thickness
may be increased where higher stresses occur owing to discontinuities in the structure or
concentrated loads.

Some definitions

Strake: a continuous line of plates from the stem to the stern of a ship.

Seam: the horizontal welded joints are referred as ‘seams’

Butt: The vertical welded joints are referred to as ‘butts’.

Stealer plate: In iron shipbuilding, the end-plate of a strake of outside or inner-bottom plating which
is dropped out as the girth of the vessel narrows toward the ends. It is place where 2 strakes merge
into 1.

Coffin plate: the plate joining two side plates over the keel of a vessel at the stern which in plan view
creates a shape similar to a coffin lid.

Sheer strake: It is the topmost strake on ship side.

  SHELL EXPANSION PLAN

Numbering system:

Numbering system of Frames starts from Rudder stock (Frame no ZERO) and counted towards
stem/bow. Plans mark every 5th frame for counting. Since rudder stock is NOT the aftermost part,
there are frames behind Frame no. Zero. These are counted as Negative numbers.

Normally frames are spaced at a distance of 600 mm to 950 mm. Minimum distances are followed
for a principle “All parts of the ship MUST be accessible for INSPECTION and Maintenance”. Also 600
mm separation permits proper welding by a welder.

Shell plating: We need to count plates in 2 dimensions. One is athwartship position and other being
along the length. We use half width diagram for checking position of strake. KEEL strake is on the
center line (half on Port side and half on starboard side. Next to KEEL strake is Garboard strake. We
are talking about strakes and NOT PLATES. Garboard strake is also known as Strake “A”. Next to “A”
is “B” strake and so on till numbering reaches SHEER Strake (Top most strake on ship side). This
numbering is in Alphabetic form (A, B, C …..).

What about lengthwise identification? Plates are counted from AFT to FORWARD in NUMBERS.

Each PLATE is therefore indicated by a letter to show its level, a number to show its position.
  WHAT IS CORROSION & HOW SHIPS FIGHT CORROSION AT SEA?

Corrosion can be a major issue for any industry that works with metal, including the shipping
industry. The harsh marine climate, with its high salt and moisture levels, makes the ships prone to
corrosion. If left unattended, it can weaken the ship’s construction, raising safety issues and
requiring expensive repairs.

Corrosion is a process that occurs with metals, involving them moving towards their lowest energy
state, which results in a quick reaction between the environment and the metal, hence degrading its
quality and life. Corrosion is derived from the Latin word ‘corrodere’, which means ‘gnaw to pieces’.

Ship Corrosion

In case of the marine or shipping sector, mild steel is the most preferred metal for constructing ships
due to its low cost, mechanical strength and ease of fabrication. However, its main issue is that it
corrodes quite easily as it comes in contact with the salty water of the sea. Secondly, if it is not
properly protected, it loses its strength quite fast, which could lead to structural failure.

While a way to prevent this is to repair the coating while the vessel is offshore, it can cost up to 100
times the cost of the first coating, and according to NACE (The National Association of Corrosion
Engineers) International, the total cost of corrosion in the marine sector across the world is
somewhere between 50 to 80 billion dollars annually.

However, if shipowners start with adequate planning and are careful with the first coating, their
ships will give the best performance and maintain cost efficiency.
If the reason for the deterioration is poor preparation of the surface, then the solution is to remove
the paint and do it again.

There are two kinds of corrosion which are relevant to the shipping industry, which is pitting
corrosion and corrosion by bacteria or bacterial corrosion.

Therefore, shipbuilders and operators take many steps to protect their vessels from corroding.

Ways to prepare the ship to fight corrosion:

Enhancing the Ship Design

Ship designers and operators put in the effort to reduce corrosion to expand the lifespan of ships
and keep them secure. A few design features can help reduce the rate of corrosion and reduce
maintenance costs during the ship’s active life.

Properly placing scuppers and drains is essential to aiding the draining of water from decks, wells,
and bilge areas, eliminating a direct cause of corrosive activity.

To reduce galvanic corrosion, insulation should be set up in areas where different metals are placed
close to each other. An impressed current system that monitors corrosive cell activity and applies a
current to protective anodes can also be installed to detect and manage corrosion.

In locations with temperature shifts, insulation is needed to stop thermal fatigue.

Anti-vibration practices, such as fitting turbine machinery with sliding feet, can minimise metal
fatigue, and sacrificial anodes made of magnesium, aluminium, or zinc can protect against corrosion.

Utilising corrosion-resistant alloy steel or stainless steel can also decrease corrosion. Installing
rubbing strakes or doubling plates to take in extra wear and tear can also help extend a ship’s service
life.

Structural user-friendly design to allow maintenance and coating applications can also make it easier
to control corrosion once a vessel is in operation.

Incorporating these design features at the building stage can significantly reduce maintenance costs
and control corrosion.

Coating

One of the most effective ways to protect ships from corrosion is by applying coatings to the ship’s
surfaces. These specialised paint coatings are a barrier between the metal surface and the corrosive
environment. As the ship hull and open deck are in constant contact with water and the sea
atmosphere, this additional layer of protection prevents moisture and salt from coming into contact
with the metal surface and reduces the likelihood of corrosion.

Hull paint coatings also prevent sea life, such as algae and molluscs getting attached to the hull
which may expose the metal to the seawater and increase the corrosion rate. They also provide a
smooth hull surface to reduce the drag and resistance over the hull, thereby increasing fuel
efficiency.

The most common types of coatings include epoxy, polyurethane, and zinc-rich coatings. Epoxy
coatings are popular because they are highly resistant to water and chemicals and provide excellent
adhesion to metal surfaces.
Polyurethane coatings are also commonly used because they provide a tough, durable finish that can
withstand harsh conditions. Zinc-rich coatings are particularly effective because they contain a high
percentage of zinc, which acts as a sacrificial anode to protect the metal surface from corrosion.

Cathodic Protection

Cathodic protection is a method that involves the use of sacrificial anodes. As the name suggests,
sacrificial anodes are made from metals that are more anodic than the metal being protected. They
get corroded (or sacrificed) instead of the ship’s metal, thereby saving the metal from corrosion.

There are two types of cathodic protection: galvanic and impressed current.

Galvanic cathodic protection involves the use of sacrificial anodes that are connected to the metal
being protected. When the anodes corrode, they release electrons, which flow to the metal and
prevent corrosion.

Impressed current cathodic protection, on the other hand, involves using an external power source
to provide the electrons needed to protect the metal surface.

Both types of cathodic protection are effective in protecting ships from corrosion. Impressed current
cathodic protection is generally preferred for covering larger surface areas, and it can be precisely
adjusted to meet the ship’s specific needs.

Sacrificial anodes are used in smaller areas or in the machinery which carries or uses seawater.

Corrosion inhibitors

These are the chemical compound applied on the surface of the metal. This is not a preventive
method, but corrosion inhibitors reduce the corrosion rate on materials such as metal or alloy. It is a
cost-effective way to prevent or control corrosion because using corrosion inhibitors can save up to
35% of losses due to pollution on ships.
The major advantage of corrosion inhibitors is using cheaper metals other than steel and alloy in a
harsh environment. Once applied with corrosion inhibitor chemicals, they can operate longer than
their prescribed age. It also reduces maintenance costs as it provides elongating rust protection.

Anodic Protection

This is another method used for corrosion prevention; however, they are not commonly used in the
shipping industry as they require a constant source of electricity, which can be challenging to
maintain in case of a blackout.

Conclusion

Thus, there are many ways to prevent ship corrosion, such as cathodic protection, which has two
methods, including the use of sacrificial anodes and impressed current systems and secondly,
applying coatings on the ship’s surface, especially areas more exposed to the seawater with
dissolved salts like the hull. Routine maintenance goes a long way in maintaining the long life of the
asset.

 WHAT CAUSES GALVANIC CORROSION?

It occurs when two (or more) dissimilar metals are brought into electrical contact under water.
When a galvanic couple forms, one of the metals in the couple becomes the anode and corrodes
faster than it would all by itself, while the other becomes the cathode and corrodes slower than it
would alone.

 SHIP’S DIMENSIONS TERMINOLOGY

Registered Length: is the length of ship measured from the fore-side of the head of the stem to the
aft side of the head of the stern post or, in the case of a ship not having a stern post, to the fore-side
of the rudder stock.

Length Between Perpendiculars (LBP): is the length of a ship along the summer load line from the
forward surface of the stem, or main bow perpendicular member, to the after surface of the
sternpost, or main stern perpendicular member.
Margin plate: is the plate, or rather plates (considering both port and starboard sides) at the side
extremities of the inner bottom, that is, the point where the inner bottom plating meets the side
shell of the vessel or the inner side shell plate

Coffin plate: the plate joining two side plates over the keel of a vessel at the stern which in plan view
creates a shape similar to a coffin lid.

Gusset Plate: is a triangular plate, usually fitted to distribute forces at a strength connection
between two structural members