M O D U L A R S Y S T E M

TRIGONOMETRY
Functions, Equations and Inequalities

Ahmet Çakýr

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To the Teacher
This book is about trigonometry, and in particular trigonometric functions, equations and inequalities. It is the
second trigonometry book in the Zambak Modular System series for high school math students. If you are
teaching trigonometry over two years, you could teach the book Introduction to Trigonometry in the first year
and this book in the second year. However, if you are teaching trigonometry in just one year, you could teach
Introduction to Trigonometry followed by only the second and third sections of this book. The decision will
depend on your teaching curriculum and constraints.

This book is divided into three sections, structured as follows:

♦ Section 1 introduces the book with a basic summary of trigonometry and trigonometric relations. It covers basic
definitions, and formulas and rules such as the sine and cosine theorems, the sum and difference formulas, the
double-angle and half-angle formulas, and the sum to product and product to sum formulas. This material
summarizes the content of a basic course in trigonometry, which students should have studied previously. It can
be replaced with the material in the book Introduction to Trigonometry from the Zambak Modular System series.
♦ Section 2 is about trigonometric functions and their graphs and inverses. It begins with a presentation of the
properties of each function, including its domain and range and increasing or decreasing behavior over
different intervals. The most important functions are the sine, cosine and tangent functions, but their
reciprocals cosecant, secant and cotangent are also presented here for completeness. A separate section looks
at the periods of trigonometric functions and their application to sketching the graph of a function. The last
part of this section covers inverse trigonometric functions.
♦ Section 3 deals with trigonometric equations and inequalities. To help students’ understanding, the
material is broken up into subsections that deal with different types of problem separately. Students are also
shown how to write an answer in a shorter form, and how to apply the trigonometric formulas and theorems
they have studied to solve different problems. Inequalities are illustrated using the unit circle, as students
generally find inequality problems easier to understand like this.
The book follows a step-by-step teaching approach, which leads the student from basic definitions and concepts to
gradual mastery of the topic through a large number of clear, solved examples. At each stage, students’ progress can
be checked with regular ‘Check Yourself ’ sections and graded exercises at the end of each section. In addition, the
Chapter Summary and Chapter Review Tests at the end of the book provide a summary of the book. There are three
tests, one for each section of the book.

Acknowledgements
Many friends and colleagues helped and supported me while I was writing this book, and I would like to thank
all of them for their comments and suggestions in correspondence and conversation. In particular I would like
to thank Mustafa Kýrýkçý and Cem Giray for their advice and very valuable encouragement, Serdar Yýldýrým for
his patient typesetting and good design, and Zoe Barnett for her careful proofreading. Finally, I would like to
thank my family for their patience while I was working on this book.
Ahmet Çakýr
To the Student
Trigonometry is a part of math that lies halfway between algebra and geometry. You can use
trigonometry to see algebra in a geometric way, and to see geometry in an algebraic way.
Trigonometry also has applications in many different areas of science, and some of these are described
in this book.
Many students think that trigonometry is a difficult subject, but if you look at it carefully, you will
see that it can be fun. The best thing is to start with basic examples that you can understand easily.
When you have understood the basics, harder questions become easier to solve and you will like
trigonometry more. If you can see that trigonometry is fun, it will be easier for you and you will enjoy
it. So study hard, but have fun!
Using This Book
This book is designed so that you can use it effectively.
Each section has its own special color that you can see
at the bottom of the page.

Different pieces of information in the book are useful

in different ways. Look at the types of information,
and how they appear in the book:

Notes help you focus on important details. When

you see a note, read it twice! Make sure you
understand it.

Definition boxes give formal descriptions of new

concepts. Theorem boxes include propositions that
can be proved, and Rule boxes include other
important properties. The information in these
boxes is important for further understanding and
for following the examples.

Examples include problems related to the topic and

their solution, with explanations. The examples are
numbered, so you can find them easily in the book.
 Check Yourself sections help you to check your
understanding of what you have just studied.
Solve these questions alone and then check your
answers against the answer key provided. If your
answers are correct, you can move on the next
section. If an answer is wrong, go through your
working again and check back through the
examples in the section.

A small notebook in the left or right margin of a

page reminds you of material that is related to the
topic you are studying. It might help you to see
your mistakes, too!

Exercises at the end of each section cover the

material in the whole section. You should be able
to solve all the problems which do not have a star.
A star (›) next to a question means the question
is a bit more difficult. Some of these questions are
similar to the questions of some national
mathematics olympiads. The answers to the
exercises are at the back of the book.

The Chapter Summary at the end of the book

summarizes all the material that has been covered
in the book. The Concept Check section contains
oral questions. In order to answer them you don’t
need paper or pen. If you answer Concept Check
questions correctly, it means you know that topic!
The answers to these questions are in the material
you studied. Go back over the material if you are
not sure about an answer to a Concept Check
question.
After the Concept Check there are Chapter Review
Tests with multiple-choice questions in increasing
order of difficulty. Test 1 is about the first section,
Test 2 is about the second section and Test 3 is
about the third section of the book. The answer key
for these tests is at the back of the book.
 TRIGONOMETRY D. INVERSE TRIGONOMETRIC
FUNCTIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
FUNCTIONS, EQUATIONS and INEQUALITIES 1. The Arcsine Function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
1. INTRODUCTION TO TRIGONOMETRY . . . . 10 2. The Arccosine Function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57

A. ANGLES AND THE UNIT CIRCLE . . . . . . 10 3. The Arctangent Function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60

4. The Arccotangent Function . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
B. BASIC TRIGONOMETRIC RATIOS . . . . . 13
Mathematics and Music . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
C. TRIGONOMETRIC IDENTITIES . . . . . . . . 15
EXERCISES 2 .............................. 66
D. TRIGONOMETRIC THEOREMS . . . . . . . . 17
3. TRIGONOMETRIC EQUATIONS AND
1. Basic Theorems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
INEQUALITIES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
2. Formulas for the Area of a Triangle . . . . . . . 18
E. TRIGONOMETRIC FORMULAS . . . . . . . . 19 A. TYPES OF TRIGONOMETRIC
EQUATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
1. Sum and Difference Formulas . . . . . . . . . . . 19
1. Basic Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
2. Double-A
Angle and Half-A
Angle Formulas . . . . 20
2. Factorizing Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
3. Reduction Formulas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
3. Equations with a Common Ratio . . . . . . . . . 84
4. Sum to Product Formulas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
4. Linear Equations in sin x and cos x . . . . . . 87
5. Product to Sum Formulas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
5. Homogeneous
Applications of Trigonometry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
Equations in sin x and cos x . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
EXERCISES 1 .............................. 28
6. Maximum and Minimum Values of a
2. TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS . . . . . . . . . 30 Trigonometric Function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
A. TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS AND B. FURTHER TRIGONOMETRIC
THEIR PROPERTIES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30 EQUATIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
1. The Sine Function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30 1. Trigonometric Equations with
2. The Cosine Function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31 an Absolute Value . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
3. The Tangent Function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33 2. Parametric Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
4. The Cotangent Function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34 3. Equations with Inverse
5. The Secant Function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35 Trigonometric Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97

6. The Cosecant Function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36 4. Systems of Trigonometric Equations . . . . . . 97

7. Mixed Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36 5. Mixed Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99

B. PERIODS OF TRIGONOMETRIC C. TRIGONOMETRIC INEQUALITIES . . . . .102

FUNCTIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40 1. Basic Trigonometric Inequalities . . . . . . . . . 102
1. Periodic Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40 2. Advanced Trigonometric Inequalities . . . . . 112
2. Periods of Trigonometric Functions . . . . . . . 42 Abul Wafa Buzjani and Nasir al-D
Din al Tusi . . . . . . 118
C. GRAPHS OF TRIGONOMETRIC EXERCISES 3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120
FUNCTIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
CHAPTER SUMMARY ............................................124
1. Graph of the Sine Function . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
CONCEPT CHECK ....................................................131
2. Graph of the Cosine Function . . . . . . . . . . . 47
CHAPTER REVIEW TEST 1 ....................................132
3. Graph of the Tangent Function . . . . . . . . . . 48
CHAPTER REVIEW TEST 2 ....................................134
4. Graph of the Cotangent Function . . . . . . . . 48
5. Graph of the Secant Function . . . . . . . . . . . 49
CHAPTER REVIEW TEST 3 ....................................136
6. Graph of the Cosecant Function . . . . . . . . . 50 ANSWERS...............................................................138
7. Graph Translations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50 GLOSSARY .............................................................143
The history of trigonometry goes back to Egyptian and Babylonian mathematics. Trigonometry is based on the study
of the relationships between the sides and angles of a right triangle, and also the study of similar triangles.

Trigonometry was first used for cartography, astronomy, surveying and navigation.
Egyptians used trigonometry to find the area of pieces of land and also for constructing
the Pyramids. Babylonians also used trigonometry for their study of astronomy, as an aid
for the calculation of arcs of circle and of the lengths of the chords that subtended these
arcs.

In the 2nd century BC, Hipparchus compiled a trigonometric table which could be used
to find an angle or a side length of a triangle. The value that Hipparchus used for the
radius is not certain, but 300 years later, Ptolemy used r = 60 because the Hellenistic
Greeks had adopted the Babylonian sexadecimal numeration system. In his great
astronomical handbook The Almagest, Ptolemy provided a table of chords from 0° to 180°
in steps of 1° that is accurate to 1/3600 of a unit. Nasir al-Din at-Tusi
Late in the 8th century, Muslim astronomers inherited this knowledge. By the end of the
10th century they had defined the sine function and the five other trigonometric
functions, and had discovered and proved several basic theorems of trigonometry for
both triangles in a flat plane and triangles on the surface of a sphere (these two types of
triangle give us two types of trigonometry: plane trigonometry and spherical trigonometry).
Several mathematicians suggested using r = 1 instead of r = 60; this exactly produces
the modern values of the trigonometric functions. The Muslims also introduced the polar
triangle in spherical trigonometry. All of these discoveries were used by astronomers as
an aid in astronomical time-keeping and for finding the direction of Mecca for the five
daily prayers required by Muslim law. Muslim scientists also produced very accurate
Abul Wafa Buzjani
trigonometric tables. For example, their tables of sine and tangent values, established for
increments of 1/60 of a degree, were accurate for better than one part in 700 million.
Abul Wafa Buzjani (940-998) was the first scholar who put forward the basic rules of spherical and plane
trigonometry. He analyzed the sine function scientifically and developed the following identities:
sin(a + b) = sin a ⋅ cos b + cos a ⋅ sin b,
sin 2a = 2sin a ⋅ cos a,
cos 2a = 1 – 2sin2a
sin2a = 1 – cos2a.
European scholars derived the same formulas using their own methods after many centuries and a lot of hard work.
Following Buzjani, the great astronomer Nasir al-Din at-Tusi (1201-1274) wrote the Book of the Transversal Figure,
which was the first treatment of plane and spherical trigonometry as an independent mathematical science.
 The Western world became aware of Muslim trigonometry through the translations of
Arabic astronomy handbooks, beginning in the 12th century. The first major Western
work on trigonometry was written by the German astronomer and mathematician
Johann Müller (1436-1476), who was known as Regiomontanus. In the next century the
German astronomer Georg Joachim (1514-1574), known as Rheticus, introduced the
modern concept of trigonometric functions as ratios instead of as the lengths of
certain lines. It is believed that the term ‘trigonometry’ was first used by the German
mathematician and astronomer Bartholomaeus Pitiscus (1561-1574) who published a
piece of work in 1595 that was later revised and called Trigonometria sive de dimensione
Johann Müller
triangulae in 1600. The word trigonometria came from the two Greek words trigonon
and metria, which mean ‘triangle’ and ‘measurement’ respectively. The French
mathematician François Viète (1540-1603) introduced the polar triangle into spherical trigonometry, and stated the
multiple-angle formulas for sin ax and cos ax in terms of powers of sin x and cos x.

The Scottish mathematician John Napier (1550-1617) also made important

contributions to the development of trigonometry in the 17th century. Napier created
memory aids for the ten laws for solving spherical triangles, and developed a set of
proportions called Napier’s analogies for solving oblique spherical triangles.

Almost exactly half a century after Napier’s work was published, Isaac Newton
(1643-1727) invented differential and integral calculus. One of the foundations of this
work was Newton’s representation of different functions as infinite series of powers of x.
Thus Newton developed a series for sin x and similar series for cos x and tan x. With the
invention of calculus, the trigonometric functions were taken over into analysis, where John Napier
they still play important roles in both pure and applied mathematics. Finally, in the 18th
century the Swiss mathematician Leonhard Euler (1707-1783) defined the trigonometric functions in terms of
complex numbers. This made the whole subject of trigonometry just one of the many applications of complex
numbers, and showed that the basic laws of trigonometry were simply consequences of the arithmetic of these
numbers. As a result, trigonometry has become a valuable tool in many other areas of pure and applied
mathematics.

Today there are two main branches of trigonometry, namely plane trigonometry and
spherical trigonometry. Plane trigonometry concerns triangles in a two-dimensional plane.
It has many applications and is used in physics to calculate the properties of
radiation, the propagation of light and other periodic phenomena. Spherical trigonometry
deals with triangles on the surfaces of spheres. This form of trigonometry is mainly used
in astronomy and for long-range navigation.

Trigonometric equations and inequalities are an important part of trigonometry, after basic
ratios and identities. In this book we will study trigonometric functions, equations and
Leonhard Euler
inequalities using the principles and formulas of plane trigonometry.
 5. Tashih
28/09/2005

A. ANGLES AND THE UNIT CIRCLE

In your previous studies you have already learned the basic principles of trigonometry on the
unit circle and in right triangles. Before we begin our study of trigonometry, it will be helpful
to review these basic concepts and definitions.

Definition
angle, directed angle

An angle is the union of two rays which have the same initial point.
If one of the rays of an angle is called the initial side of the angle and other ray is called the
terminal side, then the angle is called a directed angle.

Definition negative angle, positive angle

If a directed angle is measured in a clockwise
direction from its initial side then the angle is de de
l si l si
tia na
a negative angle. If the angle is measured in a ini mi
ter
a a
counterclockwise direction then it is a ter
min init
positive angle. In trigonometry we use both al s ial
ide side
positive and negative angles.
negative angle: a = – 60° positive angle: a = 60°

We can measure angles using different units of measurement. The most common units are
degrees and radians. We write ° to show a degree measurement: one full circle measures
360°. We write R to to show a radian measurement: one full circle measures 2πR. We can also
3π
omit the radian notation if it is clear that an angle is in radians: α = means that the angle
3π 2
α measures radians.
2
We can use a simple formula to convert between degree (D) and radian (R) measures:
D R
=
180 ° π
π π
For example, 360° =2πR, 90° = , 45° = , ... .
2 4
In trigonometry we often work with angles drawn in the coordinate plane.

Definition standard position

An angle in the coordinate plane is in standard position if its vertex is at the origin of the
plane and its initial side lies along the positive x-axis.

10 Trigonometry: Functions, Equations and Inequalities

 Definition coterminal angles
If two or more angles in standard position have coincident terminal sides then they are called
coterminal angles. For example, 90° and -270° are coterminal angles. 180° and -180° are also
coterminal angles.

Definition primary directed angle

Let β be an angle which is greater than 360° or less than 0°. Then α is called the primary
directed angle of β if α is coterminal with β and α ∈ [0°, 360°). In other words, α is the angle
between 0° and 360° which is coterminal with β.
We can write: β = α ± k ⋅ 360° , i.e. β = α ± 2kπ
.

Definition unit circle, quadrant

The circle whose center lies at the origin of the coordinate plane and whose radius is 1 unit
is called the unit circle.
The coordinate axes divide the unit circle into four parts, called quadrants. The quadrants
are numbered in a counterclockwise direction.

in degrees: in radians: p
90° 2

2nd 1st 2nd 1st

quadrant quadrant quadrant quadrant
0º 0
180° 3rd 4th 360° p 3rd 4th 2p
quadrant quadrant quadrant quadrant

270° 3p
2

Definition quadrantal angles

The intersection points of the unit circle and the coordinate axes correspond to angles
measured on the circle. These angles are called quadrantal angles. In other words, 0°, 90°,
π 3π
180°, 270°, 360°, ... and 0, , π, , 2π, ... are quadrantal angles.
2 2
⎛ π⎞ ⎛π ⎞
In the unit circle, if α ∈ ⎜ 0, ⎟ then α is in the first quadrant, if α ∈ ⎜ , π ⎟ then it is in the
⎝ 2⎠ ⎝2 ⎠
⎛ 3 π ⎞ ⎛ 3π ⎞
second quadrant, if α ∈ ⎜ π, ⎟ then it is in the third quadrant and if α ∈ ⎜ , 2π ⎟ then it
⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎝ 2 ⎠
is in the fourth quadrant. The same applies to the equivalent intervals in degrees.
If an angle is greater than 360° = 2π or less than 0°, we can find its quadrant by first finding
its primary directed angle.

Introduction to Trigonometry 11
 EXAMPLE 1 In which quadrant does each angle lie?
7π 17 π
a. 75° b. 228° c. 305° d. 740° e. –442° f. g –
3 5

Solution a. 75° < 90°, so it is in the first quadrant.

b. 228 ° ∈ (180 °, 270 °), so it is in the third quadrant.

We write ≡ to show that
two angles are coterminal: c. 305 ° ∈ (270 °, 360 °), so it is in the fourth quadrant.
α ≡ β means that α and β
are coterminal. d. 740° = 20° + (2 ⋅ 360°) ≡ 20° and 20° ∈ (0 °, 90 °). So 740° is in the first quadrant.
Be careful! α ≡ β does not e. –442° = 278° – (2 ⋅ 360°) ≡ 278° and 278 ° ∈ (270 °, 360 °). So – 442° is in the fourth
mean α = β. For example,
740° ≡ 20° but 740° ≠ 20°.
quadrant.

7π π π π ⎛ π⎞ 7π
f. = + 2 π ≡ and ∈ ⎜ 0, ⎟, so is in the first quadrant.
3 3 3 3 ⎝ 2⎠ 3
17 π 3π 3π 3π ⎛ π ⎞ 17 π
g. – = − (2 ⋅ 2 π) ≡ and ∈ ⎜ , π ⎟ , so – is in the second quadrant.
5 5 5 5 ⎝2 ⎠ 5

Remember that there is a correspondence

between the points on the unit circle and the
p
real number line. 2
x2
Imagine the real number line placed
D x1
C
vertically next to the unit circle, so that O on E B(a, b)
b
the real number line coincides with A(1, 0)
on the unit circle. Then we can ‘wrap’ the A(1, 0)
real number line around the top and bottom a
halves of the circle to see the correspondences:
in the figure, we can see that point D G
F
corresponds to π ≅ 1.571 on the number line, x3
2
point F corresponds to − π , point B(a, b)
2 –
p
corresponds to x1, and so on. The intercept of 2
one radian and the unit circle corresponds to
1 on the real number line.

EXAMPLE 2 Find the real number which corresponds to the central angle 60° on the unit circle, using
π ≅ 3.14.

D R 60° R 60° ⋅ π π
Solution From the formula = we have = , so R = = . Using π ≅ 3.14 gives us
180 ° π 180 ° π 180° 3
3.14
R≅ ≅ 1.047. This is the required real number.
3

12 Trigonometry: Functions, Equations and Inequalities

 Check Yourself 1
We sometimes use 1. Determine the quadrant for each angle.
Roman numerals to
identify the quadrants: 127 π 25π
a. 175° b. 328° c. 215° d. –395° e. –740 f. g. –
quadrant I = first 7 6
quadrant
quadrant II = second 2. Find the real number which corresponds to each central angle on the unit circle, correct to
quadrant
quadrant III = third three decimal places.
quadrant
2π 16 π
quadrant IV = fourth a. 25° b. 135° c. –80° d. e.
quadrant. 5 3
Answers
1. a. II b. IV c. III d. IV e. IV f. I g. IV

2. a. 0.436 b. 2.356 c. –1.396 d. 1.256 e. 16.75

B. BASIC TRIGONOMETRIC RATIOS

Look at the triangle opposite. By triangle
C
similarity we know that if θ remains constant
then the ratios of the side lengths of the
triangle remain constant, even if the triangle se
enu
gets bigger or smaller. These ratios are called p ot b a
opposite
hy side
trigonometric ratios, and each trigonometric
ratio has a special name. q c
A adjacent side B
In a right triangle:

opposite side a
the sine of angle θ = sin θ = = .
hypotenuse b

adjacent side c
the cosine of angle θ = cos θ = = .
hypotenuse b

opposite side a
the tangent of angle θ = tan θ = = .
adjacent side c
Some books write tg θ for
tan θ, ctg θ for cot θ and
adjacent side c
the cotangent of angle θ = cot θ = = .
cosec θ for csc θ. opposite side a

hypotenuse b
the secant of angle θ = sec θ = = .
adjacent side c

hypotenuse b
the cosecant of angle θ = csc θ = = .
opposite side a

Introduction to Trigonometry 13
EXAMPLE 3 In the figure, ΔABC is a right triangle. Given A

that AB = 3, AC = 4 and m(∠ACB) = x, find

4
the six trigonometric ratios for x. 3

x
B C

Solution We can find BC by using the Pythagorean Theorem:

32 + BC2 = 42 and BC2 = 16 – 9 = 7, so BC = ñ7. Now a = 3, b = 4, and c = ñ7, so
3 7 3 3 7 7 4 4 7 4
sin x = , cos x = , tan x = = , cot x = , sec x = = and csc x= .
4 4 7 7 3 7 7 3

EXAMPLE 4 2
In a right triangle, sin x = . Find
3
cos x + tan x
cot x
.

Solution Let us draw the right triangle. C

opposite side 2
sin x = = , so we can say that
hypotenuse 3 3
2
the side opposite the angle has length 2 and
x
the hypotenuse is 3. We can find the adja- A c B

cent side by using the Pythagorean Theorem:

c2 + 22 = 32 so c = ñ5.
5 2 2 5 5
So cos x = , tan x = = and cot x= , which gives us
3 5 5 2
5 2 5
+
cos x + tan x 5 = 11 5 ⋅ 2 = 22 .
= 3
cot x 5 15 5 15
2

Check Yourself 2
1 cos x ⋅ sin x
1. In a right triangle, tan x = . Find .
2 cot x
2. In the figure at the right, ΔABC is a right triangle. Given A
sin x ⋅ cos x
that AC = 4, BC = 5 and m(∠ACB) = x, find .
tan x +cot x 4

Answers
x
1 144 5
1. 2. B C
5 625

14 Trigonometry: Functions, Equations and Inequalities

C. TRIGONOMETRIC IDENTITIES
The trigonometric ratios are related to each other by equations called trigonometric
Remember!
identities. The properties of a right triangle give us the following identities:
An identity is an equation 1. sin2x + cos2x = 1
which is true for all
possible values of its From this identity we also get sin2x = 1 – cos2x and cos2x = 1 – sin2x.
variable(s).
2. tan2x + 1 = sec2x

3. cot2x + 1 = csc2x
Remember!
sin x
2
sin x means (sinx)⋅(sin x), 4. tan x =
cos x
cos2x means (cosx)⋅(cos x),
cos x
etc. 5. cot x =
sin x
6. tan x ⋅ cot x = 1
1 1
From this identity we also get tan x = and cot x = .
cot x tan x
1
7. sec x =
cos x
1
8. csc x = .
sin x
We can use these identities to simplify trigonometric expressions and verify equations.

Note
Simplifying an expression generally means changing ratios in tan x, cot x, sec x and csc x to
ratios in sin x and cos x. We can also factorize an expression to write it more simply.

sin x ⋅ cos x ⋅ tan x

EXAMPLE
5 Simplify
csc x
.

sin x 1
Solution Let us use the identities tan x = and csc x = .
cos x sin x
sin x
sin x ⋅ cos x ⋅
Then the expression becomes cos x = sin 3 x.
1
sin x
So the simplified form is sin3x.

Introduction to Trigonometry 15
EXAMPLE 6 Simplify
tan x + cot x
sec x ⋅ csc x
.

sin x cos x 1 1
Solution Let us use the identities tan x = , cot x = , sec x = and csc x= . Then
cos x sin x cos x sin x
sin x cos x sin 2 x + cos 2 x
+
tan x + cot x cos x sin x 1 sin x ⋅ cos x
= = sin x ⋅ cos x = ⋅ =1.
sec x ⋅ csc x 1 1 1 sin x ⋅cos x 1
⋅
cos x sin x sin x ⋅ cos x

So the simplified form is 1.

EXAMPLE 7 Verify the identity tan2x – sin2x = tan2x ⋅ sin2x.

Solution Let us work on the left-hand side of the equation.

sin 2 x
tan 2 x – sin 2 x = – sin 2 x
cos 2 x
1
= sin 2 x ⋅ ( – 1) (take out sin2x)
cos 2 x
1 – cos 2 x
= sin 2 x ⋅ ( ) (equalize the denominators)
cos 2 x
sin2 x ⋅ sin 2 x
= (use 1 – cos2 x = sin2 x)
cos 2 x
sin 2 x
= ⋅ sin2 x
cos 2 x
= tan 2 x ⋅ sin 2 x. This is the required result.

Check Yourself 3
1. Simplify each trigonometric expression.
sin x ⋅ cos x sin x 1+ sin x
a. sin x ⋅ cot x ⋅ sec x b. + c.
tan x csc x 1+ csc x
1+ sin x cos x 2
d. – e. (sin x + cos x) – 1
cos x 1 – sin x 2
(sin x – cos x) – 1
2. Verify the identities.
cos x 1 – sin x sin x
a. + = 2 sec x b. – cot x = csc x
1 – sin x cos x 1 – cos x

Answers
1. a. 1 b. 1 c. sin x d. 0 e. –1 2. Hint: Work on the left-hand side of the equations.

16 Trigonometry: Functions, Equations and Inequalities

D. TRIGONOMETRIC THEOREMS
1. Basic Theorems
Theorem law of cosines
In any triangle ABC, A

Remember! a2 = b2 + c2 – 2bc ⋅ cos A

c b
a is the side opposite
b2 = a2 + c2 – 2ac ⋅ cos B
∠A, b is the side
opposite ∠B, etc. c2 = a2 + b2 – 2ab ⋅ cos C.
B a C

EXAMPLE 8 A triangle has side lengths a = 5 cm and b = 4 cm and angle m(∠C) = 60°. Find the length
of side c.
Solution By the law of cosines, c2 = a2 + b2 – 2ab ⋅ cos C
= 52 + 42 – (2 ⋅ 5 ⋅ 4 ⋅ cos 60°)
1
= 25 + 16 – (2 ⋅ 20 ⋅ ) = 21. So c = ò21.
2
Theorem law of sines
If R is the radius of the circumscribed circle A
Inscribed and of a triangle ABC with side lengths a, b and
circumscribed:
A c, then
c b
a b c
= = = 2 R.
sin A sin B sin C R
B C
B a C
The green circle is
the circumscribed
circle of ΔABC.
The pink circle
is the inscribed
circle of ΔABC.

EXAMPLE 9 In a triangle ABC, a = 5 cm, m(∠A) = 30° and m(∠C) = 105°. Find the length of side b.

Solution First let us find m(∠B): B

m(∠B) = 180° – m(∠A) – m(∠C)
= 180° – 30° – 105° = 45°. c
5
Now by the law of sines we have
a b 5 b 105°
30°
= , i.e. =
sin A sin B sin 30 ° sin 45 ° A b C

5 b
⇒ = , so b = 5 2 cm.
1 2
2 2

Introduction to Trigonometry 17
 Theorem law of tangents

In any triangle ABC with side lengths a, b, c and interior angles A, B, C,

A+ B A+C B+ C
tan( ) tan( ) tan( )
a+ b 2 a+c 2 b+c 2 .
= , = and =
a–b A–B a–c A–C b–c B–C
tan( ) tan( ) tan( )
2 2 2

2. Formulas for the Area of a Triangle

Property
Let ΔABC be a triangle with sides a, b and c. Then the following properties hold:
1 1 1
1. A( ΔABC ) = ⋅ a ⋅ b ⋅ sin C = ⋅ a ⋅ c ⋅ sin B = ⋅ b ⋅ c ⋅sin A.
2 2 2
2. Heron's Theorem: If u is the half of the perimeter of ΔABC then
A( ΔABC ) = u ⋅ ( u – a ) ⋅( u – b ) ⋅(u – c ).

3. If u is the half of the perimeter of ΔABC and r is the radius of its inscribed circle, then
A(ΔABC) = u ⋅ r.
a⋅b⋅c
4. If R is the radius of the circumscribed circle of ΔABC then A( ΔABC ) = .
4R

EXAMPLE 10 The sides of a triangle ΔABC are a = 13 cm, b = 14 cm and c = 15 cm. Find the radii r and
R of the inscribed and circumscribed circles of ΔABC.

Solution We can use Heron’s Theorem to begin:

a + b + c 13+14+15
u= = = 21 (property 4) and so
2 2
A( ΔABC ) = 21 ⋅(21 – 13) ⋅(21 – 14) ⋅(21 – 15)

= 21 ⋅ 8 ⋅ 7 ⋅ 6 = 84 cm 2.
Now A(ΔABC) = u ⋅ r (by property 3 above), so 84 = 21 ⋅ r and r = 4 cm.
a⋅b⋅c 13 ⋅14 ⋅15 65
Finally, A( ΔABC ) = (property 4) gives us 84 = and so R= cm.
4R 4⋅R 8

Check Yourself 4 A D
3 8
1. In the figure, AB = 6, AC = 3, BC = 4, C
6
CD = 8 and CE = 9. Find the length DE = x.
4 x
B
9

18 Trigonometry: Functions, Equations and Inequalities

 2. In the figure, AC = 4, m(∠A) = 120° and m(∠C) = 15°. A
Find the length BC = a and the radius R of the 120°
4

circumscribed circle of ΔABC. 15°

B a C

3. Two sides of a triangle are a = 4 cm and b = 6 cm. If m(∠C) = 45°, find the area of ΔABC.

D C

4. In the figure, ABCD is a square and E is the midpoint of

E
side BC. Find sin x.
x

A B
Answers

1. Hint: Use the law of cosines. 211 2. a = 2ñ6, R = 2ñ2 3. 6ñ2 cm2 4. 10
10

E. TRIGONOMETRIC FORMULAS
Sometimes we can find the value of a
x sin x cos x tan x
trigonometric ratio by writing it as the sum or
difference of more familiar trigonometric p 1 ñ3 ñ3
30° =
6 2 2 3
ratios. The properties of a 30°-60°-90°
p ñ2 ñ2
triangle and a 45°-45°-90° triangle give us the 45° =
4
1
2 2
common ratios in the table at the right. We p 1
ñ3
60° = ñ3
can use these ratios with the following 3 2 2
formulas.

1. Sum and Difference Formulas

Property sum and difference formulas
sin(x + y) = (sin x ⋅ cos y) + (cos x ⋅ sin y)
sin(x – y) = (sin x ⋅ cos y) – (cos x ⋅ sin y)
cos(x + y) = (cos x ⋅ cos y) – (sin x ⋅ sin y)
cos(x – y) = (cos x ⋅ cos y) + (sin x ⋅ sin y)
tan x + tan y
tan( x + y) =
1 – tan x ⋅ tan y
tan x – tan y
tan( x – y) =
1+ tan x ⋅ tan y

Introduction to Trigonometry 19
 Note
1
We can use the identity cot x = to solve problems involving cot x. Therefore we do not
tan x
need to remember the sum and difference formulas for cot x explicitly.

EXAMPLE 11 cos 75º = ?

Solution cos 75º = cos(45º + 30º) = (cos 45º ⋅ cos 30º) – (sin 45º ⋅ sin 30º)
2 3 2 1 6– 2
= ⋅ – ⋅ = .
2 2 2 2 4

EXAMPLE 12 tan 105° = ?

tan 45° + tan60° 1+ 3 1+ 3

Solution tan105° = tan(60° + 45°) = = = .
1 – tan 45° ⋅ tan60° 1 – 1 ⋅ 3 1 − 3
Rationalizing the denominator gives us tan 105° = –2 – ñ3.

EXAMPLE 13 Given that sin x =

2
3
3
and cos y = , find sin (x – y).
5

Solution We can draw right triangles to find the

A D
other trigonometric ratios of the angles x
and y. By the Pythagorean Theorem, we get
3 5
BC = ñ5 and DF = 4. So 2 4

sin(x – y) = sin x ⋅ cos y – cos x ⋅ sin y

x y
2 3 5 4 6 −4 5 B ñ5 C E 3 F
= ⋅ − ⋅ = .
3 5 3 5 15

2. Double-Angle and Half-Angle Formulas

Property double-aangle formulas
Substituting y = x in the sum and difference formulas gives us
sin 2x = 2 ⋅ sin x ⋅ cos x
cos 2x = cos2x – sin2x
= 2 cos2x – 1
= 1 – 2sin2x
2 tan x
tan 2 x = .
1 – tan 2 x

These are called the double-aangle formulas.

20 Trigonometry: Functions, Equations and Inequalities

 x
If we replace x with , we get the half-aangle formulas:
2
x x
sin x = 2 ⋅ sin ⋅ cos
2 2
2 x 2 x x x
cos x = cos − sin = 2cos 2 −1 =1 − 2sin 2
2 2 2 2
x
2 tan
tan x = 2
2 x
1 − tan
2

1
EXAMPLE 14 sin x =
3
is given. Find cos 2x.

1 2 7
Solution cos 2 x =1 – 2 sin 2 x =1 – 2 ⋅( ) 2 =1 – = .
3 9 9

2
EXAMPLE 15 Given that sin x +cos x = , find sin 2x.
3

2
Solution Squaring both sides of sin x + cos x = gives us
3
4
sin 2 x +(2 ⋅ sin x ⋅ cos x)+ cos 2 x = .
9
Use sin2x + cos2x = 1 and 2sin x ⋅ cos x = sin 2x. Then
4 4 5
1+ sin 2 x = , and so sin 2 x = – 1= – .
9 9 9

EXAMPLE 16 Find cos

x
2
if sin x = 0.6.

Solution First we draw a right triangle to find cos x,

3 A
using sin x = 0.6 = .
5 5
3
By the Pythagorean Theorem, BC = 4 and so x
4 B 4 C
cos x = .
5
x
Now by the half-angle formula cos x = 2 cos 2 – 1, we have
2
4
+1
x cos x +1 5 9 3 10
cos = = = = .
2 2 2 10 10

Introduction to Trigonometry 21
 Check Yourself 5
1. Calculate each ratio.
a. sin 15° b. tan 15° c. cos 105° d. cot 75°
4 5
2. Given that tan x = and cot y = , find sin (x + y), cos(x – y) and cot(x – y).
3 12
1
3. cos 2 x = is given. Find sin x and tan x.
4
1
4. Given sin x – cos x = , find cos 2x.
2
5. sin 12° = a is given. Find cos 24° in terms of a.

Answers
1. a. 6– 2 b. 2 – ñ3 c. 2– 6 d. 2 – ñ3
4 4
56 63 63 6 15
2. sin( x + y) = , cos( x – y) = , cot( x – y) = – 3. sin x = , tan x =
65 65 16 4 5

4. 7 5. 1 – 2a2
4

3. Reduction Formulas
The trigonometric reduction formulas help us to ‘reduce’ a trigonometric ratio to a ratio of
an acute angle. If the acute angle is a common angle, this technique helps us to find the ratio.
For example, imagine you need to find cot 300°.
We can say that 300° = 270° + 30°.
3
By the reduction formula for the cotangent, cot 300° = –tan 30° = − .
3
To derive the reduction formulas, first we need to know the signs of the trigonometric
functions in each quadrant:

1.
sin x cos x tan x cot x
first ⎛ π⎞
⎜ 0, ⎟ + + + +
quadrant ⎝ 2⎠
second ⎛π ⎞
⎜ , π⎟ + – – –
quadrant ⎝2 ⎠
third ⎛ 3π ⎞
⎜ π, ⎟ – – + +
quadrant ⎝ 2 ⎠
fourth ⎛ 3π ⎞
⎜ , 2π ⎟ – + – –
quadrant ⎝ 2 ⎠

22 Trigonometry: Functions, Equations and Inequalities

 π 3π
2. If we have or in the reduction formula, the formula changes sine to cosine and
2 2
tangent to cotangent. If we have π or 2π in the formula, the function does not change.

3. Now we can combine these two pieces of information to get the reduction formulas:
π π π
sin( − x) =cos x, cos( − x) =sin x, tan( − x) =cot x
2 2 2
π π π
sin( + x) =cos x, cos( + x) = − sin x, tan( + x) = −cot x
2 2 2
3π 3π 3π
sin( − x) = − cos x, cos( − x) = −sin x, tan( − x) = cot x
2 2 2
3π 3π 3π
sin( + x) = − cos x, cos( + x) =sin x, tan( + x) = −cot x
2 2 2
sin( π − x) =sin x, cos( π − x) = − cos x, tan( π − x) = −tan x

sin( π + x) = − sin x, cos( π + x) = −cos x, tan( π + x) = tan x

sin( − x) = − sin x, cos( − x) =cos x, tan( − x) = −tan x

EXAMPLE 17 Simplify each expression, given that 0 < x <

π
2
.
π π 3π
a. sin( + x) b. cos( + x) c. tan( + x) d. sin(2π – x) e. sin(π + x) f. cos(2π + x)
2 2 2

Solution a. ( π + x) is in the second quadrant, so sin( π+ x) = cos x.

2 2
π π
b. ( + x) is in the second quadrant, so cos( + x) = – sin x.
2 2
c. ( + x) is in the fourth quadrant, so tan( 3 π+ x) = – cot x.
3 π
2 2
d. (2π – x) is in the fourth quadrant, so cot(2π – x) = –cot x.
e. (π + x) is in the third quadrant, so sin(π + x) = –sin x.
f. (2π + x) is in the first quadrant, so cos(2π + x) = cos x.

cos(90º+x)+ sin(270º – x)+ sin(180º – x)

EXAMPLE 18 Simplify
cos(– x) – cos(360º – x)+ sin(90º+ x)
.

Solution Let us simplify each term using the reduction formulas:

cos(90º + x) = –sin x, sin(270º – x) = –cos x,
sin(180º – x) = sin x, cos(–x) = cos x,
cos(360º – x) = cos x and sin(90º + x) = cos x. So
cos(90º + x)+ sin(270º – x)+ sin(180º – x) – sin x– cos x+ sin x − cos x
= = = –1.
cos(– x) – cos(360º – x)+ sin(90º + x) cos x– cos x+ cos x cos x

Introduction to Trigonometry 23
 4. Sum to Product Formulas
We can use the sum and difference formulas together to rewrite the sum of two trigonometric
ratios as a product of trigonometric ratios.

Property sum to product formulas

a+ b a–b
sin a + sin b = 2 ⋅ sin( ) ⋅ cos( )
2 2
a+b a–b
sin a – sin b = 2 ⋅ cos( ) ⋅ sin( )
2 2
a+ b a–b
cos a + cos b = 2 ⋅ cos( ) ⋅ cos( )
2 2
a+ b a–b
cos a – cos b = –2 ⋅ sin( ) ⋅ sin( )
2 2
sin( a + b)
tan a + tan b =
cos a ⋅ cos b
sin( a – b)
tan a – tan b =
cos a ⋅ cos b

EXAMPLE 19 Calculate sin 75° + sin 15°.

Solution By the formula for sin a + sin b we get

75º +15º 75º – 15º = 2 ⋅ sin 45° ⋅ cos 30° = 2 ⋅ 2 ⋅ 3 = 6 .
sin75º + sin15º = 2 ⋅ sin( ) ⋅cos( )
2 2 2 2 2

EXAMPLE 20 Simplify
sin 3x + sin 4 x + sin5 x
cos 3x + cos 4 x+ cos5 x
.

a+b
Solution Look at the formulas for sin a + sin b and cos a + cos b. The product ratios use and
a−b 5 x + 3 x 2
. We can see that = 4x, which is in the middle terms of our problem. So let us
2 2
add the first and last terms in the numerator and denominator. Then
5 x + 3x 5 x 3x
2 ⋅ sin( ) ⋅ cos( ) + sin 4x
sin 5x + sin 4x + sin 3x 2 2
=
cos 5x + cos 4x + cos 3x 5 x + 3x 5 x 3x
2 ⋅ cos( ) ⋅ cos( ) + cos 4x
2 2
2 ⋅ sin 4x ⋅ cos x + sin 4x
=
2 ⋅ cos 4x ⋅ cos x + cos 4x
sin 4x ⋅ ( 2 cos x + 1)
= (taake common term out of parenthesis)
cos 4x ⋅ ( 2 cos x + 1)
sin 4x
= (simplify common terms)
cos 4x
= tan 4x.

24 Trigonometry: Functions, Equations and Inequalities

 5. Product to Sum Formulas
We can also use the sum and difference formulas to write the product of two trigonometric
ratios as a sum. These new formulas are called the product to sum formulas.

Property product to sum formulas

1
sin x ⋅ sin y = – [cos( x+ y) – cos( x – y) ]
2
1
cos x ⋅ cos y = [cos( x+ y)+ cos( x – y) ]
2
1
sin x ⋅ cos y = [sin( x+ y)+ sin( x – y) ]
2
1
cos x ⋅ sin y = [sin( x+ y) − sin( x – y) ]
2

EXAMPLE 21 Calculate cos 105º ⋅ cos 15°.

1
Solution cos 105° ⋅ cos 15° = [cos(105° +15°)+ cos(105° − 15°)]
2
1 1 1 1
= [cos120º + cos 90°] = ⋅ ( − + 0) = − .
2 2 2 4

Check Yourself 6
1. Calculate each ratio by using reduction formulas.
a. sin 240º b. cos 330º c. tan 315º d. cot 120º

2. Simplify each expression by using reduction formulas.

π sin110º ⋅ cos 250º
a. sin( + x) – cos( π+ x) b.
2 tan 290º ⋅ tan160º
c. sin(90º + x) – cos(270º – x) + sin(–x) + cos(180º – x)
sin5 x + sin 3 x
3. Simplify .
cos5 x – cos 3 x
4. Evaluate each expression.
1 1
a. + b. sin 75º ⋅ cos 15º
sin75º cos75º
sin5 x + sin x
5. Given π = 8x, calculate .
sin 3x + sin x
Answers
3 3
1. a. – b. c. –1 d. – 3 2. a. 2 cos x b. –sin 20º ⋅ cos 20º c. 0
2 2 3
3+2
3. –cot x 4. a. 2ñ6 b. 5. 1
4

Introduction to Trigonometry 25
 APPLICATIONS OF TRIGONOMETRY
Trigonometry has many applications in the modern world, in fields as diverse as engineering, architectural
design, acoustics, astronomy, physics, biology, map-making, computer graphics, optics and statistics. People
working in these fields often use trigonometry without knowing it, because the math is hidden in modern
instruments and computer programs. However, the trigonometric formulas are still there, and without these
formulas, science and technology would be very different. Here are just three examples of how trigonometry
applies to the real world.
Trigonometry and Optics
Light travels at different speeds through different objects, and we can use trigonometry to calculate how fast
light will travel through a transparent object such as air, water or glass. The relative speed of light is controlled
by a number called the refraction index: the refraction index of air is very close to 1, the index for water is 1.33,
and the index for glass is 1.5.
a
The figure at the right shows a pyramid with light passing through it at an angle θ. The q
θ α
sin( + )
refraction index n for this pyramid is given by n = 2 2 .
θ
sin
2
For example, if α = 60° then the refraction index is
θ α θ θ θ 3 θ 1
sin( + ) sin ⋅ cos 30 °+cos ⋅sin30 ° sin ⋅ +cos ⋅
n= 2 2 = 2 2 = 2 2 2 2 = 3 + 1 cot θ .
θ θ θ 2 2 2
sin sin sin
2 2 2

Trigonometry and the Climate

If you measure the temperature of a pan of water at intervals as you heat it up and leave
it to cool, you will find that the temperatures do not rise and fall in a straight line. In fact,
the changes in temperature follow a curve defined by y = A ⋅ cos a(t + b) + B. In this
equation, A is called the amplitude of the function, a is the period, b is called the phase difference and B is a
constant number.
As an example, imagine you want to show a graph of the temperature T in a city during a particular period. At
15:00 the temperature is 30° C and at 03:00 the next morning it is 10° C. Assuming that the temperature always
falls, how can we draw its graph?

We calculate the amplitude A as the average of the maximum and minimum values of the function:
30° C − 10 ° C 2π π
A= =10. The period is a = = , and so the equation for the temperature is
2 24 12
π
T = A ⋅ cos a(t + b) + B =10 ⋅ cos ( t + b)+ B.
12
t is the time. If we say t = 3 at 03:00 and t = 15 at 15:00 then we have T = 10° C at t = 3 and T = 30° C at
t = 15. Using these values, we can find b = 9 and B = 20.
In conclusion, the graph of the temperature in the city is given by
π
T =10 cos ( t +9)+ 20.
12
North Pole
Plane of a
Trigonometry and Navigation parallel

Half of a great circle

How can we measure the shortest distance between any two points on

Prime Meridian
Earth? This question is important for airline companies and ships all over Plane of
equator
the world, and we can use trigonometry to find the answer. Equator
Navigators divide the Earth using lines of latitude and longitude. To
Plane of a
understand what this means, imagine the intersection of the earth with a parallel
plane passing through the North and South Poles. The intersection is a South Pole

complete circle, and half of this circle (from pole to pole) is called a
meridian of longitude, or simply a meridian. The meridian which passes North Pole
through the city of Greenwich in England is called the prime meridian. O¢ Parallel
b1
P1 K
Now imagine a plane intersecting with the Earth perpendicular to the prime B P2 C
meridian. This plane also creates a circle. The biggest such circle around the

Meridian
a1 O
Earth is called the equator. H b1
To find the shortest distance between two points on Earth, a navigator needs Equator A

to know two things: Prime

meridian
1. The latitude of each point, which is its angular distance north or south of
South Pole
the equator.
2. The longitude of each point, which is its angular distance east or west of the prime meridian.
As an example, look at the figure above right. α1 represents the longitude of
P1 and β1 represents its latitude. If α1 = 60.5° and β1 = 48.2°, we can say that
point P1 has coordinates 60.5° N 48.2° W (i.e. 60.5° north of the equator and
48.2° west of the prime meridian).
The distance (or arc measure) θ in radians between any two points north of
the equator is given by the trigonometric formula
θ = arccos(sin α1sin α2 + cos α1cos α2cos Φ)
α1 = the longitude of point P1
where
α2 = the longitude of point P2,
Φ = the change in latitude from P1 to P2, and
Although θ must be in radians, α1, α2 and Φ may be expressed in degrees.
 EXERCISES 1
A. Angles and the Unit Circle C. Trigonometric Identities
1. In which quadrant does each angle lie? 7. Simplify each trigonometric expression.
sin x ⋅ cos x cos x
a. 275° b. 228° c. 185° a. cos x ⋅ tan x ⋅ csc x b. +
cot x sec x
28π 125 π
d. –530° e. f. 1 – cos x 1+ cos x sin x
3 6 c. d. –
1 – sec x sin x 1 – cos x
2
e. (tan x + cot x) – 2 f. sec2 x – tan 2 x
(tan x – cot x) 2 + 2 csc 2 x – cot 2 x
2. Find the value of the real number which
corresponds to each angle on the unit circle. Give
your answer to three decimal places.

a. 45° b. 105° c. –70°

3π 26π 8. Verify each identity.
d. e.
7 5 a. 1+ tan 2 x
= tan x
sec x ⋅ csc x
2
b. sin x – 1 +(tan x ⋅ cot x) = 1
B. Basic Trigonometric Ratios cos 2 x – 1 sin 2 x

1 cos x ⋅ sin x c. sin2x + tan2x + cos2x = sec2x

3. In a right triangle, cot x = . Find .
2 tan x

4. In a right triangle, sin x =0.4. Find sin x + cos x. D. Trigonometric Theorems

9. In the figure, AD = 6, A

sin x + cos x DC = DE = BE = 3
5. In a right triangle, sec x = 3. Find 6
. and EC = 5. Find the
csc x ⋅ tan x x
length AB = x. D
3 3

B 3 E 5 C
6. In the figure, ΔABC is a A

right triangle. Given

5
that AC = 5, BC = 6,
m(∠ACB) = x and y x
m(∠ABC) = y, find B 6 C 10. A triangle has side lengths 4 cm, 5 cm and 7 cm.
(sin x ⋅ cos x) ⋅ (tan y+ cot y) Find the radii r and R of the inscribed and
.
sec y + csc x circumscribed circles of this triangle.

28 Trigonometry: Functions, Equations and Inequalities

 2
11. In the figure, AC = 6, A 19. Find sin 2x if sin x + cos x = .
3
m(∠B) = 60° and
m(∠C) = 45°. Find the x 6

length AB = x and the 20. sin 18° = a is given. Find cos 54º in terms of a.
60° 45°
radius R of the triangle’s
B C x 1
circumscribed circle. 21. Find sin 2x if sin = .
2 3

12. The sides of a triangle ABC are a, b and c. Write 22. Calculate each ratio by using reduction formulas.
sin A – sin B a. sin 210° b. cos 150° c. tan 225°
the ratio in terms of a and b.
sin A + sin B
d. cot 300° e. sin 390°

13. The sides of a triangle ABC are a, b and c. Find 23. Simplify each expression by using reduction
m(∠C) in degrees if c2 = a2 + b2 + ñ2ab. formulas.
π 3π
a. sin( – x)– cos( π+ x)+sin(2 π– x)+cos( + x)
2 2
E. Trigonometric Formulas
sin130º ⋅ cos 310º ⋅ cot130º
b.
14. Calculate each ratio. tan 220º ⋅ cot140º
a. tan 75° b. sin 105° c. sin(180°+ x)+cos(–x)+sin(180° – x)+cos (270° – x)
c. cos 15° d. cot 105°
3π ⎡ π ⎤ π
d. tan( – x)+ ⎢cot( + x) ⋅ cot( π – x) ⎥ +tan( + x)
2 ⎣ 2 ⎦ 2
1 1
15. Given that tan x = and cot y = , find
2 3
24. Simplify each expression.
sin (x + y) and cot (x – y). sin 2 x – sin 3 x+ sin 4 x
a.
cos 2 x – cos 3 x+ cos 4 x
1 1
b. –
16. In the figure, ABC is a A sin15° cos15 °
right triangle. Given (sin80 ° + sin10 °) ⋅(cos80 ° – cos10 °)
x c.
that AB = 4, BD = 3 cos 20 °
4
and DC = 4, find tan x.
cos6 x + cos 2 x
25. Given π = 10x, calculate .
› cos 4 x – cos 2 x
B 3 D 4 C

17. tan x = 2 is given. Find sin 2x + cos 2x. 26. Calculate sin 75° ⋅ sin 15°.
›

3 27. Calculate cos 10° ⋅ cos 20° ⋅ cos 30° ⋅ cos 40°.
18. sin 2 x = is given. Find sin x, cos x and tan x.
5 ›

Introduction to Trigonometry 29
 5. Tashih
28/09/2005

In the previous section we defined the trigonometric ratios in terms of the side lengths of a
right triangle. In this section we will study the same ratios as ratios on the unit circle and as
functions. To define a trigonometric function we must find its domain, range, graph and
inverse.
Recall that the domain of a function f(x) is the largest set of real x-values for which f(x) is
defined. For example, the domain of a polynomial function is . The range of function is a
set which includes at least all images of the elements in its domain. The largest possible
range of a real function is .
Recall also the definition of increasing and decreasing function: we say that f(x) is an increas-
ing function if f(x1) < f(x2) when x1 < x2, and f(x) is a decreasing function if
f(x1) > f(x2) when x1 < x2. If f(x1) = f(x2) for every x1 < x2 then f(x) is a constant function.
With these basic definitions we are ready to look at the properties of trigonometric functions.

A. TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS AND THEIR PROPERTIES

1. The Sine Function
Consider the unit circle and an angle α in
standard position on the circle, as shown at B
D
the right.
1
In the figure, m(∠AOB) = α and OB = 1. Let a A
us draw perpendiculars from point B to the O C
x- and y-axis, as shown.
BC BC
We know sin α = = = BC = OD. This sine axis
OB 1
is true for any angle α. So we can say that the

y-axis is the sine axis. By the definition of the unit circle, we can also say –1 ≤ sin α ≤ 1 and

the angle α can be any real number.

We can define a function from the real numbers to the interval [–1, 1] with the rule
f(x) = sin x. This function is called the sine function. This function has the following
properties:
The sine function 1. Domain = .
corresponds to the
y-coordinates of points 2. Range = [–1, 1]
on the unit circle.
3. sin x > 0 in the interval (0, π).

30 Trigonometry: Functions, Equations and Inequalities

 4. sin x < 0 in the interval (π, 2π).
5. sin x is increasing in the first and fourth quadrants.
6. sin x is decreasing in the second and third quadrants.
7. sin x is a continuous function.
By using the unit circle we can form the following table:

degrees 0° 90° 180° 270° 360°

π 3π
radians 0 π 2π
2 2
sin α 0 1 0 –1 0

EXAMPLE 22 Calculate sin 0° + 3 sin 90° – 2 sin 180° - sin 270°.

Solution We can find these values from the unit circle:

sin 0° + 3 sin 90° – 2 sin 180° – sin 270° = 0 + (3 ⋅ 1) – (2 ⋅ 0) – (–1) = 3 + 1 = 4.

EXAMPLE 23 Find the domain and range of f(x) = 3 sin x + 2.

Solution We know that the domain of sin x is .

The sine function is a continuous function, so we can find the range by calculating the
maximum and minimum values of f(x).
The maximum value of sin x is 1, so the maximum value of f(x) is 3 ⋅ 1 + 2 = 5.
The minimum value of sin x is –1, so the minimum value of f(x) is 3 ⋅ (–1) + 2 = –1.
In conclusion, the range of f(x) is [–1, 5].

2. The Cosine Function

Look at the unit circle in the figure.
OC OC
We know cos α = = = OC, and this is
OB 1 B
true for any angle α. So we can say that the
1
x-axis is the cosine axis.
a A
From the unit circle we have –1 ≤ cos α ≤ 1 cosine axis
O C
and the angle α can be any real number.
We can define a function from the real
The cosine function
numbers to the interval [–1, 1] with the rule
corresponds to the
x-coordinates of points f(x) = cos x. This function is called the
on the unit circle. cosine function. It has the following properties:

Trigonometric Functions 31
 1. Domain =
2. Range = [–1, 1]
π π
3. cos x > 0 in the interval (– , ).
2 2
π 3π
4. cos x < 0 in the interval ( , ).
2 2
5. cos x is increasing in the third and fourth quadrants.
6. cos x is decreasing in the first and second quadrants.
7. cos x is a continuous function.

By using the unit circle we can form the following table:

degrees 0° 90° 180° 270° 360°
π 3π
radians 0 π 2π
2 2
cos x 1 0 –1 0 1

EXAMPLE 24 Calculate cos 360° – 2 cos 90° – 3 cos 180° + cos 270° – cos 0°.

Solution We can use the values in the table we have just seen:
cos 360° – 2 cos 90° – 3 cos 180° + cos 270° – cos 0° = 1 – (2 ⋅ 0) – [3 ⋅ (–1)] + 0 – 1
= 1 + 3 – 1 = 3.

EXAMPLE 25 Find the domain and range of f(x) = 4 cos x – 2.

Solution We know that the domain of cos x is . So the domain of f(x) is also .
The maximum value of cos x is 1, so the maximum value of f(x) is 4 ⋅ 1 – 2 = 2.
The minimum value of cos x is –1, so the minimum value of f(x) is 4 ⋅ (–1) – 2 = –6.
In conclusion, the range of f(x) is [–6, 2].

EXAMPLE 26 Find the range of y = sin 3x ⋅ cos 2x + cos 3x ⋅ sin 2x + 1.

Solution We know (sin 3x ⋅ cos 2x) + (cos 3x ⋅ sin 2x) = sin(3x + 2x) = sin 5x by the sum and
difference formulas. So the equation simplifies to y = sin 5x + 1.
Also, –1 ≤ sin 5x ≤ 1, so
(–1 + 1) ≤ (sin 5x + 1) ≤ (1 + 1).
In conclusion, the range of y is 0 ≤ y ≤ 2.

32 Trigonometry: Functions, Equations and Inequalities

 13π 11π
EXAMPLE 27 Calculate sin π + cos
2
+ sin17 π – 2 ⋅cos13 π+ sin
2
.

Solution We can find the answer by using coterminal angles and quadrantal angles for each term.
sin π = 0
13π π π
cos = cos( + 3 ⋅ 2 π) = cos = 0
2 2 2
sin17 π = sin( π+8 ⋅ 2 π) = sin π = 0
cos13 π = cos( π+6 ⋅ 2 π) = cos π= –1
11π 3π 3π
sin = sin( + 2 ⋅ 2 π) = sin = –1
2 2 2
Combining these results give us
13π 11π
sin π + cos + sin17 π – 2 ⋅cos13 π+ sin = 0+0+0 – 2(–1)+(–1 ) =1.
2 2

3. The Tangent Function

The figure opposite shows the unit circle and tangent axis
D
an angle α. Let us draw a line through the B
point A(1,0) perpendicular to the x-axis.
Then we extend OB such that OB and the
new line intersect at point D. Then a A
O C
BC DA DA
tan α = = = = DA. We can do this
OC OA 1
π 3π 5π
for all values of x except ± , ± , ± ... .
2 2 2
We can call this new line the tangent axis.
The tangent function We can see in the figure that the tangent axis has infinite length. So we can define a
corresponds to the
y-coordinates of points π
function from – { + kπ}, k ∈ to such that f(x) = tan x. This function is called the
on the tangent axis. 2
tangent function. It has the following properties:
π
1. Domain = – { + kπ}, k ∈
2
2. Range =
π 3π
3. tan x > 0 on (0, ), ( π, )
2 2
π 3π
4. tan x < 0 on ( , π), ( , 2 π)
Can you see why this 2 2
function is called the
tangent function? 5. tan x is always increasing.
sin x
6. tan x = , cos x ≠ 0.
cos x
Trigonometric Functions 33
 By using the unit circle we can form the following table:

degrees 0° 90° 180° 270° 360°

π 3π
radians 0 π 2π
2 2
tan x 0 undefined 0 undefined 0

EXAMPLE 28 Find the domain and the range of f(x) = tan 3x + 4.

π π kπ
Solution Domain: 3x ≠ + kπ gives us x ≠ + , k ∈ .
2 6 3
π kπ
So the domain is {x | x ∈ , x ≠ + , k ∈ }.
6 3
Range: tan 3x ∈ , so the range is (–∞, ∞).

4. The Cotangent Function

The figure shows the unit circle and a line
B D
through the point B(0, 1) parallel to the cotangent axis
x-axis. If we extend OC such that OC and the C
new line intersect at point D, then
OF OE OE a
cot α = = = = OE = BD.
CF DE 1 O F A E

We can do this for all values of α except

0, ±π, ±2π... . We can call this new line the
The cotangent function
corresponds to the cotangent axis.
x-coordinates of points
on the cotangent axis. We can see in the figure that this axis has infinite length. So we can define a function from
– {kπ}, k ∈ to such that f(x) = cot x. This function is called the cotangent function. It
has the following properties:

1. Domain = – {kπ}, k ∈

2. Range =
π 3π
3. cot x > 0 on (0, ), ( π, ).
2 2
π 3π
4. cot x < 0 on ( , π), ( , 2 π)
2 2
5. cot x is always decreasing.
cos x
6. cot x = , sin x ≠ 0
sin x

34 Trigonometry: Functions, Equations and Inequalities

 By using the unit circle we can form the following table:

degrees 0° 90° 180° 270° 360°

π 3π
radians 0 π 2π
2 2
cot x undefined 0 undefined 0 undefined

5. The Secant Function

The figure shows the angle ∠POC = α and
the unit circle. Let us draw a tangent line to
the unit circle at point P and say that the P

intersection point of the tangent line and the

OC OC a C
x-axis is C. Then sec α = = = OC.
OP 1 O A

We can do this for all values of α except

π 3π 5π
± , ± , ± , ... because at these points
2 2 2
the tangent line will be parallel to the x-axis.

We can see in the figure that as α approaches 90°, sec α approaches ∞.

π
We can define a function from – { + kπ}, k ∈ to – (–1, 1) such that f(x) = sec x. This
2
function is called the secant function. It has the following properties:
π
1. Domain = – { + kπ}, k ∈
2
The secant function 2. Range = – (–1, 1)
corresponds to the
x-coordinates of points
π π
on the x-axis with 3. sec x > 0 on (– , )
x ∉ (–1, 1). 2 2
π 3π
4. sec x < 0 on ( , )
2 2
1
5. sec x = , cos x ≠ 0.
cos x
By using the unit circle we can form the following table:

degrees 0° 90° 180° 270° 360°

π 3π
radians 0 π 2π
2 2
sec x 1 undefined –1 undefined 1

Trigonometric Functions 35
 6. The Cosecant Function
The figure shows the angle ∠POA = α and
D
the unit circle. Let us draw the tangent to x
P
the unit circle at point P and say that the

intersection point of the tangent line and the a

OD OD O A
y-axis is D. Then csc α = = = OD.
OP 1
We can do this for all values of x except 0,

±π, ±2π, ±3π, ... because at these points the

tangent line will be parallel to the y-axis.

We see in the figure that as α approaches 0°, csc α approaches ∞.

So we can define a function from – {kπ}, k ∈ to – (–1, 1) such that f(x) = csc x. This
function is called the cosecant function. It has the following properties:

1. Domain = – {kπ}, k ∈
The cosecant function
corresponds to the 2. Range = – (–1, 1)
y-coordinates of points
on the y-axis with 3. csc x > 0 on (0, π)
y ∉ (–1, 1).
4. csc x < 0 on (π, 2π)
1
5. csc x = , sin x ≠ 0.
sin x

By using the unit circle we can form the following table:

degrees 0° 90° 180° 270° 360°

π 3π
radians 0 π 2π
2 2
csc x undefined 1 undefined –1 undefined

7. Mixed Examples
π
EXAMPLE 29 Given the function f(x) = 2sin x + cos 2x, find f ( ) .
6

π π π 1 1 3
Solution f ( ) = 2 ⋅ sin + cos(2 ⋅ ) = 2 ⋅ + = .
6 6 6 2 2 2

36 Trigonometry: Functions, Equations and Inequalities

 EXAMPLE 30 Calculate (sin
π
2
3π
2
3π
⋅ cos π) – (tan π ⋅ cot )+ sec 2 π– csc .
2

π 3π
Solution We know that sin = 1, cos π = –1, tan π = 0, cot = 0, sec 2π = 1 and
3π 2 2
csc = –1. So
2
π 3π 3π
(sin ⋅ cos π) – (tan π ⋅ cot )+ sec 2 π– csc =1 ⋅(–1) – 0 ⋅0+1 – (– 1) =1.
2 2 2

Note p
2
cos x sin x
tan x cot x
We can summarize the signs of the functions
cos x, sin x, tan x and cot x as shown in the
figure. O
p 2p

3p
2

EXAMPLE 31 Find the sign of each ratio.

sin 200°, cos 122°, tan 312°, cot 300°, sec 120°, csc 77°

Solution We can use the figure above. 200° is in the third quadrant, so sin 200° is negative.
122° is in the second quadrant, so cos 122° is negative.
312° is in the fourth quadrant, so tan 312° is negative.
300° is in the fourth quadrant, so cot 300° is negative.
120° is in the second quadrant, so sec 120° is negative.
77° is in the first quadrant, so csc 77° is positive.

EXAMPLE 32 Write a = sin 65°, b = cos 124° and c = tan 55° in ascending order.

Solution Let us draw the given angles on the unit

circle. We know that tangent function is an 65°
124°
55°
increasing function, so if 55° > 45° then
sin 65°
tan 55° > tan 45° = 1. So c > 1.
cos x
Also from the figure we have cos 124°

a = sin 65° is positive and smaller than 1,

and b = cos 124° is negative. So b < a < c. tan 55°

Trigonometric Functions 37
EXAMPLE 33 Write a = sin 50°, b = cos 50°, c = tan 50° and d = sec 50° in ascending order.

Solution Look at the figure. At 45°, sin 45° = cos 45°

and cos 45° < tan 45° = 1. C
Also, if 90° > x > 45° then sin x > cos x and tan 50°
tan x > 1. B

So we can write cos 50° < sin 50° < tan 50°. sin 50°
What about sec 50°? A
O cos 50° D
sin50 ° 1
tan50 ° = and sec50 °= .
cos50 ° cos50 °
We know sin 50° < 1, so tan 50° < sec 50°.
So b < a < c < d.

EXAMPLE 34 Find the domain and range of y =2 sin x + 3 tan 2x.

Solution Let us find the domain and range of 2 sin x and 3 tan 2x separately:
f(x) = 2 sin x: domain = and range = [–2, 2].
π kπ
In this type of question, g(x) = 3 tan 2x: domain = − { + }, k ∈ and range = .
begin by finding the 4 2
domain and range of the
π kπ π kπ
individual functions. So the domain of the function y is ∩ − { + }, k ∈ = − { + }, k ∈ .
Then the domain is the 4 2 4 2
intersection of the
domains and the range is
The range of y is ∪ [–2, 2] = .
the union of the ranges.

EXAMPLE 35 Find the domain and the range of y = cos2 x + cos x.

Solution The domain of both cos2 x and cos x is . So we can say that the domain of y is ∩ = .
2
To find the range, we can use the fact that cos x and cos x are continuous functions. The
range is therefore the interval between the minimum and maximum points of y.
y = ax2 + bx + c is the Let us use the substitution t = cos x, then we have y = t2 + t.
equation of a parabola.
The vertex of the b 1 1
So y is a parabola and its vertex is V(r, k) where r = – =– =– and
parabola is V(r, k) where 2a 2 ⋅1 2
1 1 2 1 1 1 1
b
and
k = y(– ) = (– ) – = – = – .
r=– 2 2 2 4 2 4
2a
k =y(k). 1
So the minimum value of y is – .
4
If we substitute the maximum value of cos x in the function we will get the maximum value
of y. The maximum value of cos x is 1, so the maximum value of y is 12 + 1 = 2.
1
In conclusion, the range of y is [– , 2].
4

38 Trigonometry: Functions, Equations and Inequalities

 Check Yourself 7
1. Evaluate each expression.
a. sin 90° + cos 180° – 2 ⋅ tan 180° – cot 90°

b. 3 ⋅ cos 0º + 3 ⋅ tan 0º – 2 ⋅ cot 270° + sin 270°

3π π 3π π 13π
c. sin + 2 ⋅ cos – cot d. sec 3π + 2 ⋅ csc – cot
2 2 2 2 2
7π 21π 3π 5π
e. sin 3π + cos + tan17 π+ cot f. sec17 π + csc – tan6 π+ cot
2 2 2 2

2. Find the domain of each function.

a. f(x) = 3 sin(5x + 2) b. y = 4 cos 5x c. y = 4 tan 3x – 2
π
d. f(x) = cot(3x – 5) + 2 e. f(x) = 3 csc 2x – 2 f. y = sec(2 x + )
3
g. y = 2 sin 3x + cos 2x h. y = 2 tan 3x – 3 cot 5x
3. Find the range of each function.
a. y = 3 sin 2x + 1 b. y = 5 sin (4x + 1) – 3 c. f(x) = 3 sin 7x + 4
d. y = 2 cos 5x – 4 e. y = 13 cos (2x – 3) f. f(x) = 5 cos x + 3
g. y = tan 3x – 1 h. f(x) = 2 tan (4x – 2) + 6 i. f(x) = 2 sec 3x
j. y = 4 csc 7x – 3 k. y = 2 sec (x + 2) l. y = 2 tan x + cot 2x
4. Find the sign of each ratio.
a. sin 233° b. cos 129° c. tan 448° d. cot 322°
7π
e. tan 198° f. sec 121° g. csc 167° h. sin
5
17 π 6π 13π 3π
i. cos j. tan k. cot l. sec
7 5 19 4
5. Write each set of ratios in ascending order.
a. x = sin 45°, y = cos 74° and z = tan 155°
b. a = sin 130°, b = cos 130°, c = tan 130° and d = sec 130°
c. m = sin 119°, n = tan 244° and r = cot(–12°)

Answers
1. a. 0 b. 2 c. –1 d. 1 e. 0 f. –2
π kπ 5 kπ kπ
2. a. b. c. − { + }, k ∈ d. − { + }, k ∈ e. −{ }, k ∈
6 3 3 3 2
π kπ π kπ nπ
f. − { + }, k ∈ g. h. −{ + ∪ }, k, n ∈
12 2 6 3 5

Trigonometric Functions 39
 3. a. [–2, 4] b. [–8, 2] c. [1, 7] d. [–6, –2] e. [–13, 13] f. [–2, 8] g. h.
i. (–∞, –2] ∪ [2, ∞) j. (–∞, –7] ∪ [1, ∞) k. (–∞, –2] ∪ [2, ∞) l.
4. a. – b. – c. + d. – e. + f. – g. + h. – i. + j. + k. – l. –
5. a. z < y < x b. d < c < b < a c. r < m < n

B. PERIODS OF TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS

1. Periodic Functions
The values of some mathematical functions repeat with the same pattern to infinity. A
function with this property is called a periodic function.

Definition periodic function, period, fundamental period

A function f: A → B is a periodic function if it satisfies the rule
f(x + T) = f(x) for all values of x in A.
The number T is called the period of the function.
The smallest possible positive value of T is called the fundamental period of the function.

EXAMPLE 36 f : → is a function such that f(x) = {the remainder when x is divided by 4}. Draw the
graph of f and find its period.

Solution Let us find some values of f(x) to draw the graph.

x f(x)
0 0 y = f(x)
1 1 3
2 2 2
3 3 1
4 0 x
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
5 1
6 2
7 3
8 0
9 1
10 2

40 Trigonometry: Functions, Equations and Inequalities

 As we can see in the table, the values 0, 1, 2 and 3 repeat. So we can write
f(x) = f(x + 4) = f(x + 8) = … .
We can say that T = 4, 8, 12, ... are all periods of f(x).
The smallest positive period of f(x) is 4, so the fundamental period of f(x) is 4.

EXAMPLE 37 The figure below shows the graph of the function y = f(x).
a. Find the fundamental period of f(x).
b. Find f(133), f(85) and f(202).

y = f(x)

2
–5 –4 5 10 12 15
x
–3 –2 1 2 3 4 6 7 8 9 11 13 14

–2

Solution a. From the graph we can see

f(–5)= f(0) = f(5) = ... = –2
f(–4)= f(1) = f(6) = ... = 0
f(–3)= f(2) = f(7) = ... = 2
f(–2)= f(3) = f(8) = ... = 2
…
So the periods are 5, 10, 15, ... and the fundamental period is T = 5.
b. If T = 5 then we can write f(x) = f(x + kT) = f(x + 5k), k ∈ . So
f(133) = f(3 + 26 ⋅ 5) = f(3) = 2
f(85) = f(0 + 17 ⋅ 5) = f(0) = –2
f(202) = f(2 + 40 ⋅ 5) = f(2) = 2.

Trigonometric Functions 41
 2. Periods of Trigonometric Functions
Recall the definition of coterminal angles on the unit circle: for any angle x we can write
x = x + 2kπ, k ∈ . If we apply this fact to trigonometric functions, we get
We know that the tangent
and cotangent values of sin x = sin(x + 2kπ)
angles in the first and
third quadrants and in cos x = cos(x + 2kπ)
the second and fourth
quadrants are the same,
tan x = tan(x + kπ)
so we only add kπ for the cot x = cot(x + kπ).
tangent and cotangent
functions. This means that trigonometric functions are also periodic functions. Moreover, 2kπ is a
period for sin x and cos x and kπ is a period for tan x and cot x, where k is an integer.

EXAMPLE 38 Find the fundamental period of f(x) = 2cos 3x.

Solution If f is a periodic function then by definition, f(x) = f(x + T) . So

2 cos 3x = 2 cos [3(x + T)]. Simplifying gives us cos 3x = cos [3(x + T)].
Let us use the coterminal angles of 3x, i.e 3x + 2kπ:
If cosx = cosy then
x = ±y + 2kπ. When we cos(3x + 2kπ) = cos [3(x + T)].
write –y + 2kπ, we can
simplify 3x from both Removing the cosine function from both sides gives 3x + 2kπ = 3(x + T) = 3x + 3T, so
sides. For this reason, 2kπ
we will take only the 2kπ = 3T and therefore T = is the period of f(x).
positive value of y. 3
2π
The smallest possible positive value of k is 1, and so the fundamental period of f(x) is .
3

Rule
Let n be an integer, let a and b be real numbers and let T stand for the fundamental period
of a trigonometric function.
1. For y = sin n( ax + b), y = cos n( ax+ b), y = sec n( ax+ b)and y = csc n( ax+ b).

π
i. if n is even then T = .
| a|

2π
ii. if n is odd then T = .
| a|

π
2. For y = tan n( ax + b) and y = cot n( ax+ b), T = .
| a|

Note
If f(x) is a periodic function then af(x) and f(x) + b are also periodic functions and the
periods of all these functions are the same. Can you see why?

42 Trigonometry: Functions, Equations and Inequalities

 EXAMPLE 39 Find the fundamental period of each function.
a. y = sin7 8x. b. y = 2cos5 (4x + 2).
c. f(x) = 3 sin2 (3x + 5) – 2. d. f(x) = 7 sec3 (5 – 2x) + 4.
e. f(x) = csc4 (4x + 1) – 1.

Solution We will use the rule we have just seen.

2π 2 π π
a. n = 7 is odd, so T = = = .
| a| 8 4
2π 2 π π
b. n = 5 is odd, so T = = = .
| a| 4 2
π π
c. n = 2 is even, so T = = .
| a| 3
2π 2π 2π
d. n = 3 is odd and a = – 2, so T = = = =π.
| a | | –2| 2
π π
e. n = 4 is even, so T = = .
| a| 4

EXAMPLE 40 Find the fundamental period of each function.

a. y = 5 – cot3 (2x – 1). b. f(x) = tan4 5x. c. y = 2 cot3 (2 – 6x) + 1.

Solution a. We know that the period of y = 5 – cot3(2x – 1) is the same as the period of
π π
y = cot3(2x – 1). So T = = .
| a| 2
π π
b. T = =
| a| 5
π π π
c. a = –6, so T = = = .
| a | | –6| 6

EXAMPLE 41 π
Find the fundamental period of y = sin( x).
3

π
Solution n = 1 is odd and a = , so
3
2π 2 π 3
T= = = 2π ⋅ = 6 .
| a| π π
3

Trigonometric Functions 43
 Rule
To find the period of the sum or difference of two or more periodic functions, first we find
LCM means least the fundamental period of each separate function, and then we take the least common
common multiple: the
smallest quantity that is multiple of these periods. This is the fundamental period of given function. For example, if
divisible by two or more
given quantities without
f(x) = g(x) + h(x) and the fundamental periods of g(x) and h(x) are T1 and T2 respectively
a remainder. then the fundamental period of f(x) is T = LCM(T1, T2).
GCD is the greatest
common divisor: the
greatest quantity that
can divide two or more
given quantities.
For example:
LCM (4,6) = 12,
GCD (4,6) = 2.

Rule
a c
For any two quantities and ,
b d
a c LCM( a, c)
LCM( , ) =
b d GCD( b, d)

a c p LCM( a, c, ..., p, ...)

By extension, LCM( , , ..., , ...) = .
b d q GCD( b, d, ..., q, ...)

EXAMPLE 42 Find the fundamental period of y = sin3x + cos33x.

Solution For g(x) = sin3x we have T1 = 2π.

2π
For h(x) = cos33x we have T2 = .
3
2π 2π 2π LCM(2 π, 2 π) 2 π
So the fundamental period is T = LCM(2 π, ) = LCM( , )= = = 2 π.
3 1 3 GCD(1, 3) 1

EXAMPLE 43 Find the fundamental period of y = 3 cos5 3x – 2 cot3 5x.

2π
Solution For g(x) = 3 cos5 3x we have T1 = .
3
π
For h( x) = 2 cot 3 5 x we have T2 = .
5
2π π LCM(2 π, π) 2 π
So the period is T = LCM( , )= = = 2 π.
3 5 GCD(3, 5) 1

44 Trigonometry: Functions, Equations and Inequalities

 EXAMPLE 44 Find the fundamental period of y = cos2 3x – cot2 2x + sin3(5x + 1).

π
Solution For g( x) = cos 2 3 x we have T1 = ,
3
π
for h( x) = cot 2 2 x we have T2 = ,
2
2π
and for r( x) = sin 3(5 x+1) we have T3 = .
5
π π 2π LCM( π, π, 2 π) 2 π
So T = LCM( , , )= = = 2 π.
3 2 5 GCD(3, 2, 5) 1

Note
If f(x) is a product or quotient of two periodic functions then LCM(T1, T2) gives us a period
of f(x) but this may not be the fundamental period. To find the fundamental period we must
change the product or quotient to a sum or difference of functions.

EXAMPLE 45 Find the fundamental period of y = cos 5x ⋅ cos 3x.

Solution First rewrite the product as a sum or difference:

1 1 1
y = cos 5x ⋅ cos 3x = ⋅ [cos(5x + 3x)+ cos(5x 3x)] = cos 8 x + cos 2 x.
2 2 2
1 2π π 1 2π
ow for g( x) =
No cos 8 x we get T1 = = , and for h( x) = cos 2 x we get T2 = = π, so
2 8 4 2 2
π π π LCM( π, π ) π
T = LCM( , π) = LCM( , ) = = = π.
4 4 1 GCD( 4, 1) 1

Check Yourself 8
1. Find the fundamental period of each function.
a. y = sin3 4x b. y = 2 sin2(4 – 3x) c. y = 3 cos3(5x – 2)
d. y = 2 sec2(2 – 4x) + 1 e. y = csc7(2x + 3) – 4 f. y = 2 cos 5x

2. Find the fundamental period of each function.

2πx x
a. y = cot6(3x + 2) b. y = tan 3x c. y = 2 cot 3(3 – ) d. y = tan
5 4
π
3. Find the fundamental period of y = sin( x) .
5
Trigonometric Functions 45
 4. Find the fundamental period of each function.
a. y = sin3 2x + cos3 5x b. y = cos2 4x – 2 cot5 3x
c. y = cos3 8x – cot 2x + sin3(6x + 1) d. y = cos x ⋅ cos 3x
e. y = 6 sin 2x ⋅ cos 2x f. y = sin x ⋅ sin 3x

Answers
π π 2π π 2π π π 5
1. a. b. c. d. e. π f. 2. a. b. c. d. 4π 3. 10
2 3 5 4 5 3 3 2
π
4. a. 2π b. π c. π d. π e. f. π
2

C. GRAPHS OF TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS

We have already seen that trigonometric functions are periodic. We can use this fact to sketch
or draw the graphs of trigonometric functions.
To draw the graph of a trigonometric function, follow the steps:
1. Find the period of the function.

2. Choose a suitable interval for the graph. Generally [0, 2π] is a good interval for sin x and
π π
cos x, (0, π) is good for cot x and (– , ) is good for tan x.
2 2
3. Investigate the behavior of the function in the given interval. For this we will check the
values of the function for common angles such as 0°, 30°, 45°, 60°, 90°, ... . This will show
us when the function is increasing and when it is decreasing. We write to show that a
function is increasing on an interval. We write to show that it is decreasing.
For sin x and cos x functions we can divide the interval [0, 2π] into four equal parts and
take the endpoints of the intervals as the angles to inspect.
4. Draw the graph of the function in the given interval and copy it any number of times to
get the general graph of the function.

Now we are ready to look at the graph of the basic trigonometric functions.

1. Graph of the Sine Function

For f(x) = sin x we have f: → [–1, 1]. Follow the steps described above:
1. The period of sin x is 2π.
2. We will draw the graph on the interval [0, 2π].

46 Trigonometry: Functions, Equations and Inequalities

 π 3π
3. We can use the quadrantal angles 0, , π, and 2 π and make a table:
2 2
p 3p
0 p 2p
x 2 2
sin x 0 1 0 –1 0

4. Now we can draw the graph with the information.

1
3p
–p 2 3p
p p 2p x
2
–1

2p

Remember that the period of y = sin x is 2π, so after drawing the graph in [0, 2π] we can
copy the curve any number of times to get the general graph of y = sin x.

2. Graph of the Cosine Function

For f(x) = cos x we have f: → [–1, 1].
1. The period of cos x is 2π.
2. We will draw the graph on the interval [0, 2π].
π 3π
3. We can use the quadrantal angles 0, , π, and 2 π and make a table:
2 2
p 3p
0 p 2p
x 2 2
cos x 1 0 –1 0 1

4. Now we can draw the graph:

y

1 y = cos x
p 3p
–p 2 p 2 x
3p p 2p
– –
2 2
–1
2p

The period of y = cos x is 2π, so after drawing the graph in [0, 2π] we can copy the curve
any number of times to get the general graph of y = cos x.

Trigonometric Functions 47
 3. Graph of the Tangent Function
π
f(x) = tan x means f : – { + kπ} → .
2
1. The period of tan x is π.
π π
2. We will draw the graph on the interval (– , ) .
2 2
π π π π
3. Use the special angles − , − , 0, and to make a table:
2 4 4 2
p p p p
– – 0
x 2 4 4 2
tan x –¥ –1 0 1 ¥

4. Draw the graph: y

– 3p p 3p
–p
2 2 2 2
x
–p p

π π
The period of y = tan x is π, so after drawing the graph on the interval (– , ) we can
2 2
copy the curve any number of times to get the general graph of y = tan x.

4. Graph of the Cotangent Function

f(x) = cot x means f : – {kπ} → .

1. The period of cot x is π.

2. We will draw the graph on the interval (0, π).

π π 3π π
3. Use the special angles 0, , , and to make a table:
4 2 4 2

p p 3p
0 p
x 4 2 4
cot x ¥ 1 0 –1 –¥

48 Trigonometry: Functions, Equations and Inequalities

 4. Draw the graph: y

p 3p
–p
2 2 2
x
–p p 2p

The period of y = cot x is π, so after drawing the graph in (0, π) we can copy the curve any
number of times to get the general graph of y = cot x.

5. Graph of the Secant Function

1
We know that sec x = . So f(x) = sec x is undefined when cos x = 0, which means
cos x
π
the function is f : – { + kπ} → – (–1, 1).
2
1. The period of sec x is 2π.
2. We will draw the graph on the interval (0, 2π).
3. We can use the quadrantal angles and the cosine function to make the table:
p 3p
0 p 2p
x 2 2
sec x 0 +¥ –¥ –1 –¥ +¥ 1

4. Draw the graph: y

y = sec x

-3p/2 -p/2 p/2 3p/2

x
-2p -p p 2p
-1
y = cos x

Remember that the period of y = sec x is 2π, so we can copy the curve any number of times
to get the general graph of y = sec x.

Trigonometric Functions 49
 6. Graph of the Cosecant Function
1
We know that f(x) = csc x and csc x = , so we can say that csc x is undefined when
sin x
sin x = 0, i.e. the function is f : – {kπ} → – (–1, 1).

1. The period of csc x is 2π.

2. We will draw the graph on the interval (0, 2π).

3. We can use the quadrantal angles and the sine function to make table:

p 3p
0 p 2p
x 2 2
csc x +¥ 1 +¥ –¥ –1 –¥ +¥

4. Draw the graph:

y
y = csc x

-p -p/2 p 3p/2
x
-3p/2 O p/2 2p 5p/2

-1 y = sin x

Remember that the period of y = csc x is 2π, so after drawing the graph in [0, 2π] we can
copy the curve any number of times to get the general graph of y = csc x.

7. Graph Translations
Recall the basic effects that different changes in a function can have on a graph:
1. The graph of y = f(x – r) is the graph of f(x) shifted r units right along the x-axis.
2. The graph of y = f(x) + k is the graph of f(x) shifted k units up along the y-axis.
3. The graph of y = –f(x) is the reflection of the graph of f(x) with respect to the x-axis.

50 Trigonometry: Functions, Equations and Inequalities

 EXAMPLE 46 π
Draw the graph of y = sin( x – ) .
3

π π
Solution r= , so we will shift the graph of f(x)= sin x to the right by units along the x-axis. So
3 3
π
the graph of y = sin( x – ) is as follows:
3
y

y = sin x
1
p
y = sin (x – )
2p 3
–p p p x
3

–1

EXAMPLE 47 Draw the graph of y = 3cos(2x + 1).

Solution Let us draw the graph of y = 3cos 2x first, then we will shift the graph one unit to the left.
2π
1. The period of y = cos 2x is T = =π.
2
2. We will draw the graph in [0, π].
p p 3p
π π 3π 0 p
x 4 2 4
3. Use the special angles 0, , , and π to
4 2 4 cos 2x 1 0 –1 0 1
make the table:
3cos 2x 3 0 –3 0 3

4. Now we can draw y = cos 2x and then y = 3cos (2x + 1):

3 y = 3cos (2x + 1)

y = 3cos 2x

p p
4 2
3p p 3p 2p x
4 2

–3
p

Trigonometric Functions 51
EXAMPLE 48 Draw the graph of y = 2 sin 3x + 4.

Solution Begin with the graph of y = 2 sin 3x:

2π
1. The period of y = 2 sin 3x is T = .
3
2π
2. We will draw the graph in [0,].
3
π π π 2π
3. Use the angles 0, , , , and to draw the table:
6 3 2 3
p p p 2p
x 0 6 3 2 3

sin 3x 0 1 0 –1 0
2sin 3x 0 2 0 –2 0

2sin 3x + 4 4 6 4 2 4

4. Finally, draw the graph:

y

p p p 2p x
6 3 2 3
2p
3

EXAMPLE 49 Draw the graph of y = 2 cos

x
3
– 3 in the interval [–6π, 6π].

x 2π
Solution 1. The period of y = cos is T = = 6 π.
3 1
3
3π 9π
2. Let us divide the interval [0, 6π] into four equal parts, then the angles will be 0, , 3π, ,
2 2
6π.

3. Make the table:

3p 9p
x 0 2 3p 2 6p
p
cos 1 0 –1 0 1
3
p
2cos – 3 –1 –3 –5 –3 –1
3

52 Trigonometry: Functions, Equations and Inequalities

 4. Finally, draw the graph:

y
9p 3p 3p 9p
– –
–6p 2 –3p 2 2 3p 2 6p
x
–1

–3

–5
6p

EXAMPLE 50 Draw the graph of y = tan

x
3
in [–3 π, 3 π].

x π
Solution 1. The period of y = tan is T = = 3 π.
3 1
3
2. We need to draw the graph in [–3π, 3π].

3π 3π
3. Let us use the angles – , 0, and draw the table:
2 2
3p 3p
–
x 2 0 2
x
tan –¥ 0 ¥
3

4. Now we can draw the graph and repeat the curve on the interval [–3π, 3π]:

– 3p 3p
2 2 3p
x
–3p

3p

Trigonometric Functions 53
 Check Yourself 9
1. Draw the graph of each function in the interval [0, π].
a. y = 3 sin 4x – 1 b. y = 5 – cos 2x c. y = tan 2x

Answers

1. a. b. c.
2 6
p 3p p 3p 5
4 8 2 4 p 4
p 5p 7p
–1 p p p
8 8 8 3p
4 2 4

–4 p p 3p p
4 2 4

D. INVERSE TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS

Recall that a function f: S → T is a one-tto-o
one function if for every x1 ≠ x2, f(x1) ≠ f(x2). Also,
f is an onto function if every element in T is an image of an element in S.
Remember!
If f: D → R is a If a function is both one-to-one and onto then it has an inverse. It is easy to show that
one-to-one and onto trigonometric functions are not one-to-one, since they repeat themselves. Therefore, if we
function then want to define the inverse of a trigonometric function, we must choose a suitable smaller
: R → D is its
–1
f domain and range in which the function is both one-to-one and onto.
inverse.
We use the prefix ‘arc’ to name the inverse of a trigonometric function. For example,
arcsin x is the inverse of sin x,
arccos x is the inverse of cos x,
arctan x is the inverse of tan x,
arccot x is the inverse of cot x, and so on.

Be careful!
Note
1 Some books use sin–1 x, cos–1 x, tan–1 x, cot–1 x or Asin x, Acos x, Atan x, Acot x to show the
sin −1 x ≠
sin x inverses of trigonometric functions. Some book also use Arcsin x to mean the inverse
cos −1 x ≠
1 function of sin x, and arcsin x to mean the inverse relation of sin x. We know that a relation
cos x
does not need to be one-to-one to have inverse, but a function must be one-to-one and onto
to have its inverse.
In this book we will use arcsin x, arccos x, arctan x and arccot x to mean the inverses of the
trigonometric functions.

54 Trigonometry: Functions, Equations and Inequalities

 1. The Arcsine Function
⎡ π π⎤
If f : ⎢ − , ⎥ → [–1, 1] then f(x) = sin x is both one-to-one and onto, so we can define its
⎣ 2 2⎦
inverse on this interval. The inverse of f(x) = sin x on this interval is f –1(x) = arcsin x
⎡ π π⎤
with f −1 : [ −1, 1] → ⎢ − , ⎥.
⎣ 2 2⎦
π π
x = arcsin y ⇔ y = sin x, x ∈[ − , ]
2 2

Graph of y = arcsin x

⎡ π π⎤
For arcsin : [ −1, 1] → ⎢ − , ⎥ we can find the following values:
⎣ 2 2⎦

Remember! ñ2 ñ2
–
x –1 2 0 2 1
The graph of an inverse
function f –1(x) is the arcsin x – p –
p 0 p p
reflection of the graph of 2 4 4 2
the function f(x) with
respect to the line y = x.
The values give us the graph y = arcsin x:

p y = arcsin x
2
1 y = sin x
p
– –1
2
0 1 p x
2
–1
p
–
y=x 2

EXAMPLE 51 1
Find the value of arcsin .
2

Solution By the definition of inverse trigonometric functions we have

1 1
x = arcsin ⇔ = sin x .
2 2
1
We know that sin 30° = sin 150° = sin 390° = … = , but arcsin is only defined on the
2
⎡ π π⎤ π
interval ⎢ − , ⎥ , so we will take x = 30° = .
⎣ 2 2⎦ 6

Trigonometric Functions 55
EXAMPLE 52 Find arcsin(–
2
3
).

⎡ π π⎤
Solution The arcsine function is defined on the interval ⎢ − , ⎥ ,
⎣ 2 2⎦
3 3 π
so x = arcsin(– )⇔– = sin x, i.e. x= –60 °= – .
2 2 3

2
EXAMPLE 53 Find sin(arcsin
2
).

2 2
Solution 1 Let arcsin = x . Then we can write sin(arcsin ) = sin x .
2 2

2 2
Remember! x = arcsin ⇔ = sin x, so x = 45 °.
By the property of 2 2
inverse functions,
f(f –1(x)) = x and 2 2
So sin(arcsin ) = sin x = sin 45 °= .
–1
f (f (x)) = x. 2 2

2 2
Solution 2 sin(arcsin )= by the property of inverse functions (since f(f –1(x))=x).
2 2

EXAMPLE 54 Find cos (arcsin 1).

Solution Let arcsin 1 = x, then we must find cos x.

If arcsin 1 = x then sin x = 1 and so x = 90°.
So cos (arcsin 1) = cos x = cos 90° = 0.

EXAMPLE 55 Find arcsin (tan 45°).

π
Solution tan 45° = 1, so we need to find arcsin1= 90 ° = .
2

56 Trigonometry: Functions, Equations and Inequalities

 2. The Arccosine Function
If f: [0, π] → [–1, 1] then f(x) = cos x is both one-to-one and onto, so we can define its
inverse. The inverse of f(x) = cos x on this interval is f –1(x) = arccos x with
f –1: [–1, 1] → [0, π].

x = arccos y ⇔ y = cos x, x ∈ [0, π]

Graph of y = arccos x

For arccos : [–1, 1] → [0, π] we can find the following values:

ñ2 ñ2
–
x –1 2 0 2 1

arccos x p 3p p p 0
4 2 4

The values give us the graph of the function y = arccos x:

y
y = arccos x Notice that the graph is a reflection of
p
y=x
y = cos x in the line y = x.

p
2
1

p
–1 0 1 p x
2
–1
y = cos x

1
EXAMPLE 56 Find arccos .
2

Solution By the definition of inverse trigonometric functions we have

1 1 1 π 1
x = arccos ⇔ = cos x and x ∈ [0, π] ⋅ = cos x means x = 60° = = arccos .
2 2 2 3 2

Trigonometric Functions 57
EXAMPLE 57 Find arccos
2
3
+ arccos
2
2
.

Solution Let us evaluate each term separately.

3 3 π
a = arccos means cos a = , so a= 30 °= .
2 2 6

2 2 π
b = arccos means cos b = , so b= 45 °= .
2 2 4
π π 5π
Combining these results gives us a+ b= + = .
6 4 12

EXAMPLE 58 Find arccos (cos (–30°)).

Solution Since cos x and arccos x are inverse functions, the answer seems to be –30°.
But we know arccos: [–1, 1] → [0, π], so the result cannot be –30°.
Instead, we must find the answer in [0, π].
If cos (–30°) = a then we must find arccos a. Since cos (–x) = cosx, we have

3
a = cos(–30 °) = cos 30 ° = .
2

3 π
So arccos(cos(–30°)) = arccos a= arccos = 30 °= . This is the answer.
2 6

EXAMPLE 59 Find sin(arcsin

2
2
+ arccos
2
3
).

Solution 2 3
Let a = arcsin and b = arccos .
2 2

2 2 π
a = arcsin means sin a = and so a= 45 ° = .
2 2 4

3 3 π
b = arccos means cos b = and so b= 30 ° = .
2 2 6

2 3
So sin(arcsin + arccos ) = sin(45° + 30°) = (sin45° ⋅ cos30°) + (cos45° ⋅ sin30°)
2 2

2 3 2 1 6+ 2
=( ⋅ )+( ⋅ )= .
2 2 2 2 4

58 Trigonometry: Functions, Equations and Inequalities

 3
EXAMPLE 60 Find cos(arcsin ).
5
3 3
Solution Let a = arcsin , then sin a = and we
5 5
3 A
need to find cos a. However, sin a = is not
5
a ratio we know, so we can draw a right
5
3
triangle to find the other trigonometric ratios

for the angle a. In the figure, the Pythagorean a

2 2 2 C 4 B
Theorem gives us BC + AB = AC , i.e.
BC2 = 52 – 32 = 25 – 9 = 16, so BC = 4.
BC 4 3
So cos a = = = cos(arcsin ).
AC 5 5

EXAMPLE 61 π 1
Find cos( – arcsin ).
2 2

1
Solution Let arcsin = a, then we need to find
2
π 1 1
cos( – a) = sin a = sin(arcsin ) = .
Reduction formula: 2 2 2
π
cos( − x) = sin x
2

2
EXAMPLE 62 Find sin(2 ⋅ arccos ).
3

2 2 A
Solution Let arccos = a, then cos a = .
3 3
Then we have
3
2 ñ5
sin(2 ⋅ arccos ) = sin 2a = 2 sin a ⋅ cos a.
3
2 a
Given that cos a = we can draw a right
3 B 2 C
triangle to find sin a.
5
The Pythagorean Theorem gives us AC = 5, so sin a = . So
3
2
sin(2 ⋅ arccos ) = sin 2 a = 2 ⋅sin ⋅ a ⋅cos a
3
5 2 4 5
=2⋅ ⋅ = .
3 3 9

Trigonometric Functions 59
EXAMPLE 63 Find the domain of y = arccos(2x + 1).

Solution arccos: [–1, 1] → [0, π], so –1 ≤ (2x + 1) ≤ 1, and subtracting 1 from all parts of the
inequality gives us –2 ≤ 2x ≤ 0. Finally, dividing all parts by 2 gives us –1 ≤ x ≤ 0.
So x ∈ [–1, 0], i.e. the domain is [–1, 0].

3. The Arctangent Function

⎛ π π⎞
If f : ⎜ − , ⎟ → then f ( x) = tan x is both one-to-one and onto, so we can define its
⎝ 2 2⎠
⎛ π π⎞
inverse. The inverse of f(x) = tan x is f –1(x) = arctan x with f −1 : → ⎜− , ⎟ .
⎝ 2 2⎠

⎛ π π⎞
x = arctan y ⇔ y = tan x, x ∈ ⎜ − , ⎟
⎝ 2 2⎠

Graph of y = arctan x

⎛ π π⎞
For arctan : ⎜ − , ⎟ → we can find the following values:
⎝ 2 2⎠
x –¥ –1 0 1 ¥

arctan x – p –
p 0 p p
2 4 4 2

The values give us the graph of the function y = arctan x:

y
y = tan x

y=x

y = arctan x

0
p x
– p
2
2

p
–
2

EXAMPLE 64 Find arctan ñ3.

π
Solution If x = arctan ñ3 then tan x = ñ3 and so x = 60° = = arctan 3.
3

60 Trigonometry: Functions, Equations and Inequalities

 3
EXAMPLE 65 Find arctan1+ 2 ⋅ arctan
3
– arctan(– 3).

Solution π
If arctan 1 = a then tan a = 1 and so a = 45° = .
4

3 3 π
If arctan = b then tan b = and so b= 30 ° = .
3 3 6
π
If arctan(– 3) = c then tan c= – 3 and so c= –60 ° = − .
3
3 π π π 11π
So arctan 1 + 2 ⋅ arctan – arctan (–ñ3 ) = + 2 ⋅ − ( − ) = .
3 4 6 3 12

1
EXAMPLE 66 Find sin(arctan ).
2
1 1 1
Solution If arctan = x then tan x = and we need to find sin x. However, tan x = is not a
2 2 2
ratio we know, so we can draw a right triangle to find other trigonometric ratios of x.
In the figure, the Pythagorean Theorem gives A
us BC2 + AC2 = AB2, i.e.
ñ5
AB2 = 22 + 12 = 4 + 1 = 5 and so AB = ñ5. 1
AC 1 5 x
So sin x = = = .
AB 5 5 B 2 C

EXAMPLE 67 Find arctan(tan

5π
4
).

5π
Solution By the properties of inverse functions the answer seems to be , but remember that
4
⎛ π π⎞ 5π
arctan a ∈ ⎜ − , ⎟ and so cannot be the answer.
⎝ 2 2 ⎠ 4
5π π
However, tan =1 and so arctan 1= 45 ° = is the correct answer.
4 4

4. The Arccotangent Function

If f: (0, π) → then f(x) = cot x is both one-to-one and onto, so we can define its inverse.
The inverse of f(x) = cot x is f –1(x) = arccot x with f –1: → (0, π).

x = arccot y ⇔ y = cot x, x ∈ (0, π)

Trigonometric Functions 61
 Graph of y = arccot x
For arccot: (0, π) → we have the following values:

x –¥ –1 0 1 ¥

arccot x p 3p p p 0
4 2 4

The values give us the graph of arccot x:

y y=x
p
y = arccot x

p
2

0 p p x
2

y = cot x

3
EXAMPLE 68 Find arccot
3
.

3 3 π
Solution x = arccot means cot x = , so x= 60 °= .
3 3 3

EXAMPLE 69 Find tan(arccot ñ3) + cos (arccot 1) – sin (arccot 0).

Solution If a = arccot ñ3 then cot a = ñ3 and so a = 30°.

If b = arccot 1 then cot b = 1 and so b = 45°.
If c = arccot 0 then cot c = 0 and so c = 90°.
So tan (arccot ñ3) + cos (arccot 1) – sin (arccot 0) = tan 30° + cos 45° – sin 90°
3 2 2 3+3 2 −6
= + −1 = .
3 2 6

62 Trigonometry: Functions, Equations and Inequalities

 Check Yourself 10
1. Find each value in radians.
1 1
a. arcsin 1 b. arcsin(– ) c. arccos(– )
2 2
2
d. arccos(– ) e. arctan 0 f. arctan(– 3 )
2 3
g. arccot ñ3 h. arccot (–1)

2. Evaluate each expression.

2 3
a. cos(arcsin ) b. sin (arccos 1) c. tan(arcsin )
2 2
3
d. sin(arctan(– )) e. arccot (tan 60°) f. arccos (cot 45°)
3
3. Evaluate each expression.
2 3 2
a. sin(arcsin ) b. cos(arcsin ) c. tan(arcsin )
5 4 3
d. cot(arctan 3) e. sin (arctan 2) f. cos (arcsin(cos 60°))

4. Evaluate each expression.

3 3π 3 π 3
a. sin( π − arcsin ) b. tan( + arctan ) c. cot( – arcsin )
5 2 4 2 2
2 1 1
d. cos(2 ⋅ arcsin ) e. tan(arccot ) f. tan(2 ⋅ arcsin )
7 4 2
5. State the domain of each function.
a. f(x) = arcsin(3x – 1) b. f(x) = arccos(4x + 2)

Answers
π π π 3π
1. a. b. − c. 2π d. 3π e. 0 f. − g. π h.
2 6 3 4 6 6 4
2 1 π
2. a. b. 0 c. ñ3 d. – e. f. 0
2 2 6
2 7 2 5 1 2 5 3
3. a. b. c. d. e. f.
5 4 5 3 5 2
3 4 41
4. a. b. – c. ñ3 d. e. 4 f. ñ3
5 3 49
⎡ 2⎤ ⎡ 3 1⎤
5. a. ⎢0, ⎥ b. ⎢ – , – ⎥
⎣ 3⎦ ⎣ 4 4⎦
Trigonometric Functions 63
 MATHEMATICS AND MUSIC
Many people today think that mathematics is a science, made up only of theorems, numbers
and formulas. However, we can also think of mathematics as an art, just like painting or
music. If you study the history of music or art, you will find that in ancient times
mathematics and geometry were used to produce beautiful creative works. Also,
mathematicians look for the simplest or most elegant proofs of a theorem, just as musicians
try to produce the most beautiful or pleasing music.
In ancient Greece the study of mathematics had four main parts: arithmetic, geometry,
astronomy and music. The famous philosopher Confucius (551-479 BC) investigated the
effects of musical notes and rhythms on humans, and Plato (428-348 BC) accepted music
as an important part of education. Even in the Middle Ages (around 400 to 1500 AD),
mathematics, astronomy and music were all taught together. Many famous mathematicians
in history have also studied the relationships between
mathematics and music.

Music, Rhythm and Ratio

One very basic relationship between math and music is rhythm. A
musical rhythm can be defined as a mathematical ratio such as
4:4 or 3:4. With only a little practice, you can hear this ‘rhythm
ratio’ in different pieces of music.
Ratios also define musical notes. Pythagoras (580-520 BC) and
his followers studied the relationship between the length of a
piece of wire and the sound (or musical note) it makes, and saw
that the relationships were ratios. For example, imagine that a piece of
wire makes the note C (‘do’) when you pluck it. Pythagoras found that
if you divide the string into the ratio 2:3 and pluck the longer part, the
note is A (‘la’). If you divide the longer part into two-thirds again, the
next note is F (‘fa’) in the next octave. Each time you divide the string,
it produces a note which is five notes ahead in the musical scale.
Other important mathematical ratios in the Pythagorean musical scale
are 6:5, 3:2 and 16:9.
You can find another link between music and math in the shapes of
instruments. Many instruments have curves that are designed to give
the best sound, and some of these curves correspond to the graph of
y= 2x.
Sound Waves

Each sound that you hear, such as a musical note, can

be represented as a sound wave with a particular
frequency and amplitude. Higher sounds have higher
frequencies, and louder sounds have bigger amplitude.
You may remember that a famous ratio in mathematics

is the golden ratio, which is equal to 1+ 5 1.618 .

2
Musicians have found that if the frequencies of two
notes are in this ratio then they produce a pleasing harmony when they are played together.
Sound waves are connected to trigonometry by the sine function: every sound can be
represented as a wave which has the equation y = a ⋅ sin(bθ – c). In this equation, a is the
amplitude, b is the product of the frequency and 2π, and c is a real number called the phase
difference. As an example, consider a sound with frequency 55 Hz and amplitude 3. The graph
of this sound wave is given by y = a ⋅ sin(bθ – c) with a = 3, b = 2π ⋅ 55 = 110π and c = 0, i.e.
y = 3sin (110πθ).

Math and Music

We can see that mathematics provides one way for us to
understand music and harmony. If a musician uses
mathematical ratios in his music, the music will sound
pleasing to more people. However, a musician does not need
to know math to write music, and the
people who listen to the music do not
usually need any special education to enjoy it. This is one difference
between music and most of mathematics. Can you think of any others?

Activity
Try looking for pictures of sound waves in an encyclopedia or on the
Internet. Can you see the similarity between sound waves and the graph
of the sine function?
 EXERCISES 2
A. Trigonometric Functions and Their 4. Find the sign of each ratio.
Properties a. sin 133° b. cos 224°
1. Evaluate each expression. c. tan 245° d. cot 22°
a. sin 0° + 3 ⋅ cos 270° + 4 ⋅ tan 180° – cot 270° e. tan (–298°) f. sec 552°

b. 3 ⋅ cos 90° + tan 540° + 2 ⋅ cot 270° – sin 180° 21π

g. csc (–467°) h. sin
7π 3π π 5
c. sin + 3 ⋅ cos – 2 ⋅ cot
2 2 2 8π 26 π
i. cos j. tan( − )
3π 3π 7π 7 15
d. sec5π – 3 ⋅ csc + 2 ⋅ cot – sin
2 2 2 4π 23π
k. cot(– ) l. sec
17 π 11π 7 5
e. sin7 π + 2 ⋅ cos + 3 ⋅ tan7 π – cot
2 2

2. Find the domain of each function.

a. f(x) = 2sin(3x – 2) + 1
b. f(x) = 2cos3x – 2
c. y = 4tan(4x – 2) 5. In which equations is x undefined?
d. y = 2cot(x + 1) + 3 a. sin x = 0.2 b. cos x = 0.9
e. y = csc(3x – 2) c. tan x = 3 d. cot x = –0.5
f. y = sec(3x – 60°) e. sec x = –0.3 f. cos x = 3
g. y = 3sin 2x – 5 cos (7x – 2) g. csc x = 2 h. tan x = –3
h. y = tan 2x – 3 cot 5x i. sec x = 34 j. csc x = 0
k. cos x = 2
3. Find the range of each function.
a. y = sin 3x b. y = 5 sin 4x
c. y = 3 sin 2x – 4 d. y = 4cos (x – 4) + 2
e. y = 3 sin (x – 2) + 3
f. y = 2 cos 3x – 2
g. y = 2tan (2x + 1) 6. Find the maximum and minimum values of each
h. y = tan (4x – 2) function.

i. f(x) = sec 2x + 1 a. y = 3sin x + 4 b. y = 2cos(2x – 1)

j. f(x) = 2 csc 3x – 1 c. y = 5sin 3x – 1 d. y = 2sec x + 1

k. f(x) = tan 2x + cot 3x e. y = 3csc x f. y = tan 4x

66 Trigonometry: Functions, Equations and Inequalities

 π
7. Find the biggest ratio in each set. 10. Given that < x < y < π , which of the following
2
a. cos 67°, cos 78°, cos 127°, cos 299° statements are true?
b. sin 45°, sin 66°, sin 233°, sin 300° a. sin x > cos x b. tan x > tan y
c. tan 2°, tan 88°, tan 92°, tan 358° c. sin x < sin y d. cos x > cos y
d. sin 70°, cos 50°, tan 40°, cot 30° e. sin x > sin y f. cot x > cot y

8. Write each set of ratios in ascending order. π

11. Given that 0 < x < , which of the following
a. x = sin 35°, y = cos 84°, z = tan 255°. 4
statements are true?
b. a = sin 30°, b = cos 230°, c = tan 70°,
a. sin x < cos x b. cot x > cos x
d = sec 80°.
c. tan x > cot x d. cot x > sec x
c. m = sin 30°, n = tan 40°, r = cot (–20°).
e. sin x > cos x f. sec x > csc x
d. x = sin 80°, y = cos 80°, z = tan 80°,
k = sec 80°.
e. a = tan 20°, b = cot (–40°), c = sec 60°

B. Periods of Trigonometric Functions

9. Which of the following statements are true? 12. Find the fundamental period of each function.
a. (sin 20° ⋅ sin 40°) < sin 20° a. y = sin2 3x
b. cos 50° > (cos 50° ⋅ tan 33°) b. y = 3 sin3 (2 – 5x)
c. (sin 50° ⋅ cos 20°) < sin 50° c. y = cos4 (x + 3)
d. (tan 60° ⋅ cos 40°) < tan 60° d. y = 3 sec5 (7 – 3x) – 5
e. (tan 250° ⋅ sin 40°) > tan 250° e. y = csc12 (5x + 1) – 2
f. (cos 100° ⋅ sin 80°) > cos 100° f. y = cos 3x

Trigonometric Functions 67
13. Find the fundamental period of each function. C. Graphs of Trigonometric Functions
3
a. y = tan (2x – 1) 18. Sketch the graph of each function.
b. y = 4 tan 5x a. y = 2 sin 3x + 1 b. y = 3 – 2 ⋅ cos x
x c. y = 2 tan 3x d. y = 2cos 2x – 2
c. y = cot 2 (3 – )
5
e. y = 5sin 4x + 1
d. y = 3 – cot (5x + 1)

x
14. Find the fundamental period of y = cos( ) .
π
19. Draw the graph of each function in the interval
[0, π].
a. y = sin 3x

15. Find the fundamental period of each function. b. y = tan 2x – 1

a. y = sin2 2x – cos2 2x c. y = cot x + 2

b. y = cos3 5x – 3 cot 2x x
d. y = 2 sin
2
c. y = cos4 2x – cot 3x + sin5 (3x – 1)
x
e. y = 3cos
d. y = 2 sin x ⋅ cos 4x 3
e. y = 4 cos 5x ⋅ sin 3x
f. y = sin x ⋅ sin 3x
g. y = cos 3x ⋅ cos 4x
h. y = sin2 3x + cos3 3x – tan 2x + cot 3x 20. The graph of the function f(x) = cos x is given.
i. y = tan2 x + cot5 4x – sin2 4x Which of the following transformations should be
3 x combined to obtain the graph of
j. y = tan x +5 ⋅ sin 4( )
3 f(x) = cos (3x + 2) – 1?

I. move the graph 1 unit left

II. move the graph 1 unit up

III. move the graph 1 unit down

16. Find the fundamental period of y = arctan (tan x). IV. move the graph 2 units right

V. move the graph 2 units left

VI. divide all values on the x–axis by 3

17. Find the fundamental period of y = sin (πx). VII. multiply all values on the x–axis by 3

68 Trigonometry: Functions, Equations and Inequalities

21. Find the equation which corresponds to each 23. Write each value in radians.
graph.
a. arctan 1 b. arctan (–1)
a. y
2 c. arccot 1 d. arccot 0
3
e. arccot (–ñ3) f. arctan(– )
3
–p –p/2 3p/2
3
O p/2 p 2p x g. arctan (–ñ3) h. arccot(– )
3

–2
b. y
1
y = sin x
p
–p O 2p x
–1

c. y
4

3 24. Evaluate each expression.

2
1
a. cos (arcsin 0) b. sin(arccos )
1 2
–p p y = sin x
3 5
–2p O 2p x c. sin(arctan ) d. cos(arcsin )
3 13
–1
4
e. tan (arccos 1) f. cot(arcsin )
5

D. Inverse Trigonometric Functions

22. Write each value in degrees.

2 25. Evaluate each expression.

a. arcsin 0 b. arcsin(– )
2 3
2 a. tan(arctan ) b. sin (arctan 1)
c. arcsin (–1) d. arcsin 2
2
c. cos (arccot ñ3) d. arccot (tan 30°)
3
e. arccos 1 f. arccos(– )
2 e. arctan (cot 135°) f. arctan (sin 270°)

g. arccos 0 h. arccos (–1)

Trigonometric Functions 69
 15π
26. Evaluate each expression. 29. Find arcsin(sin ).
4
7
a. cos(arcsin )
25
3 5
b. sin(arccos ) 30. What is a + b if a = arcsin( ) and
5 6
5
1 b = arcsin(– )?
c. cot( arcsin ) 6
3

d. tan (arccot (–3))

29π
31. Find arccos(sin ).
e. cos (arctan 4) 3

f. cot (arccos (sin 60°))

4 2
32. Find cos(arcsin – arctan ) .
5 3

27. Evaluate each expression.

π 4 33. Find arcsin (cos(arctan(cot 60°))).
a. sin( – arccos )
2 7
π 5
b. tan( + arc cot )
2 2 3π 4
34. Given that x ∈ ( π, ) and x = arctan , find
2 3
3π 1
c. cot( – arcsin ) sin x.
2 2
4
d. tan(2 ⋅ arcsin )
5 3 1
35. Find tan(arcsin + arccos ) .
5 2
3
e. cot(arccos )
4
12
f. sin(2 ⋅ arcsin ) 36. Find cos (arcsin(tan(arccot 1))).
13

28. Find the domain of each function. 37. Find tan(arccot(sin(arccos 0)))

a. y = 3 ⋅ arcsin (2x + 4)
b. y = 2 ⋅ arccos (3x + 2) π 2π
38. Find arctan(cos +sin ).
6 3
c. y = 5 – 2 ⋅ arccos (x – 3)
d. y = arcsin (3 – 5x)
e. y = arctan 3x 3 3 3
39. Evaluate [arccos + arcsin + arctan 3].
› π 2 2
f. y = arccot (5x + 1)

70 Trigonometry: Functions, Equations and Inequalities

 5. Tashih
28/09/2005

In the previous section we looked at trigonometric identities. Recall that an identity in x is

an expression which is true for all values of x. If an expression is only true for some values
of x then it is called an equation.
For example, sin2x + cos2x = 1 is true for all values of x, and so it is an identity.
1
However, sin x = is only true for x = 30°, x = 150° and their coterminal angles. So
2
1
sin x = is an equation.
2
In this section we will learn how to solve trigonometric equations.

A. TYPES OF TRIGONOMETRIC EQUATION

1. Basic Equations
a. sin x = a
Given the equation sin x = a, how can we y
Remember! find x?
The y-axis is the sine p – arc sin a a arc sin a
axis. Look at the figure. For any number on the
sine axis there are two corresponding values
on the unit circle. One value is x1 = arcsin a –x x
O x
and the other is x2 = π – arcsin a.
We should also consider the coterminal
angles of x1 and x2, for example
arcsin a + 2π, arcsin a + 4π,
arcsin a + 6π, ... .
We can write

sin x = a ⇔ { x = arcsin a + 2kπ, k ∈ } or {x = π – arcsin a + 2πn, n ∈ }

where –1 ≤ a ≤ 1.
Alternatively, by studying this result carefully we can rewrite it in a shorter form:

sin x = a ⇔ x = (–1)k arcsin a + kπ, k ∈ for –1 ≤ a ≤ 1.

Trigonometric Equations and Inequalities 71

 Special Results:
When x = 0, x = 1 or x = –1 we can write the answer in a shorter way without using the
formula.

sin x = 0 ⇔ x = kπ, k ∈ .

π
sin x = 1 ⇔ x = + 2kπ, k ∈ .
2
π
sin x = –1 ⇔ x = – + 2 kπ, k ∈ .
2

3
EXAMPLE 70 Solve sin x =
2
.

Solution 1 From the longer formula we have

3 3 3
sin x = ⇔ {x1=arcsin +2 k π, k ∈ } and { x2 = π −arcsin + 2πn, n ∈ }.
2 2 2

3 π π
We know arcsin = 60 ° = . So x1 = + 2 k π, k ∈ . (1)
2 3 3
π 2π
Also x2 = ( π − ) + 2 nπ = + 2 nπ, n ∈ . (2)
3 3
π 2π
Combining (1) and (2) gives us x = { + 2 kπ, + 2 nπ}, k, n ∈ .
3 3
Solution 2 From the shorter formula we have sin x = a ⇔ x =( −1) k arcsin a + kπ, k ∈ .

π
So x = (–1) k + kπ, k ∈ .
3

Note
Notice that both solutions give the same answer. However, the second, shorter form is more
practical, since we can get the solutions by substituting only values of k.

EXAMPLE 71 Solve 4 sin 5x – 2 = 0.

2 1
Solution Rearranging the equation gives us sin5 x = = .
4 2
1 π π π kπ
arcsin = 30 ° = , so the solution is 5 x= (–1) k + k π , i.e. x = (–1) k + , k∈ .
2 6 6 30 5

72 Trigonometry: Functions, Equations and Inequalities

 EXAMPLE 72 Solve sin x = –
2
2
.

2 π
Solution arcsin( ) = 45° = , so we have
2 4
π π π
x = ( 1)k ⋅ ( )+ kπ = ( 1)k ⋅ ( 1) ⋅ + kπ, i.e. x = ( 1)k+1 + kπ , k ∈ .
1. x ⋅ x = x
n m n+m 4 4 4
2. –x = (–1) ⋅ x
b. cos x = a
y
If cos x = a, what is x?
x1 = arc cos a
Look at the figure. For any number on the
cosine axis there are two corresponding
x
Remember! values on the unit circle. One value is
O –x a x
The x-axis is the cosine x1 = arccos a and the other is
axis.
x2 = 2π – arccos a or x2 = – arccos a.
x2 = –arc cos a
We should also consider the coterminal
angles of x1 and x2, for example
arccos a + 2π, arccos a + 4π, .... .
We can write

cos x = a ⇔ x = ± arccos a + 2kπ, k ∈

where –1 ≤ a ≤ 1.
Special Results:
π
cos x = 0 ⇔ x = + kπ, k ∈ .
2
cos x = 1 ⇔ x = 2kπ, k ∈ .
cos x = –1 ⇔ x = π + 2kπ, k ∈ .

Note
The points on the graph below show the solutions to the equation cos x = a.

arc cos a – 2p –arc cos a + 4p

–arc cos a + 2p
–arc cos a – 2p
–arc cos a arc cos a + 2p
arc cos a

Trigonometric Equations and Inequalities 73

 1
EXAMPLE 73 Solve cos x = .
2

Solution We have cos x = a ⇔ x = ± arccos a + 2 k π, k ∈ .

1 π
Also, arccos = 60 ° = .
2 3
1 π
So x = ± arccos + 2 kπ = ± + 2 k π, k ∈ .
2 3

EXAMPLE 74 Solve 2cos x – ñ3 = 0.

Solution Let us rewrite the equation in terms of cos x. Then we get

3 3 π π
cos x = , and we know arccos = 30 °= . So x = ± + 2 kπ, k ∈ .
2 2 6 6

EXAMPLE 75 Solve cos x = –

2
2
.

2 3π 3π
Solution arccos(– ) =135 ° = , so by the formula, x= ± + 2 k π, k ∈ .
2 4 4

EXAMPLE 76 Solve 2 cos 5x + 1 = 0.

1 1 2π
Solution Rewriting the equation gives us cos5 x= – , and arccos( − ) =120 °= .
2 2 3
2π 2 π 2k π
So 5 x = ± + 2 kπ, i.e. x = ± + , k∈ .
3 15 5

74 Trigonometry: Functions, Equations and Inequalities

 EXAMPLE 77 Solve cos (3x) – 2 = 0.

Solution Rewriting the equation gives us cos 3x = 2, but we know –1 ≤ cos 3x ≤ 1. So cos 3x = 2 is
impossible. Therefore the equation has no solution.

π
EXAMPLE 78 Solve cos(3 x – ) = 0.
4
π π
Solution We know cos x = 0 ⇔ x = + kπ, i.e. arccos 0 = .
2 2
π π π π 3π π kπ
So 3 x – = + kπ, which gives us 3 x= + + k π= + k π, i.e. x= + , k ∈ .
4 2 2 4 4 4 3

EXAMPLE 79 π
Solve sin( – 3 x) =1.
2
π
Solution We know that sin( – 3 x) = cos 3x, so we can solve cos 3x = 1 instead.
2
2kπ
cos θ = 1 is a special result, so 3x = 2kπ and x = , k∈ .
3

c. tan x = a
Remember! If tan x = a, what is x? y
The red line in the a
figure is the tangent Look at the figure. For any number on the arc tan a
axis.
tangent axis there are two corresponding
y
values on the unit circle. One value is
x
x1 = arctan a and the other is O x
x the symmetry of x1 with respect to the origin,
i.e. x2 = π + arctan a. (arc tan a) + p

By also considering the coterminal angles we

can write

tan x = a ⇔ x = arctan a + kπ, k ∈

for a ∈ .

Trigonometric Equations and Inequalities 75

EXAMPLE 80 Solve tan 3x = ñ3.

Solution By the formula, 3 x = arctan 3 + kπ, k ∈ . We know

π π π kπ
arctan 3 = 60 ° = , so 3 x = + k π, i.e. x= + , k ∈ .
3 3 9 3

EXAMPLE 81 π
Solve 4tan(5 x + )+ 4 = 0.
3
π
Solution Rearranging the equation gives us tan(5 x + ) = –1.
3
π π π
arctan(–1) = – 45 ° = – , so by the formula we have 5x + = – + kπ, i.e.
4 3 4

π π 7π 7 π kπ
5x = – – + kπ = – + kπ and x = – + , k∈ .
4 3 12 60 5

EXAMPLE 82 Solve tan (2 x – 13 °) =

3
3
and write the answer in degrees.

3
Solution We know arctan = 30 °. Also, writing the solution formula in degree form gives us
3
2x – 13° = 30° + 180° k, i.e. 2x = 13° + 30° + 180° k = 43° + 180° k, so
Remember!
43° +180 ° ⋅ k
We know that 1° = 60 x= = 21.5 ° +90 ° ⋅ k, k ∈ .
minutes (60'). 2
So 0.5° = 30 minutes. If we write 21.5° as 21°30' then the answer is
Instead of 21.5° we can
write 21°30'. x = 21°30' + 90° k, k ∈ .

d. cot x = a
If cot x = a, what is x? y
Look at the figure. For any number on the a
cotangent axis there are two corresponding
arc cot a
values on the unit circle. One value is
x1 = arccot a and the other is the symmetry x
Remember! of x1 with respect to the origin, O x
The red line in the figure i.e. x2 = π + arccot a.
is the cotangent axis.
By also considering the coterminal angles we (arc cot a) + p
y
can write

x cot x = a ⇔ x = arccot a + kπ, k ∈

for a ∈ .

76 Trigonometry: Functions, Equations and Inequalities

 EXAMPLE 83 Solve 3 cot 2x = ñ3.

3
Solution Rearranging the equation gives us cot 2 x = .
3
3 π π π kπ
We know arccot = 60 ° = , so by the formula, 2x = + kπ and x = + , k ∈ .
3 3 3 6 2

EXAMPLE 84 x
Solve cot(– ) = –1.
2

3π x 3π 3π
Solution arccot(–1) =135 ° = , so by the formula, – = + kπ and x = – – 2 k π, k ∈ .
4 2 4 2
Note that since k is any integer it can be negative or positive, so we can also write
3π 3π
x= – – 2 kπ = – + 2 k π, k ∈ .
2 2

Check Yourself 11
1. Solve the equations.
x
a. (2 sin x) – 1 = 0 b. 7 sin x = 0 c. (2 sin )+ 3 = 0
2
x π 2 3 π 1
d. sin( – ) – =0 e. cos8 x = – f. cos( x + ) = –
2 4 2 2 6 2
2. Solve the equations.
π x x
a. (2 tan 4x) + 2 = 0 b. tan( + ) = 3 c. cot(– ) =1
4 2 2

d. cot 4x = ñ3

3. Solve the equations.

3π x 1 π 3
a. cos( – )= b. sin( + 3 x) = c. tan (π + 4x) = 0
2 2 2 2 2
3π
d. cot( – 2 x) =1
2

Trigonometric Equations and Inequalities 77

 1
4. Find the solutions of sin x = in the interval 500º < x < 1000º .
2
sin5 x
5. Solve =1 .
3

Answers
π 2π
1. a. (–1)k + πk, k ∈ b. kπ, k ∈ c. (–1)k+1 + 2 πk, k ∈
6 3
π π 5π kπ 2 π
d. (–1)k + + 2 πk, k ∈ e. ± + , k∈ f. ± π – + 2 πk, k ∈
2 2 48 4 3 6
π π π π π kπ
2. a. – + n, n ∈ b. + 2 kπ, k ∈ c. – + 2πk, k ∈ d. + , k∈
16 4 6 2 24 4
π π 2kπ kπ π kπ
3. a. (–1)n+1 + 2 πn, n ∈ b. ± + , k∈ c. , k∈ d. + , k∈
3 18 3 4 8 2
4. 510°, 750°, 870°

5. no solution

2. Factorizing Equations
We have seen how to solve simple trigonometric equations such as 7sin x = 0 and
tan(4x + π) = 1. But how can we solve more complicated equations which contain a power of a
ratio, or mixed ratios?
One approach is to use factorization. If we can rewrite an equation in the factorized form
a ⋅ b = 0 where a and b are trigonometric ratios, then we can solve a = 0 and b = 0 and find the
union of the solution set. This union is the solution of the original equation. We can factorize an
equation by using substitution and trigonometric identities and formulas.

EXAMPLE 85 Solve 2cos2x – 3cosx + 1 = 0.

Solution Let us factorize the expression. Let cos x = a, then the equation becomes 2a2 – 3a + 1 = 0,
which we can factorize.
1
2a2 – 3a + 1 = (2a – 1) ⋅ (a – 1) = 0, which has solutions a = and a = 1.
2
1 1 π
If a = then cos x = and so x = ± + 2kπ, k ∈ . (1)
2 2 3
If a = 1 then cos x = 1 and so x = 2nπ, n ∈ . (2)
π
The union of (1) and (2) gives us x ∈ {± + 2 kπ, 2 nπ}, k, n ∈ . This is the solution of the
3
equation.

78 Trigonometry: Functions, Equations and Inequalities

 EXAMPLE 86 Solve sin2x + sin x = 0.

Solution Factorize the expression:

sin x(sin x + 1) = 0 has solutions sin x = 0 and
sin x = –1.
If sin x = 0 then x = kπ, k ∈ .
π
If sin x = –1 then x = – + 2 nπ, n ∈ .
2
π
Combining the two solutions gives us x ∈ {kπ, – + 2 nπ}, k, n ∈ .
2

EXAMPLE 87 Solve 3 tan2 x + 2 tan x = 1.

Solution Making the right side zero gives us 3 tan2 x + 2 tan x – 1 = 0.

1
We can factorize this as (3 tan x – 1) ⋅ (tan x + 1) = 0, which has solution tan x = or
3
tan x = –1.

1 1 1
If tan x = then x = arctan + kπ, k ∈ . ( arctan is not a special angle, so we will leave
3 3 3
it in this form.)

π
If tan x = –1 then x = arctan(–1)+ nπ = – + nπ, n ∈ .
4
1 π
In summary, the solution is x ∈ {arctan + kπ, – + n π}, k, n ∈ .
3 4

EXAMPLE 88 Solve sin 2x + sin x = 0.

Solution Using the identity sin 2x = 2 sin x ⋅ cos x we can write

2 sin x ⋅ cos x + sin x = sin x (2cos x + 1) = 0, which means
1
sin x = 0 or 2cosx + 1 = 0 ⇒ cos x = – .
2
If sin x = 0 then x =kπ, k ∈ .
1 1 2π 2π
If cos x = – then arccos(– ) =120 ° = , so x= ± + 2 n π, n ∈ .
2 2 3 3
2π
In summary, the solution is the union: x ∈ {kπ, ± + 2 nπ}, k, n ∈ .
3

Trigonometric Equations and Inequalities 79

EXAMPLE 89 Solve 2 sin2 x + 2 sin x = ñ2 + ñ2 sin x.

Solution Let us factorize both sides separately:

2 sin2 x + 2 sin x = 2 sin x (sin x + 1), and ñ2 + ñ2 sin x = ñ2(1 + sin x).
So we can rewrite the original equation as
2 sin x (sin x + 1) – ñ2(sin x + 1) = 0. Factorizing this gives
2
(sin x + 1) ⋅ (2 sin x – ñ2) = 0, i.e. sin x = –1 or sin x = .
2
π
If sin x = –1 then x = – + 2 kπ, k ∈ .
2
2 π
If sin x = then x = (–1)n + nπ, n ∈ .
2 4
π n π
So the solution is x ∈ {– + 2 kπ, (–1) + n π}, k, n ∈ .
2 4

EXAMPLE 90 Solve cos 4x + cos 2x = 0.

Solution We can factorize the left-hand side using the sum to product formulas:
4x + 2 x 4x – 2 x
cos 4 x + cos 2 x = 2 ⋅ cos( ) ⋅ cos( ) = 2 cos 3 x ⋅cos x= 0.
2 2
So we have cos 3x = 0 or cos x = 0.
π π kπ
If cos 3x = 0 then 3x = + kπ and so x = + , k ∈ .
2 6 3
π
If cos x = 0 then x = + nπ, n ∈ .
2
π kπ π
So the solution is x ∈ { + , + n π}, k, n ∈ .
6 3 2

EXAMPLE 91 Solve
tan 3 x + tan 4 x
1 – tan 3 x ⋅ tan 4 x
=–
3
3
.

tan x + tan y tan 3 x + tan 4 x

Solution We know the sum formula tan( x + y) = , so is equivalent to
1 – tan x ⋅ tan y 1 – tan 3 x ⋅ tan 4 x
3
tan (3x + 4x). So we can rewrite the equation as tan7 x = – .
3
3 π π π kπ
Since arctan(– ) = –30 ° = – , we have 7 x = – + kπ. i.e. x = − + , k ∈ .
3 6 6 42 7

80 Trigonometry: Functions, Equations and Inequalities

 EXAMPLE 92 Solve sin (x + 20°) – sin (x – 20°) = 0.

Solution By using the sum to product formulas we can write

x + 20° + x – 20 ° x + 20 ° – x+ 20 °
sin( x + 20 °) – sin( x – 20 °) = 2 ⋅ cos( ) ⋅ sin( )
2 2
= 2 ⋅ cos x ⋅ sin 20 °.
π
So the equation is 2cos x sin 20° = 0 and so cos x = 0, i.e. x = + kπ, k ∈ .
2

EXAMPLE 93 Solve 2 cos2 x = 3 sin x.

Solution One side of the equation contains the sine function and the other side contains the cosine
function. We can change these to the same trigonometric ratio. Since cos2x = 1 – sin2x, we
can rewrite the equation as 2 cos2x = 3 sin x, i.e.
2 (1 – sin2 x) = 3 sin x ⇒ 2 – 2 sin2x = 3 sin x ⇒ 2sin2x + 3 sin x – 2 = 0.
Factorizing this gives us (2 sin x – 1 ) ⋅ (sin x + 2) = 0. So either
1 π
sin x = ⇒ x = (–1) k + k π, k ∈ , or sin x = 2 which has no solution since –1≤ sin x ≤ 1.
2 6
π
In conclusion, the solution is x = (–1)k + kπ, k ∈ .
6

7
EXAMPLE 94 4 4
Find the sum of the roots of sin x + cos x =
8
in the interval [–π, π].

Solution Let us use the identity x2 + y2 = (x + y)2 – 2xy. Then we have

7
sin 4 x + cos 4 x = (sin 2 x+ cos 2 x) 2 – 2 sin 2 x ⋅cos 2 x= .
8
Using the identities sin2x + cos2x = 1 and (2 sin x ⋅ cos x)2 = sin2 2x we can write
sin 2 2 x 7 7 1 sin 2 2 x
12 – = , which we can rearrange as 1 – = = , i.e.
2 8 8 8 2
1 1 1
sin 2 2 x = . So either sin 2 x= or sin 2 x= – .
4 2 2
1 π π kπ
If sin 2 x = then 2 x = (–1) k + kπ and so x= (–1) k + , k ∈ .
2 6 12 2
1 π π nπ
If sin 2 x = – then 2 x = (–1) n+1 + nπ and so x= (–1) n+1 + , n∈ .
2 6 12 2
π kπ π nπ
In summary, the solution is x ∈{( −1) k + , (–1)n +1 + }, k, n ∈ .
12 2 12 2

Trigonometric Equations and Inequalities 81

 Practical Notation
So far we have written the solution to a trigonometric equation as the union of other
solution sets. However, this union might not be the shortest form of the answer. For
example, one solution set may contain the other set. In this case, we only need to give the
larger set as the answer.
Alternatively, in a multiple-choice question we may find two or more answers but these may
not be in the given choices. In this case it is helpful to draw all the answers on the unit
circle. If the angles between the answers are the same then we will take the first
non-negative answer and add the common angle multiplied by k ∈ . This will give us the
answer.

y y y

a a
2p a
p 3

2p x p x 2p x
2p
3
3

one answer: two answers: three answers:

x = a + 2πk x = a + πk 2π
x = a+ k
3
y y
a

...
x x

four answers: n answers:

π 2π
x = a+ k x = a+ k
2 n

82 Trigonometry: Functions, Equations and Inequalities

 EXAMPLE 95 Solve sin x ⋅ cos x = cos x.

Solution Rearranging and then factorizing the equation gives cos x(sin x – 1) = 0, i.e.
cos x = 0 or sin x = 1.
π
If cos x = 0 then x = + kπ, k ∈ Z.
2
π
If sin x = 1 then x = + 2 nπ, n ∈ Z.
2
Inspect the answers:
π π 3π 5π
+ kπ = {± , ± , ± , ...}.
2 2 2 2
π π 3π 5π 7π 9π
+ 2 nπ = { , – , , – , , ...}.
2 2 2 2 2 2
We can see that the first set includes the second one, so we can write the final answer as
π
x = + kπ, k ∈ Z.
2

EXAMPLE 96 Solve 2 cos2x – 1 = 0.

1
Solution Rearranging the expression gives us cos 2 x = .
2
1 2 1 2
So either cos x = = or cos x = – =– .
2 2 2 2

2 2 π π
If cos x = and arccos = 45 ° = then x = ± + 2 kπ, k ∈ .
2 2 4 4

2 2 3π
If cos x = – and arccos(– ) =135 ° = p
y
2 2 4 –
4
p
3π 4
then x = ± + 2 nπ, n ∈ .
4
x
π 3π
So x ∈ {± + 2 kπ , ± + 2 n π} where k, n ∈ . 5p
4 4 4
p
Now sketch the answers on the unit circle, as –
4

shown at the right. We can see that a shorter

π π
form of the answer is x = + k, k ∈ Z.
4 2

Trigonometric Equations and Inequalities 83

 3. Equations with a Common Ratio
Sometimes a trigonometric equation includes the same ratio on each side of the equation,
for example cos x = cos 30°. We can use the following solution formulas in this case.

1. If cos x = cos a then x = a + 2kπ or x = –a + 2kπ, k ∈ .

2. If sin x = sin a then
x = a + 2kπ or x = (π – a) +2kπ, k ∈ ⇒ x = (–1)ka + kπ, k ∈ .
3. If tan x = tan a then x = a + kπ, k ∈ .
4. If cot x = cot a then x = a + kπ, k ∈ .
Note that we may need to use trigonometric identities, factorization or substitution to bring
an equation to one of these simple forms.

EXAMPLE 97 Solve cos x = cos 30°.

Solution 1 From the formula above, x = 30° + 360°k or x = –30° + 360°k, k ∈ .

π
We can also write the answer in radians as x = ± + 2kπ , k ∈ .
6
Solution 2 Let us try to solve the equation without using the formula.
We can write cos x – cos 30° = 0.
Using the sum to product formulas gives us
x + 30° x – 30 °
cos x – cos 30 ° = −2 ⋅ sin( ) ⋅sin( ) = 0, i.e.
2 2
x + 30° x – 30 °
sin( ) = 0 or sin( ) = 0.
2 2
x + 30° x + 30 °
If sin( ) = 0 then = kπ, so x= –30 °+ 360 °k, k ∈ .
2 2
x – 30 ° x – 30 °
If sin( ) = 0 then = nπ, so x= 30 °+ 360 °n, n ∈ .
2 2
So the final ans wer is x ∈ {–30 °+ 360 °k, 30° + 360 °n}, k, n ∈ .

EXAMPLE 98 Solve sin 2x = sin 20°.

Solution 1 By the solution formula, 2x = 20° + 360°k or 2x = (180° – 20°) + 360°n. So

x = {10° + 180°k, 80° + 180°k}, k ∈ .

Solution 2 By the second formula for sin x = sin a, 2x = (–1)k ⋅ 20° + 180°k and so
x = (–1)k ⋅ 10° + 90°k, k ∈ .

84 Trigonometry: Functions, Equations and Inequalities

 cos x cos 2 x
EXAMPLE 99 Solve =
cos5 x cos6 x
.

Solution Cross multiplying gives us cos x ⋅ cos 6x = cos 5x ⋅ cos 2x.

By the product to sum formulas on each side of the equation we get
1 1
[cos( x +6 x)+ cos( x – 6 x) ]= [cos(5 x+ 2 x)+ cos(5 x – 2 x) ]. This simplifies to
2 2
cos 7x + cos (–5x) = cos 7x + cos 3x. Rearranging the terms gives us
cos 5x – cos 3x = 0, i.e.
cos( − x) = cos x
5 x + 3x 5x – 3x
–2 sin( )sin( )= 0 ⇒ –2 ⋅ sin 4x ⋅ sin x = 0. So
2 2
sin 4x = 0 or sin x = 0.
kπ
If sin 4x = 0 then 4x = kπ and so x = , k∈Z .
4
If sin x = 0 then x = nπ, n ∈ .
kπ
We know that {nπ , n ∈ } ∈ { , k ∈ } . So the final solution is
4
kπ
x∈{ }, k ∈ Z.
4

π π
EXAMPLE 100 Solve tan(4x+ 3 ) = cot(2 x – 5).
Solution One side contains a tangent but the other side is a cotangent. We need to rewrite one ratio
in terms of the other to get a simpler equation.
π π π 7π
On the right-hand side we can write cot(2 x – ) = tan( – 2 x+ ) = tan( – 2 x).
5 2 5 10
π
cot x = tan ( – x) π 7π
2 So the equation becomes tan(4 x + ) = tan( – 2 x). By the solution formula for tan x,
3 10
π 7π
4x + = – 2 x + k π. Rearranging the terms gives us
3 10
7π π 11π 11π kπ
6x = – + kπ = + k π, i.e. x ∈{ + }, k ∈ Z.
10 3 30 180 6

Trigonometric Equations and Inequalities 85

EXAMPLE 101 Solve sin 5x + sin 4x = sin 3x + sin 2x.
2 2 2 2

Solution We cannot factorize the equation directly, but we can rewrite it as sin2 5x – sin2 2x = sin2 3x –
sin2 4x. Now we can factorize:
(sin 5x – sin 2x)(sin 5x + sin 2x) = (sin 3x – sin 4x)(sin 3x + sin 4x).
By the sum to product formulas on both sides we get

5x + 2 x 5x – 2 x 5x + 2 x 5x – 2 x
2 cos( ) ⋅ sin( ) ⋅ 2 sin( ) ⋅cos( )=
2 2 2 2
3x + 4 x 3x – 4 x 3x + 4 x 3x – 4 x
2 cos( ) ⋅ sin( ) ⋅ 2 sin( ) ⋅cos( ).
2 2 2 2
This simplifies to
7x 3x 7x 3x 7x x 7x x
2 cos ⋅ sin ⋅ 2 sin ⋅ cos = 2 cos ⋅sin( − ) ⋅2 sin ⋅cos( − ).
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
By using the identity 2 sin x ⋅ cos x = sin 2x we can simplify this further to
sin 7x ⋅ sin 3x = sin 7x ⋅ sin (–x) = –sin 7x ⋅ sin x.
So sin 7x ⋅ sin 3x + sin 7x ⋅ sin x = 0, i.e.
sin 7x (sin 3x + sin x) = 0 ⇒ sin 7x = 0 or sin 3x + sin x = 0.
kπ
If sin 7x = 0 then 7x = kπ ⇒ x = , k ∈ Z. (1)
7
If sin 3x + sin x = 0 then sin 3x = –sin x = sin (–x). By the solution formula for sine we
have
nπ
a. 3x = –x + 2nπ, i.e. 4x = 2nπ ⇒ x = , n ∈ Z. (2)
2
π
b. 3x = (π – (–x)) + 2mπ = π + x + 2mπ, i.e. 2x = π + 2mπ ⇒ x = + mπ , m ∈ Z. (3)
2

As we can easily see, (3) is a subset of (2), so (2) is a sufficient answer. Finally, combining
kπ nπ
(1) and (2) gives us x ∈ { , }, k, n ∈ Z.
7 2

Check Yourself 12
1. Solve the equations.

a. cos2x + cos x = 2 b. 4 cos2x – 3 cos x = 0 c. 3 cos 2x – 2 cosx + 3 = 0

2 ⋅ tan 3 x 3
d. sin 2x = sin x e. 2
= f. cot2x – 3 cot x + 2 = 0
1 – tan 3 x 3

86 Trigonometry: Functions, Equations and Inequalities

 2. Write the solution to each equation in its shortest form.

a. tan2x – 1 = 0 b. 2cos2x + cos x – 1 = 0

x 5x 5x
3. Find the sum of the roots of 2 sin sin – sin = 0 in the interval [0, 2π].
2 2 2
4. Solve each equation.

a. sin 5x = sin 3x b. cos 3x – cos x = 0 c. tan 2x + tan 3x = 0

π 2π
d. cos 3x = sin x e. sin(2 x + ) = sin( x – )
3 3

Answers
π 3
1. a. 2kπ, k ∈ b. { + kπ, ± arccos + 2 nπ}, k, n ∈ Z
2 4
π 2 π
c. { + kπ, ± arccos + 2 n π}, k, n ∈ Z d. {kπ, ± + 2 nπ}, k, n ∈ Z
2 3 3
π kπ π
e. + , k∈Z f. { + kπ, arccot2+ nπ}, k, n ∈ Z
36 6 4
π kπ π 2 kπ
2. a. + , k∈Z b. + , k∈Z
4 2 3 3

3. 8π
π nπ nπ kπ
4. a. {kπ, + }, k, n ∈ Z b. {kπ, }, k, n ∈ Z c. , k∈Z
8 4 2 5
π kπ π 4π 2 nπ
d. { + ,– + nπ}, k, n ∈ Z e. {π + 2 kπ, + }, k, n ∈ Z
8 2 4 9 3

4. Linear Equations in sin x and cos x

Recall that ax + by = c is a linear equation in the two variables x and y. If we replace x and
y with sin x and cos x then we obtain a linear equation in sin x and cos x. In other words,
the equation a sin x + b cos x = c is a linear equation in sin x and cos x.
b a
To solve a linear equation like this, we can use the substitution tan α =or cot α = . Then
a b
we can use the sum and difference formulas to simplify the given expression. Finally, we can

use the methods we have already seen to solve the question.

Trigonometric Equations and Inequalities 87

 b
First let us try to get from the given equation. For this we will divide both sides of the equa-
a
tion by a:
a cos x + b sin x c
a cos x + b sin x = c ⇒ = , i.e.
a a
b c
cos x + sin x =
a a
sin α c b sin α b
cos x + sin x = (use tan α = and we know that tan α = = )
cos α a a cos α a
cos x ⋅ cos α + sin α ⋅ sin x c
= (equalize the denominators)
cos α a
cos( x – α ) c c
= , i.e. cos( x – α) = cos α. (by the difference formula for cosine)
cos α a a
A
Now draw a right triangle and let
2
b a +b
tan α = , so cos α = . So a
2

a a + b2
2 b

c c a c
cos( x – α) = cos α = ⋅ = . a
a a a + b2
2
a + b2
2
B a C

In conclusion, to solve a linear equation of the

form asin x + bcos x = c we can compare the values of c2 and a2 + b2.
c
1. If c2 > a2 + b2 then cos( x − α) = > 1 and so there is no solution for the linear
a + b2
2

equation.
2. If c2 = a2 + b2 then cos (x – α) = 1 and so x = α + 2kπ, k ∈ .
3. If c2 < a2 + b2 then we can solve the equation by using the methods that we have learned
for equations with a common ratio.

EXAMPLE 102 Solve 2 sin x + 3 cos x = 4.

Solution We have a sin x + b cos x = c with a = 3, b = 2 and c = 4.
Let us compare c2 and a2 + b2. We get 22 + 32 = 4 + 9 = 13 < 42 = 16.
Since c2 > a2+ b2, by the above result we can say that the equation has no solution.

EXAMPLE 103 Solve cos x + ñ3 sin x = 2.

Solution We have a = 1, b = ñ3 and c = 2. Let us compare c2 and a2 + b2. We get
a2 + b2 = 12 + ñ32 = 1 + 3 = 4 = c2. Then by the above result we can find the solution.
b 3 π π π
First find α : tan α = = = tan , i.e. α = so the solution is x = + 2kπ, k ∈ .
a 1 3 3 3
88 Trigonometry: Functions, Equations and Inequalities
 EXAMPLE 104 Solve ñ3 cos x + sin x = 1.
Solution 1 We have a = ñ3, b = 1 and c = 1.
a2 + b2 = ñ32 + 12= 3 + 1 = 4 > 1 = c2, so we will use the equations with a common ratio.
b 1 3 π π
tan α = = = = tan ⇒ α = . So by the above result we have
a 3 3 6 6
c π 1 π 1 3 1
cos( x – α) = cos α and cos( x − ) = cos = ⋅ = .
a 6 3 6 3 2 2
π 1
So the equation becomes cos( x – ) = .
6 2
1 π π π π π
Since arccos = 60 ° = , we have x – = ± + 2 kπ and so x = ± + 2 kπ, k ∈ Z.
2 3 6 3 6 3

b a
Solution 2 we can use cot α = .
In this type of question, instead of using the substitution tan α =
a b
The equation is ñ3cosx + sinx = 1, and dividing both sides by a = ñ3 gives us

3 3 3 cos α 3
cos x + sin x = . Now let us use the substitution cot α = , i.e. = .
3 3 3 sin α 3
3
By using the sum formula for sin(x + α) we get sin( x + α ) = ⋅ sin α.
3
3 π π 3 3 1
cot α = , i.e. α = . So sin( x + ) = ⋅ = .
3 3 3 3 2 2
1 π π π π π
arcsin = , so the answer is x + = ( −1)k + kπ or x = ( −1) k − + kπ, k ∈ .
2 6 3 6 6 3

EXAMPLE 105 Solve 3 sin x + ñ3 cos x = 3.

Solution We have a=ñ3 , b= 3 and c = 3. We get a2 + b2 = ñ32 + 32= 3 + 9 = 12 > 9 = c2, so we
will use the equations with a common ratio.
b 3 π π
tan α = = = 3 = tan so α = .
a 3 3 3
π 3 π 3 1 3
cos( x − ) = cos = ⋅ = .
3 3 3 3 2 2
3 π π π π π
Since arccos = , we have x − = ± +2 kπ ⇒ x = ± +2 k π, k ∈ .
2 6 3 6 3 6
Trigonometric Equations and Inequalities 89
EXAMPLE
106 Solve cos x + sin x = 1.
Solution We have a= 1 , b= 1 and c = 1.
We get a2 + b2 = 12 + 12= 2 > 1 = c2, so a2 + b2 > c2 and we will use equations with a
common ratio.
b 1 π π
tanα= = = 1 = tan ⇒ α = .
a 1 4 4
c π 1 π 2
cos( x − α) = cos α, i.e. cos( x − ) = ⋅cos = .
a 4 1 4 2
2 π π π π π
Since arccos = , we have x − = ± + 2 kπ, i.e. x = ± +2 k π, k ∈ .
2 4 4 4 4 4
We can also write these answers separately:
π
x1 = 2kπ, k ∈ and x2 = + 2 n π, n ∈ .
2

5. Homogeneous Equations in sin x and cos x

Recall that the degree in a term in an equation is its power: 2x3 has power 3.

Definition homogeneous equation

If the degrees of all the terms in an equation are the same, the equation is called a
homogeneous equation. For example,
ax + by = 0 is a first-order homogeneous equation,
ax2 + bxy + cy2 = 0 is a second-order homogeneous equation, and so on.
If we substitute sin x and cos x for x and y in a homogeneous equation, the equation
becomes a homogeneous equation in sin x and cos x.
In this section we will look at the solutions of homogeneous equations in sin x and cos x.

a. First-order homogeneous equations

Let a cos x + b sin x = 0 be a given equation. Dividing both sides by cos x gives us
a cos x + b sin x 0
= (cos x ≠ 0). This simplifies to
cos x cos x
sin x a a
a+ b = 0 , i.e. a + b tan x = 0 ⇒ tan x = – ⇒ x = arctan(– ) + k π, k ∈ .
cos x b b

90 Trigonometry: Functions, Equations and Inequalities

 EXAMPLE 107 Solve sin x + cos x = 0.
sin x
Solution Dividing both sides by cos x (cos x ≠ 0) gives us +1= 0 .
cos x

We can rewrite this as tan x = –1.

π π
Since arctan(–1) = –45 ° = , we have x = + kπ, k ∈ .
4 4

EXAMPLE 108 Solve ñ3 cos x – 3 sin x = 0.

Solution Let us divide both sides by cos x (cos x ≠ 0). Then we have
sin x 3
3–3 = 0, i.e 3 – 3tan x = 0 ⇒ tan x= .
cos x 3
3 π π
Since arctan = 30 ° = , the solution is x= + kπ, k ∈ Z.
3 6 6

b. Second-order homogeneous equations

Let a cos2 x + (b cos x ⋅ sin x) + c sin2 x = 0 be a given equation. Dividing both sides by
cos2 x gives us
a cos 2 x + b cos x ⋅ sin x + c sin 2 x 0
= (cos x ≠ 0), which simplifies to
cos 2 x cos 2 x
sin x sin 2 x
a+ b +c = 0, i.e. a + b tan x+ c tan 2 x = 0.
cos x cos 2 x

This is a quadratic equation in tan x. We can now find the solution using factorization.

Trigonometric Equations and Inequalities 91

EXAMPLE 109 Solve cos x – (3 cos x ⋅ sin x) – 4 sin x = 0.
2 2

Solution Let us divide both sides by cos2 x (cos x ≠ 0). Then we have
cos 2 x – 3cos x ⋅ sin x – 4sin 2 x 0 sin x sin 2 x
= , i.e 1 – 3 – 4 = 0. We can rewrite this as
cos 2 x cos 2 x cos x cos 2 x
1 – 3 tan x – 4 tan2 x = 0.
Factorizing this equation gives us
(1 – 4 tan x) ⋅ (1 + tan x) = 0. There are two cases:
1 1
a. If 1 – 4 tan x = 0 then tan x = and so x = arctan + kπ, k ∈ Z. (1)
4 4
π
b. If 1 + tan x = 0 then tan x = –1 and so x = – + nπ, n ∈ Z . (2)
4
1 π
Combining (1) and (2) gives us the final answer: x = {arctan + kπ, – + nπ}, k, n ∈ Z.
4 4

6. Maximum and Minimum Values of a Trigonometric

Function
A
Let f(x) = a cos x + b sin x for a, b ∈ . How
can we find the maximum and
minimum values of f(x)?
2
b
a+
2

b sin α b
Let tan α = = .
a cos α
Let us draw a right triangle with an acute
a
angle α. We can write a
B C
f(x) = a cos x + b sin x
b (take α out of the paranthesis)
= a(cos x + sin x)
a sin α
sin α (use the substitution tanα = )
= a(cos x + sin x) cos α
cos α
cos x ⋅ cos α + sin x ⋅ sin α (eqalize the denominators and use the sum formulas)
= a( )
cos α
a
a cos( x – α) (from the right triangle we have cosα = )
= a + b2
2
a
a2 + b 2
= a2 + b2 cos( x – α).
We know –1 ≤ cos(x – α) ≤ 1. Multiplying both sides by a2 + b2 gives us
– a2 + b2 ≤ a2 + b 2 cos( x – α) ≤ a 2 + b 2 . In summary,
maximum value of f ( x) = a2 + b 2 .
minimum value of f ( x) = – a2 + b 2 .

92 Trigonometry: Functions, Equations and Inequalities

 EXAMPLE 110 Find the maximum and minimum values of f(x) = 3 cos x – 4 sin x.
Solution We are given a = 3 and b = –4.
By the formula we have just seen,
maximum value of f ( x) = a2 + b 2 = 32 +(–4)2 = 9+16 = 25 = 5

minimum value of f ( x) = – a2 + b2 = – 32 +(–4)2 = – 9+16 = – 25 = –5.

EXAMPLE 111 Find the maximum and minimum values of f(x) = sin x + cos x.
Solution We have a = 1 and b = 1.
By the previous formula:
maximum value of f ( x) = a2 + b 2 = 12 +12 = 1+1 = 2

minimum value of f ( x) = – a2 + b 2 = – 12 +12 = – 1+1 = – 2.

EXAMPLE 112 Find the range of the function f(x) = sin x + ñ3 cos x.
Solution We know that sin x and cos x are continuous functions, so the range will be an interval
between the maximum and minimum values of f(x).
By using the previous formula with a = ñ3 and b = 1 we have
2
2 2
maximum value of f ( x) = a + b = 3 +12 = 3+1 = 4 = 2
2 2 2
minimum value of f ( x) = – a + b = – 3 +12 = – 3+1 = – 4 = –2.

So the range is [–2, 2].

Trigonometric Equations and Inequalities 93

EXAMPLE 113 Find the value of x that gives A = (sin x + 3) ⋅ (1 – sin x) its maximum value.
Solution 1 First we will find the maximum value of A, then we will find the value of x at this point.
A = (sin x + 3) ⋅ (1 – sin x)
= 3 – 2 sin x – sin2 x
= 4 – (1 + 2 sin x + sin2 x)
= 4 – (1 + sin x)2.
We know (1 + sin x)2 ≥ 0, so A = 4 – (1 + sin x)2 ≤ 4.
So the maximum value of A is 4. Now we need to solve the equation
(sin x + 3) ⋅ (1 – sin x) = 4 for x:
3 – 2 sin x – sin2 x = 4 ⇒ sin2 x + 2 sin x + 1 = 0.
This factorizes to (sin x + 1)2 = 0, i.e. sin x = –1. So the answer is
π
x = – + 2 kπ , k ∈ Z.
2

Solution 2 We can get the maximum value of a function f(x) = a ⋅ b when a = b.

So A = (sin x + 3) ⋅ (1 – sin x) is at its maximum when sin x + 3 = 1 – sin x. This gives us
2 sin x = 1 – 3 = – 2, i.e. sin x = –1. So the answer is
π
x = – + 2 kπ , k ∈ Z.
2

Check Yourself 13
1. Solve the equations.
a. 4 sin x + 3 cos x = 6 b. ñ3 sin x + cos x = 1 c. 2sin x + ñ5 cos x = 3

2. Solve the equations.

a. 3cos x + ñ3 sin x = 3 b. sin x – ñ3 cos x = –1 c. sin x – cos x = 1

3. Solve the first-order homogeneous equations.

a. sin x + ñ3 cos x = 0 b. sin x + 2 cos x = 0 c. 3 sin x – cos x =0

4. Solve ñ3 cos2 x – (1 + ñ3)sin x ⋅ cos x + sin2 x = 0.

5. Find the maximum and minimum values of each trigonometric function.

a. 2 sin x + 3 cos x b. 5 sin x – 12 cos x c. 3 cos x – 4 sin x

6. Find the range of f(x) = 4 sin x + 3 cos x + 2.

94 Trigonometry: Functions, Equations and Inequalities

 Answers

2π 2 5
1. a. no solution b. { + 2 kπ,2 nπ}, k, n ∈ Z c. arctan + 2 kπ, k ∈ Z
3 5

π
2. a. { + 2 kπ, 2 nπ}, k, n ∈ Z
3

π π
b. {– + 2 kπ, + 2 nπ}, k, n ∈ Z
2 6

π
c. { + 2 kπ, π + 2 nπ}, k, n ∈ Z
2

π 1
3. a. – + kπ, k ∈ Z b. (– arctan 2)+ kπ, k ∈ Z c. (arctan )+ kπ, k ∈ Z
3 3

π π
4. { + kπ, + nπ}, k, n ∈ Z
4 3

5. a. ò13, – ò13 b . 13, –13 c . 5, –5 6. [–3, 7]

B. FURTHER TRIGONOMETRIC EQUATIONS

1. Equations with an Absolute Value
If a trigonometric equation includes an absolute value, we can solve it by considering the
possible values of the absolute expression.

EXAMPLE 114 Solve |3 cos 5x + 2| – 3 = 0.

Solution Rearranging the equation gives us |3 cos 5x + 2| = 3.
So either 3 cos 5x + 2 = 3 or 3 cos 5x + 2 = –3.
1 1
1. If 3 cos 5x + 2 = 3 then 3 cos 5x = 1, i.e. cos5 x = and 5x = ± arccos + 2 kπ .
3 3
1 1 2 kπ
So x = ± arccos + , k ∈ Z.
5 3 5
5
2. If 3 cos 5x + 2 = –3 then 3 cos 5x = –5, i.e. cos 5x = – < –1 . This equation has no
3
solution.
1 1 2 kπ
In conclusion, x = {± arccos + }, k ∈ Z is theonly solution.
5 3 5

Trigonometric Equations and Inequalities 95

EXAMPLE 115 Solve |sin x + cos x| = sin x – cos x.
Solution Consider the two possibilities for the absolute value:
1. If sin x + cos x = sin x – cos x then 2 cos x = 0, i.e. cos x = 0. So
π
x = + 2kπ, k ∈ Z.
2
2. If sin x + cos x = –(sin x – cos x) = –sin x + cos x then 2 sin x = 0, i.e. sin x = 0. So
x = nπ, n ∈ .
π
So the solution is x ∈ { + 2kπ, nπ}, k, n ∈ Z.
2

2. Parametric Equations
If an equation includes one or more variables which may affect the result of the equation, the
equation is called a parametric equation.

EXAMPLE 116 How many solutions does the equation sin x + sin x = m have in [0, 2π], depending on m?
2

Solution Let us begin by finding the maximum and minimum values of sin2 x + sin x.
If we substitute t = sin x then the expression is equivalent to the function y = t2 + t.
b 1
The vertex of y is V(r, k) where r = – = – and
2a 2
1 1 1 1 1 1 1
k = y(– ) = (– )2 + (– ) = – = – . So – is the minimum value of y.
2 2 2 4 2 4 4
y = ax2 + bx + c is the
form of a parabola. The To find the maximum value of y we will substitute the maximum value of sin x into y. The
vertex of a parabola is maximum value of sin x is 1, so the maximum value of y is 12 + 1 = 2.
V(r, k), where
1 1
b This means – ≤ y ≤ 2, and when y < – and y > 2 there is no solution.
r=– and 4 4
2a
k =y(k).
We can rewrite the equation t2 + t = m as t2 + t – m = 0. Let us find the discriminant of
this quadratic equation: Δ = b2 – 4ac = 12 – 4 ⋅ 1 ⋅ (–m) = 1 + 4m.
1
1. If Δ < 0, i.e. m < – , there is no real solution.
4
1
2. If Δ = 0, i.e. m = – , there is one root for the quadratic equation:
4
1 1 1 1
t + t + = 0 = ( t + )2 = 0 and t = – . So sin x= – and x ∈[0, 2 π].
2

4 2 2 2
1
So for sin x = – we have two answers: x = 210° and x = 330°.
2
1
3. If Δ>0, i.e. 2 ≥ m > – there are two roots, and for every root there are two values of sin x.
4
1
In summary, the equation has no solution when m < – and m > 2. It has two solutions if
1 4 1
m = – , and it has a pair of solutions for each value of m in ( − ; 2] .
4 4
96 Trigonometry: Functions, Equations and Inequalities
 3. Equations with Inverse Trigonometric Functions
If an equation includes inverse trigonometric functions such as arcsin, arccos, arctan, etc.,
we can solve it by using the rules of inverse trigonometric functions, i.e. if arcsin x = y then
sin y = x, if arctan x = y then tan y = x, etc.

4
EXAMPLE 117 Solve arctan x+ arctan(1 – x) = arctan 3.
Solution In this type of problem, first we try to convert inverse trigonometric functions to regular
trigonometric functions so that the equation is easier to solve. We can work on each term
separately:
If arctan x = α then tan α = x.
If arctan (1 – x) = β then tan β = 1 – x.
4 4
If arctan = y then tan y = .
3 3
4
Now we can write arctan x + arctan (1 – x) = arctan as α + β = y.
3
Let us take the tangent of both sides, then tan (α + β) = tan y. We can rewrite this as
tan α + tan β x +1 – x 1 4
= tan y, i.e. = = , i.e.
1 – tan α ⋅ tan β 1 – x ⋅(1 – x) 1 – x + x 2
3
3 = 4 – 4 x + 4 x2 or 4 x2 – 4 x+1= 0. This is the square of (2x – 1). So
1
(2 x – 1)2 = 0 ⇒ 2 x – 1= 0, i.e. x = . This is the solution of the equation.
2

4. Systems of Trigonometric Equations

A system of trigonometric equations includes two or more trigonometric equations. To solve
a system of equations we either eliminate one of the trigonometric ratios by adding or
subtracting, or we find one ratio in terms of the other and then use substitution.

x sin a + 3sin b = cos a

EXAMPLE 118 Solve the system of equations ⎧⎨⎩x cos a + 3cos b = – sin a .
Solution We want to eliminate one of the trigonometric ratios. For this the coefficients must be the
same. So let us multiply the first equation by cos b and the second equation by –sin b,
respectively. Then
x sin a cos b + 3sin b cos b = cos a cos b
– x cos a sin b – 3 sin b cos b = sin a sin b
x(sin a cos b – cos a sin b) = cos acos b+ sin asin b (add the two equations)
x ⋅ sin( a – b) = cos( a – b) (by the sum and difference formulas)

cos( a – b)
x= = cot( a – b ).
sin( a – b)

Trigonometric Equations and Inequalities 97

 ⎧ 1
⎪⎪sin x cos y = 2
EXAMPLE 119 Solve the system of equations ⎨
⎪cos x sin y = – 1
.

⎪⎩ 2
Solution Adding and subtracting the two expressions gives us
1 1
sin x cos y + cos x sin y = – = 0 , i.e. sin (x + y) = 0 ⇒ x + y = kπ, and
2 2
1 1 π
sin x cos y – cos x sin y = + =1 , i.e. sin (x – y) = 1 ⇒ x – y = + 2 nπ.
2 2 2
⎧ x + y = kπ (1)
Now we have another system of equations: ⎪⎨ π
⎪⎩ x – y = 2 + 2nπ. (2)

π π kπ
Adding these equations gives us 2 x = + 2 nπ + kπ, i.e. x = + nπ + , k, n ∈ Z.
2 4 2
π kπ π kπ
From (1) we can write y = kπ – x = kπ − − nπ − = − − nπ + , k, n ∈ Z.
4 2 4 2
π kπ π kπ
In summary, the solution is ( x, y) = ( + nπ + , − − nπ + ), k, n ∈ Z.
4 2 4 2

⎧sin x + sin y = – 2
EXAMPLE 120 ⎪
Solve the system of equations ⎨
⎪x + y =
π .
⎩ 2
π
Solution From the second equation we get y = – x . Let us use this in the first equation:
2
π
sin x + sin(– x) = – 2 , i.e.
2
sin x + cos x = –ñ2 ⇒ cos x + 1 ⋅ sin x = –ñ2. (1)
π
sin
π 4 then (1) becomes
Substitute 1= tan =
4 π
cos
4
π π π
sin cos x cos + sin xsin
cos x + 4 sin x = 4 4 = – 2, i.e. cos( x – π ) = – 2 ⋅cos π = – 2 ⋅ 2 = –1.
π π 4 4 2
cos cos
4 4
We know arccos( −1) = π, s o
π π π 5π
x – = x − = π + 2kπ and x = + π + 2 kπ = + 2 k π, k ∈ Z.
4 4 4 4
π π 5π 3π
y= – x= – – 2 kπ = – – 2 kπ, k ∈ Z.
2 2 4 4
5π 3π
In summary, ( x, y) = ( + 2 kπ ,– – 2 kπ ), k ∈ Z.
4 4

98 Trigonometry: Functions, Equations and Inequalities

 5. Mixed Examples
We have now seen several different techniques which we can use to solve trigonometric
equations:
1. We can factorize the terms.
sin α
2. We can use a substitution such as tan α = .
cos α
3. We can use trigonometric identities and formulas.
4. We can consider different parts of an equation separately, and combine individual
results to get the final solution.
There are no strong rules about which technique is appropriate for which problem. Often we
may try different approaches before we find the answer. The best way to improve your
problem-solving skills is to practise on many different types of problem. In this section we will
look at some mixed problems and their solutions.

EXAMPLE 121 Solve cos 2x = cos x – sin x.

Solution The equation contains both sin x and cos x, so it is not clear what we should write instead
of cos 2x. Let us try using the identity cos 2x = cos2 x – sin2 x. Then the equation becomes
cos2 x – sin2 x = cos x – sin x. Factorizing the left side gives
(cos x – sin x) ⋅ (cos x + sin x) – (cos x – sin x) = 0, i.e.
(cos x – sin x) ⋅ (cos x + sin x – 1) = 0.
There are two cases:
cos x
1. If cos x – sin x = 0 then cos x = sin x and so 1= = tan x.
sin x
π
So x = + kπ , k ∈ Z. π
4 sin
π 4
2. If cos x + sin x = 1 then we can use the substitution 1= tan =
4 π
cos
4
π
sin
to get cos x + 4 sin x =1, i.e. cos x ⋅cos π+ sin x ⋅ sin π= cos π= 2.
π 4 4 4 2
cos
4
π 2
This simplifies to cos( x – ) = .
4 2
π π π π
From the solution formula for cosine, x – = ± + 2 nπ and so x = ± + 2 n π, n ∈ Z.
4 4 4 4
π π π
In summary, x ∈ { + kπ , ± + 2 n π}, k, n ∈ Z.
4 4 4

EXAMPLE 122 Find the sum of all the roots of sin1 3x + cos1 3x = 163 in [0, 2π ].
2 2

Trigonometric Equations and Inequalities 99

 Solution Equalize the denominators on the left-hand side: 1 1 cos 2 3 x +sin 2 3 x
+ =
sin 2 3 x cos 2 3 x sin 2 3 x ⋅ cos 2 3 x
1 4 4
= = = . So the equation becomes
sin 3x ⋅ cos 3 x 4sin 3 x ⋅cos 3 x sin 2 6 x
2 2 2 2

4 16 3 3 3
2
= , i.e. sin 2 6 x = and so sin6 x = or sin6 x =– .
sin 6 x 3 4 2 2
3 π π kπ
1. If sin6 x = then 6 x = (–1) k + kπ and so x =(–1) k + , k∈ .
2 3 18 6
π π 7π 4π
k = 0 gives x = , k = 1 gives x = , k = 2 gives x = , k = 3 gives x = .
18 9 18 9
3 k π nk
2. If sin6 x = – then 6 x = (–1) k+1 + nπ and so x= ( −1) k+1 + , n ∈ Z.
2 3 18 6
2π 5π
k = 1 gives x = , k = 2 gives x = .
9 18
π π 7π 4π 2 π 5 π 3 π
In conclusion, the sum of the roots is + + + + + = .
18 9 18 9 9 18 2

EXAMPLE 123 Solve 1 – sin x = sin ( 2x – 4π).

2

Solution Let us use the sum and difference formulas to expand the right side:
x π x π x π x 2 x 2
sin 2 ( – ) = (sin ⋅ cos – cos ⋅sin ) 2 = (sin ⋅ – cos ⋅ ) 2
2 4 2 4 2 4 2 2 2 2
2 2 x x 1 x x
=( ) (sin – cos ) 2 = (sin – cos ) 2.
2 2 2 2 2 2
Now consider the left side. We can see that on the right side we have half angles, so let us
use half angles on the left side too.
x x x x
We can use the identities sin x = 2 sin cos and 1= sin 2 + cos 2 to get
2 2 2 2
2 x 2 x x x x x 2
1 – sin x = sin + cos – 2 sin cos = (sin – cos ) .
2 2 2 2 2 2
So the original equation becomes
x x 1 x x x x x x
(sin – cos ) 2 = (sin – cos ) 2,, i.e. 2(sin – cos ) 2 – (sin – cos ) 2 = 0.
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
x x 2 x x x x
If (sin – cos ) = 0 then sin – cos = 0, i.e. sin = cos .
2 2 2 2 2 2
x
sin
x
Dividing both sides by cos gives 2 = tan x =1.
2 x 2
cos
2
π x π π
We know arctan 1= , so the solution is = + kπ, i.e. x = + 2 kπ, k ∈ Z.
4 2 4 2

100 Trigonometry: Functions, Equations and Inequalities

 EXAMPLE 124 Solve cos 2x + sin 2x = cos x + sin x.
Solution Let us change the sine functions to cosine functions by using the reduction formula
π π π
cos( – x) = sin x . So sin 2 x = cos( – 2 x) and sin x = cos( – x).
2 2 2
π π
Then the equation becomes cos 2 x + cos( – 2 x) = cos x+ cos( – x).
2 2
Using the sum to product formulas gives
π π π π
2x + – 2x 2x – + 2x x+ – x x– + x
2cos( 2 ) ⋅ cos( 2 ) = 2cos( 2 ) ⋅cos( 2 ), i.e.
2 2 2 2
π π π π
2 cos⋅ cos(2 x – ) = 2 cos ⋅cos( x – ) .
4 4 4 4
π π π π
Dividing by 2 cos on both sides ( cos ≠ 0 ) gives cos(2 x – ) = cos( x – ).
4 4 4 4

There are two possible cases:

π π
1. If 2 x – = x – + 2 kπ then x = 2kπ, k ∈ .
4 4
π π π π 2n π
2. If 2 x –
= –( x – )+ 2 nπ then 3 x = + 2 n π and so x= + , n ∈Z.
4 4 2 6 3
π 2 nπ
In summary, the answer is x ∈ {2 kπ, + }, k, n ∈ Z.
6 3

Check Yourself 14
2
1. Solve |cos(45° – x)| = .
2
m
2. For which values of m does the equation 2 – = 2 cot x have a solution?
sin x
π
3. Solve arccos x – arcsin x = .
6
4. Solve each system of equations.
⎧ 3 ⎧ 2 2 1
⎪sin x = – ⎪⎪sin x + sin y = 2
a. ⎨ 2 b. ⎨
⎪ ⎪ x – y = 4π
⎩cos x > 0 ⎪⎩ 3
5. Solve the equations.
a. cos2 3x + cos2 x = 1 b. sin4 x + cos4 x = sin x ⋅ cos x
x
c. cos(πcot x) = sin (πcot x) d. cos x +1= cot
2
e. 43tan x – ñ3 = 1

Trigonometric Equations and Inequalities 101

 Answers

kπ 1
1. , k ∈Z 2. m ∈ [–2ñ2, 2ñ2] 3.
2 2

π π 7π
4. a. – + 2kπ, k ∈ Z b. { + kπ, – + kπ}, k ∈ Z
3 6 6

π kπ π πn π 1
5. a. { + , + }, k, n ∈ Z b. + kπ, k ∈ Z c. {arccot + kπ}, k ∈ Z
8 4 4 2 4 4

π π
d. {π + 2kπ, + 2 nπ}, k, n ∈ Z e. + kπ, k ∈ Z
2 6

C. TRIGONOMETRIC INEQUALITIES
1. Basic Trigonometric Inequalities
We can solve trigonometric inequalities by looking at the graphs of the basic trigonometric
functions on the unit circle. By using the following steps we can find the solution of any
simple trigonometric inequality:
1. Find the region which satisfies the given inequality on the unit circle.
2. Write the boundaries of the selected region. We calculate the boundaries by
moving in an anticlockwise direction. Remember that the smaller bound (for
example, a negative bound) must always be the first bound.
3. For sin x and cos x add 2kπ, and for tan x and cot x add kπ.
To understand why step 3 is necessary, look at the figure. We know that trigonometric
functions are periodic, and so a trigonometric equation or inequality has infinitely many
solutions. To include all these answers we add kπ or 2kπ to the solution of any trigonometric
inequality.

y
1
sin x >
1 2
1
2
x
–1

102 Trigonometry: Functions, Equations and Inequalities

 EXAMPLE 125 Solve the inequality sin x > 21 .
Solution Let us draw the unit circle and shade the required region.

y y y

1
5p 1 p 5p 2 p
1
2 6 2 6 6 6

x x x

π 5π
As we can see in the figure, the boundaries are < x < . To get the full answer we must
6 6
π 5π
add 2kπ to both sides, so the answer will be + 2 kπ < x < + 2 kπ, k ∈ Z.
6 6

a. Inequalities in sin x y
Consider the inequality sin x > a.
If a > 1 there is no solution p – arc sin a a arc sin a
(because –1 ≤ sin x ≤ 1).
If a < –1 the answer will be all the real x
numbers, i.e. (–∞, ∞).
If –1 ≤ a ≤ 1 the answer is
(arcsin a + 2kπ) < x < (π – arcsin a + 2kπ), k ∈ Z.
Remember!
We can write this as
[a, b] is an interval which
y
includes a and b: x ∈ (arcsin a + 2kπ, π – arcsin a + 2kπ), k ∈ Z.
x ∈ [a, b] means Now consider the inequality sin x < a.
a ≤ x ≤ b. a
If a < –1 there is no solution. –p – arc sin a arc sin a
(a, b) is an interval
which does not include a If a > 1 the answer will be all the real
or b: x ∈ (a, b) means
numbers, i.e. (–∞, ∞). x
a< x < b.
If –1 ≤ a ≤ 1 the answer is
(–π – arcsin a + 2kπ) < x < (arcsin a + 2kπ),
k ∈ Z.

Trigonometric Equations and Inequalities 103

EXAMPLE 126 Solve the inequality sin x ≥ 2
2
.

Solution Let us draw the figure, as shown at the right. y

2 π
We know arcsin = , so the 3p p
2 4 4 ñ2 4
π 3π 2
second boundary is π – = .
4 4
x
We have the ≥ sign, so the answer is
π 3π
( + 2 kπ) ≤ x ≤ ( + 2 kπ), k ∈ .
4 4
We can write this answer alternatively as
⎡π 3π ⎤
x ∈ ⎢ + 2kπ , + 2kπ ⎥ , k ∈ .
⎣ 4 4 ⎦

EXAMPLE 127 Solve the inequality sin x > – 23 .

Solution Let us draw the figure. y
3 π
We know arcsin(– ) = – , so the
2 3
π 4π
second boundary is π – (– ) = .
3 3
x
So the answer will be
π 4π ñ2
(– + 2 kπ) < x < ( + 2 k π), k ∈ , i.e. 4p – 2 –p
3 3 3 3
π 4π
x ∈ (– + 2 kπ, + 2 k π), k ∈ .
3 3

EXAMPLE 128 Solve the inequality sin x < –2.

Solution We know that –1 ≤ sin x ≤ 1, so this inequality has no solution.

104 Trigonometry: Functions, Equations and Inequalities

 EXAMPLE 129 Solve the inequality 2sin 5x ≤ ñ2.
2
Solution Rearranging the terms give us sin5 x ≤ . y
2
2 π
We know arcsin = is the second – 5p
p
2 4 4 4
ñ2
2
Remember! boundary, so the first boundary is
The first bound is always π 5π x
5π –π – =– .
the smallest: – is 4 4
π 4
smaller than .
4 By solving the equation we get
5π π
(− + 2 kπ) ≤ 5 x ≤ ( + 2 kπ), k∈ .
4 4
π 2kπ π 2kπ
Dividing all sides by 5 gives us ( − + ) ≤ x ≤( + ), k ∈ .
4 5 20 5

EXAMPLE 130 Solve the inequality 4sin3x + 2 < 3.

1
Solution Rearranging the terms give us sin 3x < .
4 y

1
arcsin is not a special angle so, we will leave it
4 1
in this form. – p – arcsin 1 4 arcsin 1
4 4
So we can write the answer as x

1 1
( −π − arcsin + 2 kπ)<3 x< (arcsin + 2 k π) , k ∈ .
4 4
Dividing all sides by 3 gives us
1 1
π + arcsin arcsin
(− 4 + 2kπ ) < x < ( 4 + 2k π ), k ∈Z.
3 3 3 3

b. Inequalities in cos x y
Consider the inequality cos x > a. arccos a
If a > 1 there is no solution.
If a < –1 the answer will be all the real a

numbers, i.e. (–∞, ∞). x

If –1 ≤ a ≤ 1 the solution is
(–arccos a + 2kπ) < x < (arccos a + 2kπ), k ∈ . – arccos a

Trigonometric Equations and Inequalities 105

 Now consider the inequality cos x < a.
y
If a > –1 there is no solution.
arccos a
If a < 1 the answer will be all the real
numbers, i.e. (–∞, ∞).
a
If –1 ≤ a ≤ 1 the answer is x
arccos a + 2 kπ < x < 2 π – arccos a + 2 kπ,
k∈ .
2p – arccos a

EXAMPLE 131 Solve the inequality cos x ≤ 0.

Solution Let us draw the figure, as shown at the right. y p
2
π
The boundaries are arccos0 = and
2
π 3π
2π – = . So
2 2
π 3π x
( + 2 kπ) ≤ x ≤ ( + 2 kπ), k ∈ .
2 2

3p
2

EXAMPLE 132 Solve the inequality 2cos 2x – 1 > 0.

1
Solution Rearranging the terms gives us cos 2 x > . y
2 p
1 π 3
The boundaries are arccos = and
2 3
1 π
− arccos = − . So we have
2 3
π π 1 x
( − + 2kπ) < 2 x < ( + 2 k π), k ∈ Z. 2
3 3
Dividing all sides by 2 gives
–p
π π 3
( − + kπ) < x < ( + k π), k ∈ Z.
6 6

106 Trigonometry: Functions, Equations and Inequalities

 EXAMPLE 133 Solve the inequality 2cos x + ñ3 ≤ 0 in [0, 2π].
3
Solution Rearranging the terms gives us cos x ≤ – . y
2
5p
Now let us draw the figure. The boundaries 6
3 5π
are arccos( − )= and
2 6 – ñ2
2
3 5π 7 π x
2π − arccos( − )= 2π − = .
2 6 6
5π 7 π 7p
So the answer is [ , ].
6 6 6

EXAMPLE 134 Solve the inequality 2cos 3x > –π.

π π
Solution We can rewrite the inequality as cos 3 x > − . However, π ≅ 3.14 and so − < −1. So the
2 2
inequality is true for all real numbers: x ∈ (–∞, ∞).

Check Yourself 15
1. Solve the inequalities.
2
a. sin x < b. 2sin x ≤ –ñ3 c. 2sin 3x < 1
2
π
d. sin(5 x + ) ≥ 0 e. 2sin (–2x) > 1
3
2. Solve the inequalities.
π 3
a. 2cos x ≤ ñ2 b. 2cos(3x – )≥1 c. cos 3 x < –
6 2
2
d. cos( −2 x) > e. 5cos 3x – 2 > 0
2
3. Solve the inequalities in the interval [0, 2π].
π 2 π
a. cos(2 x − ) ≥ b. sin(3 x + ) < 0 c. 3sin x + 1 ≥ 0
4 2 3
Answers
5π π 2π π
1. a. − + 2kπ < x < + 2k π, k ∈ b. − + 2kπ ≤ x ≤ − + 2kπ, k ∈
4 4 3 3
7π 2 kπ π 2kπ π 2 kπ 2 π 2 kπ
c. − + < x< + , k∈ d. − + ≤x≤ + ,k∈
18 3 18 3 15 5 15 5
5π π
e. − + kπ < x < − + k π, k ∈
12 12

Trigonometric Equations and Inequalities 107

 π 7π π 2kπ π 2kπ
2. a. + 2kπ ≤ x ≤ + 2kπ, k ∈ b. − + ≤x≤ + , k∈
4 4 18 3 6 3

5π 2 kπ 7 π 2kπ π π
c. + < x< + , k∈ d. − + kπ < x < + kπ, k ∈
18 3 18 3 8 8
2 2
− arccos + 2 kπ arccos + 2 k π
e. 5 < x< 5 , k∈
3 3
⎡ π ⎤ ⎡ 5π ⎤ 2π 5π 8 π 11π 14 π 17 π
3. a. ⎢0, ⎥ ∪ ⎢π, ⎥ b. ( , ) ∪ ( , ) ∪( , )
⎣ 4⎦ ⎣ 4 ⎦ 9 9 9 9 9 9
1 1
c. [0, π + arcsin ] ∪[2 π – arcsin , 2 π]
3 3

c. Inequalities in tan x
Consider the inequality tan x > a. y
p
2
As we can see in the figure, the solutions to
the inequality are symmetric about the
arc tan a
origin. So we will write only one answer and
add kπ instead of 2kπ to give the final solu- x
tion. So the solution is
π
arctana + kπ < x < + kπ , k ∈ . p + arc tan a
2 p
–
2

y
Now consider the inequality tan x < a. p
2
From the figure we can get the solution a

π
− + kπ < x < (arctan a + k π), k ∈ . arc tan a
2
x

p + arc tan a
p
–
2

Note
π
If the inequality is given with ≥ or ≤, the answer will include arctan a but exclude ± ,
2
π
because tan( ± ) is undefined.
2

108 Trigonometry: Functions, Equations and Inequalities

 EXAMPLE 135 Solve the inequality tan x > 1.
y
Solution Look at the figure. p
2 1
π
arctan1= , so the answer is p
4 4

π π
( + kπ) < x < ( + kπ), k ∈ .
4 2 x

p
– tan x
2

EXAMPLE 136 Solve the inequality tanx ≤ ñ3.

y
Solution Look at the figure. ñ3
p
2 p
π 3
We know arctan 3 = , so the answer is
3
π π
( − + kπ) < x ≤ ( + k π), k ∈ .
2 3
x
Alternatively, we can write
⎛ π π ⎤
x ∈ ⎜ − + kπ, + kπ ⎥ , k ∈ .
⎝ 2 3 ⎦ –
p
2 tan x

EXAMPLE 137 Solve the inequality 3tan(4x – 5π)+ 3 ≥ 0.

Solution Rearranging the terms gives us y

p
π 3 2
tan(4 x − ) ≥ − . We know
5 3
3 π
arctan(– ) = – , so we have
3 6
π π π π x
(− + kπ) ≤ 4x − < ( + kπ) . Adding to
6 5 2 5
π 7π
each part gives ( + kπ) ≤ 4x < ( + k π). –
p ñ3
30 10 6 –
p 3
–
2 tan x
So the final answer is

π kπ 7 π kπ
( + ) ≤ x < ( + ), k ∈ .
120 4 40 4

Trigonometric Equations and Inequalities 109

EXAMPLE 138 Solve the inequality ñ3tan x ≥ 1 in [0, 2π].
3
Solution Rearranging the terms gives us tan x ≥ . y
p
3
2
3 π π
Since arctan = , the boundaries are ñ3
3 6 6 3 p
6
π 7π
and π + = . So we have
6 6 x

⎡ π π ⎞ ⎡ 7 π 3π ⎞ 7p
x∈ ⎢ , ⎟ ∪ ⎢ , ⎟. 6
⎣6 2 ⎠ ⎣ 6 2 ⎠
3p
2 tan x

d. Inequalities in cot x y
a cot x
Consider the inequality cot x > a and look at
arccot a
the figure. We can see that the inequality has
solution kπ < x < (arccot a + kπ), k ∈ .
x

p + arccot a

Now consider cot x < a. y

From the figure we can get the solution a
cot x
(arccot a + kπ) < x < ( π + kπ), k ∈ .
arccot a

p + arccot a

Note
If the inequality is given with ≥ or ≤, the answer will include arccot a but exclude 0 and π,
because cot 0 and cot π are undefined.

110 Trigonometry: Functions, Equations and Inequalities

 EXAMPLE 139 Solve the inequality cot x > 1.
π π
Solution We know arccot 1= , so by the formula we have kπ < x < ( + kπ), k ∈ .
4 4

EXAMPLE 140 Solve the inequality 3cot 2x + ñ3 ≤ 0.

3
Solution Rearranging the terms gives us cot 2 x ≤ – . y
3 ñ3
–
3
3 2π cot x
We know arccot(– )= , so we have
3 3
2p
3
2π
( + kπ) ≤ (2 x < π + kπ) . Dividing all parts by
3 x
2 gives us the answer:

π kπ π kπ
( + ) ≤ x < ( + ), k ∈ .
3 2 2 2

EXAMPLE 141 Find all solutions of the inequality cot 2x ≥ –ñ3 in [0, 2π].
y
Solution Let us draw the figure.
5π
From the figure we have kπ < 2 x ≤ + kπ
6 5p
6
kπ 5π kπ
and so < x ≤ ( + ), k ∈ .
2 12 2
p x
If we replace k with 0, 1, 2 and 3 we get
11p
6

⎛ 5π ⎤ ⎛ π 11π ⎤ ⎛ 17 π ⎤ ⎛ 3 π 23 π ⎤
x ∈ ⎜ 0, ⎥ ∪⎜ , ⎥ ∪ ⎜ π, 12 ⎥ ∪ ⎜ 2 , 12 ⎥ .
⎝ 12 ⎦ ⎝ 2 12 ⎦ ⎝ ⎦ ⎝ ⎦
If k is greater than 3 or smaller than 0 then the answer is not in [0, 2π], so this is the
complete solution.

Trigonometric Equations and Inequalities 111

 Check Yourself 16
1. Solve the inequalities.
3 π
a. tan 3 x < b. tan( x – ) – 3 ≥ 0 c. 2tan 3x < 6
3 3

2. Solve the inequalities.

π
a. cot 3x ≤ –1 b. ñ3cot(2x + )≥1 c. 2cot 4x – 1 < 0
6

3. Solve the inequalities in the interval [0, π].

π π
a. tan(3 x + ) ≥ − 3 b. cot(2 x – ) <1
3 3
Answers

π kπ π kπ 2π 5π
1. a. − + < x< + , k ∈ b. + kπ ≤ x < + kπ, k ∈
6 3 18 3 3 6

π kπ 1 kπ
c. – + < x < arctan3 + , k ∈ Z
6 3 3 3
π kπ π kπ π kπ π kπ
2. a. + ≤ x< + , k ∈ b. − + <x≤ + , k∈
4 3 3 3 12 2 12 2
1
arccot
π kπ 2 + kπ , k ∈
c. + < x<
4 4 4 4
⎡ π ⎞ ⎡ π 7 π ⎞ ⎡ 4 π 13 π ⎞ ⎡7 π ⎤
3. a. ⎢0, ⎟∪⎢ , ⎟∪⎢ , ⎟∪ , π⎥
⎣ 18 ⎠ ⎣ 9 18 ⎠ ⎣ 9 18 ⎠ ⎣⎢ 9 ⎦
⎡ π ⎞ ⎛ 7 π 2 π ⎞ ⎛ 19 π ⎤
b. ⎢0, ⎟ ∪ ⎜ , ⎟∪⎜ , π⎥
⎣ 6 ⎠ ⎝ 24 3 ⎠ ⎝ 24 ⎦

2. Advanced Trigonometric Inequalities

Some problems may ask us to solve more complex trigonometric inequalities. The inequality
may include one type of trigonometric ratio but with different powers, or it may include two
or more different types of ratio. Alternatively, the expression may include one type of trigono-
metric ratio with two boundaries.
1. If the question has two inequalities (for example, a < cos x < b), we can draw a unit
circle and find the answer on the circle by using the methods we have already seen.
2. If the inequality contains a trigonometric ratio with different powers, we can try to
factorize it. By using substitutions we can change the inequality into a quadratic
inequality and then solve it. We can then use this to write the final solution.

112 Trigonometry: Functions, Equations and Inequalities

 3. If the problem involves more than one type of trigonometric ratio, we can try to simplify
or factorize it by using the methods that we have learned in the previous sections. We can
use summation formulas, sum to product or product to sum formulas, trigonometric
identities or other types of substitution to simplify the expression.
4. If we have a system of trigonometric inequalities, we can try to solve each inequality
separately and then find their common solution.
For some questions we may have to use a combination of methods to obtain the solution. Let
us look at some examples.

EXAMPLE 142 Solve the inequality − 21 < cos x ≤ 2

2
.

Solution Look at the figure. We can use y

2p p
3 4
2 π 1 2π
arccos = and arccos( − ) = , and
2 4 2 3
π 2π
find the other boundaries as – and − .
4 3 –
1 ñ2 x
2 2
Now we are ready to write the solution as the
2p –p
–
union of the two regions in the figure: 3 4

⎡π 2π ⎞ ⎛ 2π π ⎤
⎢ 4 + 2kπ, 3 + 2kπ ⎟ ∪ ⎜ − 3 + 2 nπ, − 4 + 2 nπ ⎥ , k, n ∈ .
⎣ ⎠ ⎝ ⎦

EXAMPLE 143 Solve the inequality 2

3 1
> sin x > .
2
y
Solution Let us draw the figure. 2p p
3 3
3 π 1 π 5p p
Using arcsin = and arcsin = , we 6 6
2 3 2 6
can find the other boundaries as
x
π 5π π 2π
π− = and π − = .
6 6 3 3
The answer is the union of the intervals:

π π 2π 5π
( + 2 kπ, + 2 kπ) ∪ ( + 2 n π, + 2 n π), k, n ∈ .
6 3 3 6

Trigonometric Equations and Inequalities 113

EXAMPLE 144 Solve the inequality |tan x| ≤ 1.
Solution We can rewrite this inequality as y
3p p 1
–1 ≤ tan x ≤ 1. 4
4

Let us draw the figure. We have

π π
arctan1= and arctan( −1) = − , so the x
4 4
π π
answer is [− + kπ, + kπ], k ∈ . 3p
4 4 – p
4 – –1
4

EXAMPLE 145 Solve the inequality 2sin x + sin x – 1 ≥ 0.

2

Solution First notice that the inequality contains a quadratic expression in sin x. Let us use the
substitution t = sin x and try to factorize the new expression. The inequality becomes
2t2 + t – 1 ≥ 0, which we can factorize as (2t – 1)(t + 1) ≥ 0. The roots of this expression are
1
t = and t = –1. Let us draw a table for the inequality:
2

1
–1 2

2t2 + t – 1 + – +

1
So the inequality is true for sin x ≤ –1 and sin x ≥ .
2
π
If sin x ≤ –1 then x = − + 2 kπ, k ∈ . (1)
2
1 π 5π
If sin x ≥ then + 2 n π ≤ x ≤ + 2 n π, n ∈ . (2)
2 6 6
π π 5π
(1) and (2) give us the solution: x = − + 2 kπ, k ∈ Z and + 2 nπ ≤ x ≤ + 2 n π, n ∈ Z.
2 6 6

EXAMPLE 146 Solve the inequality 1 – 4cos x < 0.2

Solution Let us use the substitution t = cos x and try to factorize the expression:
1 1
1 – 4t2 = (1 – 2t)(1 + 2t) < 0. The roots are t = and t = − and the inequality is true for
2 2
1 1
t < – and t > .
2 2

114 Trigonometry: Functions, Equations and Inequalities

 1 2π 4π
So the solutions are cos x < − , i.e. + 2 kπ < x < + 2 k π, k ∈ , and
2 3 3
1 π π
cos x > , i.e. − + 2 nπ < x < + 2 n π, n ∈ .
2 3 3
⎛ 2π 4π ⎞ ⎛ π π ⎞
Finally, the answer is x ∈ ⎜ + 2kπ, + 2 k π ⎟ ∪ ⎜ − + 2 n π, + 2 n π ⎟, n, k ∈ .
⎝ 3 3 ⎠ ⎝ 3 3 ⎠

EXAMPLE 147 Solve the inequality sin5x cos 3x − cos5 xsin 3 x< 2
3
.

Solution We can use the sum and difference formulas on the left-hand side:
sin 5x cos 3x – cos 5x sin 3x = sin (5x – 3x) = sin 2x.
3
So we need to solve sin 2 x < . From the y
2
4p p
3 π –
3 3
figure, the second boundary is arcsin = ñ3
2 3 2
π 4π
and the first boundary is −π − = − .
3 3 x

So we have

4π π
− + 2kπ < 2 x < + 2 k π, i.e.
3 3
2π π
( − + kπ) < x < ( + k π), k ∈ .
3 6

EXAMPLE 148 Solve the inequality (cos 2x – 3cos x) ≥ 1.

Solution It is difficult to work with the different ratios cos 2x and cos x, so let us use the formula
cos 2x = 2cos2x – 1 to get an inequality in cos x only. Then take 1 to the left side of the
inequality to get 2cos2x – 3cos x – 2 ≥ 0.
Using the substitution t = cos x gives us 2t2 – 3t – 2 ≥ 0.
1
By factorizing we have (2t + 1)(t – 2) ≥ 0. The roots are t = − and t = 2. Write a table:
2
1
–
2 2
2
2t – 3t – 2 + – +

1
So the solution is cos x ≤ – or cos x ≥ 2. The second inequality has no solution, so we only
2
1 2π 4π
need to consider cos x ≤ – ⇒ ( + 2 kπ) ≤ x ≤ ( + 2 kπ), k ∈ .
2 3 3

Trigonometric Equations and Inequalities 115

EXAMPLE 149 Solve the inequality (sin x – cos x) ≥ sin 2x. 2

Solution Expanding the power gives us sin2x – 2sin x cos x + cos2x ≥ sin 2x.
Using the identities sin2x + cos2x = 1 and 2sin x cos x = sin 2x, we can rewrite this
1
inequality as 1 – sin 2x ≥ sin 2x, i.e. 1 ≥ 2sin 2x and sin 2 x ≤ .
2
1 1 π π 7π
The boundaries for sin 2 x ≤are arcsin = and − π − = − .
2 2 6 6 6
7π π 7π π
So the solution is − + 2kπ ≤ 2 x ≤ + 2 k π, i.e. ( − + k π) ≤ x ≤ ( + k π), k ∈ .
6 6 12 12

⎧sin x > 0
EXAMPLE 150 Solve the system of inequalities ⎨⎩cos x ≤ 0 .
Solution Let us draw the unit circle and find the y y
answers on it.
In the first unit circle the answer is (0, π),
π 3π
In the second unit circle the answer is [ , ] x x
2 2

The intersection of these two answers gives us

π
the solution: x ∈ [ + 2kπ, π + 2 kπ), k ∈ . sin x > 0 cos x £ 0
2

⎪⎧tan x ≥ 3
EXAMPLE 151 Solve the system of inequalities ⎨
⎪⎩cot x <1
.

Solution Let us draw the unit circle and find the answers on it.

y
ñ3 y
p
2 1
p
6 p
4

x p x

tan x ³ ñ3 cot x < 1

π π
In the first unit circle the answer is [ + kπ, +kπ), k ∈ . (1)
3 2
116 Trigonometry: Functions, Equations and Inequalities
 π
In the second unit circle the answer is ( + πn, π + πn), n ∈ . (2)
4
π π
The intersection of (1) and (2) gives us the solution: x ∈ [ + kπ , + kπ), k ∈ .
3 2

Check Yourself 17
1. Solve the inequalities.
3 1
a. − < sin x ≤ b. |tan x| > ñ3 c. 8sin2x – 6sin x + 1 ≥ 0
2 2
1 6
d. cos 2 x < e. 4tan2x – tan x – 3 < 0 f. < 3+ 2 cos x
4 cos x +1
2
g. cos 2 2 x < sin 2 2 x+
2

2. Solve the inequality sin x + cos x > 0 in [0, 2π].

⎧ 2
⎪⎪sin x <
3. Solve the system of inequalities ⎨ 2 .
⎪ cos x ≥ 1
⎪⎩ 2
Answers
⎛ π π ⎤ ⎡ 5π 4π ⎞
1. a. ⎜ − + 2kπ, + 2kπ ⎥ ∪ ⎢ + 2 nπ, + 2 nπ ⎟ , n, k ∈
⎝ 3 6 ⎦ ⎣ 6 3 ⎠
π π π π
b. ( − + kπ, − + kπ) ∪ ( + n π, + n π), n, k ∈
2 3 3 2

1 1 π 5π
c. [− π − arcsin + 2kπ, arcsin + 2kπ] ∪ [ + 2 nπ, + 2 nπ], n, k ∈
4 4 6 6

π 2π 3 π
d. ( + kπ, + kπ), k ∈ e. − arctan + kπ < x < + k π, k ∈
3 3 4 4

π π π kπ 7 π kπ
f. ( − + 2kπ, + 2 kπ), k ∈ g. + < x< + , k∈
3 3 16 2 16 2
3π 7π ⎡ π π ⎞
2. [0, ) ∪ ( , 2 π] 3. ⎢ − + 2kπ, + 2kπ ⎟ , k ∈
4 4 ⎣ 3 4 ⎠

Trigonometric Equations and Inequalities 117

 ABUL WAFA BUZJANI
(10 June 940 - 15 July 998)

Abul Wafa Buzjani was a Muslim mathematician and astronomer.

He was born in Buzjan, Khorasan in Iran. His extended name is
Abu al-Wafa Muhammad ibn Muhammad ibn Yahya ibn Ismail
ibn al-Abbas al-Buzjani.

When he was nineteen years old, Abul Wafa moved to Iraq. He

made many discoveries in mathematics and astronomy. Abul Wafa
worked mostly on trigonometry and wrote many books, but many
of them are lost today.

Abul Wafa also studied the movement of the moon. There is a

crater on the moon with his name. He also invented a wall
quadrant for the calculation of measurements in astronomy.

Abul Wafa is known as the father of the basic rules of plane

trigonometry and spherical trigonometry. He introduced the
terms ‘secant’ and ‘cosecant’ to mathematics and improved
methods for calculating trigonometric tables. He also developed
new methods for solving some problems in spherical triangles.

In spherical trigonometry, he studied and developed the

properties of the sine function. He also established some of the
basic trigonometric identities and formulas, including

sin(a + b) = sin a ⋅ cos b + cos a ⋅ sin b

sin 2a = 2sin a ⋅ cos a

cos 2a = 1 – 2sin2a

sin2a = 1 – cos2a.

Abul Wafa discovered the law of sines for spherical triangles that Spherical triangles
sin A sin B sin C
is = = .
sin a sin b sin c
The works of Abul Wafa were translated to Western languages
beginning in the 12th century. He is a well-known
mathematician, and many books have been written about him.

Abul Wafa died on 15 July 998 in Baghdad, Iraq.

 NASIR AL-DIN AL-TUSI
(18 Feb 1201 - 26 June 1274)

Nasir al-Din al-Tusi was born in 1201 in Tus, Khorasan in Iran.

His extended name is Muhammad ibn Muhammad ibn al
Hasan al-Tusi, but he is known as just Tusi in the West.
Tusi was a Muslim mathematician, astronomer, chemist,
biologist, physicist and scientist. He also studied Islamic
theology and philosophy.
Tusi began his studies at an early age. In Tus he studied the
Koran, hadith, logic, philosophy, mathematics, astronomy and
medicine. Later he traveled to different places to study and to
attend the lectures of famous scholars. He went to Nishapur to
study philosophy and mathematics. After the attack of the
Mongols he went to Mosul and other places, and during this
time he made his most important contributions to science.
Finally he joined Hulagu Khan’s army. Tusi died in 26 June
1274 in Kadhimiya, Iran, and left about 150 works on different
subjects.
A 60 – kilometer diameter crater on the moon was named
Nasireddin, in honor of Tusi. The minor planet 10269 Tusi was
also discovered by a Russian astronomer and given his name.
Tusi was the first scientist to treat trigonometry as a separate
mathematical discipline, different from astronomy. He also gave
the first extensive description of spherical trigonometry, and he
was the first person to list the six distinct cases of a right
triangle in spherical trigonometry.

Tusi formulated the law of sines for plane triangles:

a b c
= = . He also wrote the same formula for
sin A sin B sin C
spherical triangles and proved these laws. In 1265, Tusi wrote a
manuscript regarding the calculation for the nth roots of an
integer. He studied binomial expansions, and used Pascal’s
triangle before Pascal.
Today Tusi’s work lives on in his many books about
mathematics, biology, astronomy and chemistry.
 EXERCISES 3
A. Types of Trigonometric Equation 3. Solve the equations.
1. Solve the equations. a. tan x = –1
2 3
a. sin x = b. sin x = − b. 3tan 2x – ñ3 = 0
2 2
c. 6sin 2x + 3 = 0 d. 2sin 3x – ñ3 = 0 2π
c. 2 tan(5 x − ) −2=0
3
π
e. 2 sin( x − )+ 3 = 0 f. 4sin 5x = 0 d. 3tan(3x + 24°) – ñ3 = 0
5
x π x π
g. sin( − ) = −1 e. tan( + ) = 2
3 4 3 2
3π
3π f. tan( x − ) = 0
h. 2 sin( + 2 x) − 1= 0 i. 3sin 4x + 2 = 0 2
2
x
j. sin( π − ) − 1= 0
2
x 2 sin 2 x
k. 2 sin( − 2 π)+ 2 = 0 l. =1
2 3 4. Solve the equations.
a. cot x = 1

b. cot 4x = ñ3

c. 1 – cot 2x = 2
π
d. 3cot(3 x − )+ 3 = 0
3
π x
e. cot( − ) = −1
2 3
2. Solve the equations.
x
2 f. 2 cot( − ) − 4 = 0
a. cos x = b. 2cos x + ñ3 = 0 2
2
π 2
c. cos(5 x − ) = d. 3cos 4x – 4 = 0
4 2
e. 2cos 3x – ñ3 = 0
5. Find the sum of the roots of each equation in the
2π interval 700° < x < 1000° in degrees.
f. cos(2 x + ) = −1
3
1
g. cos(5x – 30°) = 1 a. cos 3 x =
2
π 2 2
h. cos( − 2 x) = in [0, 2 π] b. sin 2 x =
2 2 2
3π x π
i. cos( + ) = 0 in [0, 2 π] c. tan( x + ) = 3
2 3 3

120 Trigonometry: Functions, Equations and Inequalities

 6. Solve the equations. 9. Solve the equations.

a. cos 3x + cos 5x = 0 a. sin 3x = sin 30°

b. 4cos22x + 2cos 2x = 0 b. cos 4x = cos 20°

2
c. 2cos x + cos x = 1 π
c. tan x = tan
3cos x 4
d. cos 2 x +1= x
2 d. cot = cot15 °
2
e. cos 2x = sin x + 1

f. cos 3x + cos 5x = 2cos 4x

sin 3x cos 3 x
10. Solve = .
sin x cos x

7. Solve the equations.

a. sin 2x – sin x = 0
1 π π
b. (sin 3 x cos 2 x)+(cos 3 xsin 2 x) = 11. Solve tan(2 x + ) = cot( x − ) .
2 4 3
c. sin 6x = sin 2x

d. 2sin 3x = 1

e. cos 2x = 3cos x + 1 in [0, 2π] 12. Solve each linear equation in sin x and cos x.
2 sin x − 2 a. 3sin x – 3cos x = 5
f. = 0 in [0, 2 π]
2 sin x + 3 b. 3cos x – 4sin x = 5
g. sin(2x + 10°) – sin(2x – 10°) = 0
c. 12sin x + 5cos x = 13
h. 4sin x + 2sin x – 2sin x = 1 d. ñ2sin x + ñ2cos x = 1
3 2

e. ñ3sin x – cos x = 1
›f. sin x – 2cos x = 1
8. Solve the equations.
2 tan 3 x
a. = 3
1 − tan 2 3x
b. tan2x + tan x – 2 = 0

c. cot2x – 1 = 0
13. Solve the homogeneous equations.
cot 3x − cot x
d. =− 3 a. 2sin x + cos x = 0
1+ cot 3 x cot x
e. tan x + cot x = 2 b. 3sin x – ñ3cos x = 0

x c. sin2x + sin x cos x – 2cos2x = 0

f. cot − cos x =1
2 d. sin2x – 2sin x cos x – 3cos2x = 0

Trigonometric Equations and Inequalities 121

14. Find the maximum and minimum values of each 20. For which values of a does the equation
›
function. a
5− = 3tan x have a solution?
a. f(x) = 3sin x + 4cos x cos x

b. f(x) = ñ3sin x + cos x

c. f(x) = 2sin x – ñ5cos x
d. f(x) = sin x – cos x π
21. Solve arccos x+ arctan x = .
› 2

15. Find the range of each function.

a. f(x) = 5sin x – 12cos x + 13
b. f(x) = ñ7sin x + ñ2cos x + 1 ⎧ π
⎪x + y = 4
c. f(x) = sin x + ñ3cos x – 3 22. Solve the system of equations. ⎨
› ⎪
⎩tan x + tan y =1

B. Further Trigonometric Equations

16. Solve |sin x – cos x| = sin x + cos x. 5
23. Solve tan2 x +cos 2 x = .
› 2

17. Solve each system of equations in the interval

[0, π].
24. Solve tan2x + cot2y – 2tan x – 4cot y + 5 = 0.
⎧ 1 ›
⎪sin x sin y = 4 ⎧sin( x + y) =1
a. ⎪⎨ b. ⎪⎨
⎪ π ⎪⎩sin( x − y) =1
⎪⎩ x + y = 3

⎧tan x + cot y =1 C. Trigonometric Inequalities

c. ⎪
⎨ π 25. Solve each inequality.
⎪x + y =
⎩ 4 1
a. sin 3x > −
2
π
b. 2 sin( x − )+1< 0
3
18. Find the roots of sin4 x + cos4 x = cos 4x in [0, 2π]. c. 2sin 2x + ñ2 ≥ 0

π 3
d. sin(3 x − ) ≤
5 2
19. Solve 1 – cos 2x = 2 sin x. e. 3sin 5x + 3 > 0

122 Trigonometry: Functions, Equations and Inequalities

26. Solve the trigonometric inequalities. 31. Solve the trigonometric inequalities.
1 π
a. cos 2 x > − b. 2 cos(2 x − ) < −1 a. tan2x < 3
2 3
b. tan2x + tan x – 2 > 0
x
c. 2 cos + 2 ≥ 0 d. 3cos x – 3 > 0
3 c. (cot2x – 1)(cot2x – 3) ≤ 0
x π
e. 2 cos( − ) − 3 > 0
2 3

27. Solve the trigonometric inequalities. 32. Solve the trigonometric inequalities.
2
a. tan 3x ≤ 1 b. 3tan 4x + ñ3 < 0 a. cos 4 x cos x + sin 4 xsin x ≥
2
x x
x 5π b. 1+ sin
2
≥ 4sin 3 x − cos 2
c. 3tan( − )+3 ≥ 0 d. tan 5x + ñ3 > 0 3 3
2 36
c. 2(sin x + cos x)2 ≥ 3
1
d. sin x cos x <
4
28. Solve the trigonometric inequalities. e. cos 2x + sin x – 1 < 0
x
a. cot 3x + ñ3 < 0 b. 2 cot + 2 ≥ 0
2

29. Solve the trigonometric inequalities. 33. Solve the trigonometric inequalities.
1 2 1 3 6 tan 3 x
a. − ≤ sin x < b. < cos x ≤ a. > 3 b. tan x – cot x > 0
2 2 2 2 tan 2 3x − 1
3 3
c. |sin x| ≥ d. − 3 < tan x ≤
2 3

e. |cot x| > 1

34. Solve each system of inequalities.

30. Solve the trigonometric inequalities. ⎧ 1
⎪sin x cos x ≤ 2 ⎧⎪tan x >1
a. ⎨ b. ⎨
a. sin x – 2sin x ≥ 0
2
⎪ ⎪⎩cot x ≥ −1
b. 2cos2x – cos x – 1 > 0 ⎩sin x + cos x ≥ 2

c. 6cos2x + cos x – 1 < 0 ⎧ 1

⎪sin x cos x > 4
d. 2sin2x – 1 ≤ 0 c. ⎨
⎪
e. 2cos4x – 3cos2x > –1 ⎩tan x ≥ 3

Trigonometric Equations and Inequalities 123

 CHAPTER SUMMARY

1. Introduction to Trigonometry • Elementary Trigonometric Ratios

• An angle is the union of two rays which have the same In a right triangle: C
initial point.
• If one of the rays of an angle is called the initial side and se
enu
the other side is called the terminal side, then the given p ot b a
opposite
angle is called a directed angle. hy side

• If a directed angle is measured in a clockwise direction q c

from its initial side then the angle is a negative angle. If A adjacent side B
the angle measured in a counterclockwise direction then
it is a positive angle. In trigonometry we use both positive opposite side a
the sine of angle θ = sin θ = = .
and negative angles. hypotenuse b
• An angle in the coordinate plane is in standard position if adjacent side c
the cosine of angle θ = cos θ = = .
its vertex is at the origin of the plane and its initial side hypotenuse b
lies along the positive x-axis.
opposite side a
• If two or more angles in standard position have coincident the tangent of angle θ = tan θ = = .
adjacent side c
terminal sides then they are called coterminal angles.
adjacent side c
• Let β be an angle which is greater than 360° or less than the cotangent of angle θ = cot θ = = .
0°. Then α is called the primary directed angle of β if α is opposite side a
coterminal with β and α ∈ [0°, 360°). In other words α is hypotenuse b
the secant of angle θ = sec θ = = .
the angle between 0° and 360° which is coterminal with adjacent side c
β.
hypotenuse b
the cosecant of angle θ = csc θ = = .
β = α ± k ⋅ 360° , i.e. β = α ± 2kπ . opposite side a

• The circle whose center lies at the origin of the • Trigonometric Identities
coordinate plane and whose radius is 1 unit is called the 1. sin2x + cos2x = 1. This is equivalent to
unit circle. The coordinate axes divide the unit circle into
sin2x = 1 – cos2x and cos2x = 1 – sin2x.
four parts, called quadrants.
2. tan2x + 1 = sec2x 3. cot2x + 1 = csc2x
p
90° 2 sin x cos x
4. tan x = 5. cot x =
cos x sin x
2nd 1st 2nd 1st 6. tan x ⋅ cot x = 1. From this we also get
quadrant quadrant quadrant quadrant
0º 0
1 1
180° 3rd 4th 360° p 3rd 4th 2p tan x = and cot x = .
quadrant quadrant quadrant quadrant cot x tan x
1 1
7. sec x = 8. csc x =
cos x sin x
270° 3p
2
• The Law of Cosines
• The intersection points of the unit circle and the In any triangle ABC with side A
lengths a, b and c,
coordinate axes correspond to angles measured on the
a2 = b2 + c2 – 2bc ⋅ cos A
c b
circle. These angles are called quadrantal angles. In other
b2 = a2 + c2 – 2ac ⋅ cos B
π 3π
words, 0°, 90°, 180°, 270°, 360°, ... and 0, , π, , 2π ... c2 = a2 + b2 – 2ab ⋅ cos C.
2 2
B a C
are quadrantal angles.

124 Trigonometry: Functions, Equations and Inequalities

• The Law of Sines A • Half-A
Angle Formulas
If R is the radius of the x x
sin x = 2 ⋅ sin ⋅ cos
circumscribed circle of a triangle 2 2
ABC with side lengths a, b and c, c b
2 x 2 x x x
then cos x = cos − sin = 2 cos 2 − 1 =1 − 2 sin 2
2 2 2 2
R
a b c x
= = = 2 R. B a C 2 tan
sin A sin B sin C tan x = 2
2 x
• The Law of Tangents 1 − tan
2
In a triangle ABC with side lengths a, b and c,
A+ B A+C • Reduction Formulas
tan( ) tan( ) 1. The reduction formulas help us to ‘reduce’ a
a+ b 2 a+ c 2
= , = and
a – b tan( A – B ) a – c tan( A – C ) trigonometric ratio to a ratio of an acute angle. To derive
2 2 the formulas, first consider the signs of the functions in
each quadrant:
B+ C
tan( )
b+ c 2 sin x cos x tan x cot x
= .
b – c tan( B – C ) ⎛ π⎞
2 first quadrant ⎜ 0, ⎟ + + + +
⎝ 2⎠
• Area of a Triangle
second quadrant
⎛π ⎞ + – – –
Let ΔABC be a triangle with sides a, b and c. Then the ⎜ , π⎟
⎝2 ⎠
following properties hold:
third quadrant
⎛ 3π ⎞ – – + +
1 1 1 ⎜ π, ⎟
1. A( ΔABC ) = ⋅ a ⋅ b ⋅ sin C = ⋅ a ⋅ c ⋅ sin B = ⋅ b ⋅ c ⋅ sin A ⎝ 2 ⎠
2 2 2 ⎛ 3π ⎞
fourth quadrant ⎜ , 2π ⎟ – + – –
2. Heron’s Theorem: If u is the half of the perimeter of ⎝ 2 ⎠
ΔABC then
π 3π
A( ΔABC ) = u ⋅ ( u − a ) ⋅ ( u − b ) ⋅ ( u − c ). 2. or in the formula means that the formula
2 2
changes sine to cosine and tangent to cotangent. For π or
3. If u is the half of the perimeter of ΔABC and r is the radius
of its inscribed circle then 2π the ratio does not change.
A(ΔABC) = u ⋅ r. 3. Combine steps 1 and 2 to get the formulas.
4. If R is the radius of circumscribed circle of ΔABC then
π π π
a⋅b⋅c sin( − x) =cos x, cos( − x) =sin x, tan( − x) =cot x
A( ΔABC ) = . 2 2 2
4R π π π
sin( + x) =cos x, cos( + x) = − sin x, tan( + x) = − cot x
• Sum and Difference Formulas 2 2 2

sin(x + y) = (sin x ⋅ cos y) + (cos x ⋅ sin y) 3π 3π 3π

sin( − x) = − cos x, cos( − x) = − sin x, tan( − x) = cot x
2 2 2
sin(x – y) = (sin x ⋅ cos y) – (cos x ⋅ sin y)
3π 3π 3π
cos(x + y) = (cos x ⋅ cos y) – (sin x ⋅ sin y) sin( + x) = − cos x, cos( + x) =sin x, tan( + x) = − cot x
2 2 2
cos(x – y) = (cos x ⋅ cos y) + (sin x ⋅ sin y)
sin( π − x) =sin x, cos(π − x) = − cos x, tan(π − x) = − tan x
tan x + tan y tan x − tan y
tan( x + y) = , tan( x − y) = sin( π + x) = − sin x, cos(π + x) = − cos x, tan(π + x) = tan x
1 − tan x ⋅ tan y 1+ tan x ⋅ tan y
sin( − x) = − sin x, cos( − x) =cos x, tan( − x) = − tan x
• Double-A
Angle Formulas
sin 2 x = 2 ⋅ sin x ⋅ cos x • Sum to Product Formulas
2 2 2
cos 2 x = cos x − sin x = 2 cos x − 1 = 1 − 2 sin x 2
a+ b a−b
sin a + sin b = 2 ⋅ sin( ) ⋅ cos( )
2 2
2 tan x a+ b a−b
tan 2 x = sin a − sin b = 2 ⋅ cos( ) ⋅ sin( )
1 − tan 2 x 2 2

Chapter Summary 125

 a+ b a−b • Tangent Function tangent axis
cos a + cos b = 2 ⋅ cos( ) ⋅ cos( )
2 2 π D
cos a − cos b = −2 ⋅ sin(
a+ b
) ⋅ sin(
a−b
)
f: − { + kπ}, k ∈ → , B
2 2 2
sin( a + b) f(x) = tan x is called the a A
tan a + tan b =
cos a ⋅ cos b tangent function. O C
sin( a − b)
tan a − tan b =
cos a ⋅ cos b It has the following properties:
• Product to Sum Formulas π
1. Domain = − { + kπ}, k ∈ .
1 2
sin x ⋅ sin y = − [cos( x+ y) − cos( x − y) ] 2. Range = .
2
1 π 3π
3. tan x > 0 on (0, ), ( π, ).
cos x ⋅ cos y = [cos( x+ y)+ cos( x − y) ] 2 2
2
π 3π
1 4. tan x < 0 on ( , π ), ( , 2 π) .
sin x ⋅ cos y = [sin( x+ y)+ sin( x − y) ] 2 2
2
5. tan x is always increasing.
1
cos x ⋅ sin y = [sin( x+ y) − sin( x − y) ] 6. tan x =
sin x
, cos x ≠ 0.
2
cos x

2. Trigonometric Functions • Cotangent Function cotangent axis B D

• Sine Function f: – {kπ}, k ∈ Z → , C
f: → [–1, 1], f(x) = sin x is B
D f(x) = cot x is called the a
called the sine function. It 1 O F A E
has the following properties: cotangent function.
a A
1. Domain = O C
It has the following properties:
2. Range = [–1, 1]
3. sin x > 0 in (0, π) sine axis 1. Domain = – {kπ}, k ∈ .
4. sin x < 0 in (π, 2π) 2. Range = .
5. sin x is increasing in the first and fourth quadrants. π 3π
3. cot x > 0 on (0, ), ( π, ).
6. sin x is decreasing in the second and third quadrants. 2 2
π 3π
7. sin x is a continuous function. 4. cot x < 0 on ( , π ), ( , 2 π) .
2 2
• Cosine Function 5. cot x is always decreasing.
f: → [–1, 1], f(x) = cos x is B
cos x
called the cosine function. It 1
6. cot x = , sin x ≠ 0.
sin x
has the following properties: a A
1. Domain = O C cosine axis • Secant Function

2. Range = [–1, 1] π
f: − { + kπ}, k ∈ → –(–1, 1), f(x) = sec x
2
3. cos x > 0 in
is called the secant function.
π π
(– , ) It has the following properties:
2 2 P
π 3π
4. cos x < 0 in ( , )
2 2 a C
O A
5. cos x is increasing in the third and fourth quadrants.
6. cos x is decreasing in the first and second quadrants.
7. cos x is a continuous function.

126 Trigonometry: Functions, Equations and Inequalities

 π
1. Domain = − { + kπ}, k ∈ . • If the fundamental periods of g(x) and h(x) are T1 and T2
2
then the fundamental period of f(x) = g(x) + h(x) is
2. Range = – (–1, 1).
T = LCM(T1, T2).
π π a c LCM( a, c)
3. sec x > 0 on (– , ).
2 2 • LCM( , )=
b d GCD( b, d)
π 3π
4. sec x < 0 on ( , ). • To find the period of a product or quotient of two
2 2
1 trigonometric functions, first we change the product or
5. sec x = , cos x ≠ 0.
cos x quotient to a sum or difference of functions.

• Cosecant Function • Graphs of Trigonometric Functions

D
To draw the graph of a trigonometric function, follow the
f: – {kπ}, k∈ → –(–1, 1), x
P steps:
f(x) = csc x is called the 1. Find the period of the function.
a
cosecant function. O A 2. Find a suitable interval: [0, 2π] is a good interval for
It has the following properties: π π
sin x and cos x, (0, π) is good for cot x and ( − , )
2 2
for tan x.
1. Domain = – {kπ}, k ∈ . 3. Investigate the behavior of the function in the given
2. Range = – (–1, 1). interval (check for increasing and decreasing behavior
at common angle values). For sin x and cos x
3. csc x > 0 on (0, π).
functions, divide the interval [0, 2π] into four equal
4. csc x < 0 on (π, 2π). parts and take the endpoints of the intervals as the
1 angles to inspect.
5. csc x = , sin x ≠ 0.
sin x 4. Draw the graph of the function in the given interval
and copy it to get the general graph.
• A function f: A → B is a periodic function if it satisfies the
rule f(x + T) = f(x) for all values of x in A. • Graph of the Sine Function
If f(x) = sin x then f: → [–1, 1].
The number T is called the period of the function.
y
The smallest possible positive value of T is called the
1
fundamental period of the function. –p
3p
3p
2
p p 2p x
• Periods of Trigonometric Functions 2
–1
Let n be an integer, a, b be real numbers and let T stand 2p
for the fundamental period of a trigonometric function. The period of sin x is 2π.
Then
• Graph of the Cosine Function
n n
y = sin ( ax + b ) y = sec ( ax + b )
1. For and , If f(x) = cos x then f: → [–1, 1].
n n
y = cos ( ax + b ) y = csc ( ax + b )
y
π
a. if n is even then T = . 1 y = cos x
| a| p 3p
–p 2 2 x
2π – 3p –p 2p
b. if n is odd then T = . 2 2
| a| –1
2p
π
2. For y = tan ( ax + b) and y = cot ( ax+ b), T =
n n
. The period of cos x is 2π.
| a|

Chapter Summary 127

• Graph of the Tangent Function • Graph of the Cosecant Function

π f: {kπ} → – (–1, 1), f(x) = csc x

If f(x) = tan x then f : − { + kπ} → .
2
y
y = cosec x
y

1
3p p p 3p
– –p – -p -p/2 p 3p/2
2 2 2 p 2
x x
-3p/2 O p/2 2p 5p/2
-1 y = sin x

The period of csc x is 2π.

The period of tan x is π.
• Graph Translations
• Graph of the Cotangent Function
1. the graph of y = f(x – r) is the graph of f(x) shifted r
If f(x) = cot x then f: – {kπ} → . units right on the x-axis.
y 2. the graph of y = f(x) + k is the graph of f(x)
shifted k units up on the y - axis.
3. the graph of y = –f(x) is the reflection of the graph
of f(x) with respect to the x-axis.
p p 3p
–
2 2 2
x • Inverse Trigonometric Functions
–p p 2p
1. Arcsine: The inverse of sin x is f –1(x) = arcsin x with
⎡ π π⎤
f –1 : [−1, 1] → ⎢ − , ⎥ .
⎣ 2 2⎦
π π
The period of cot x is π. x = arcsin y ⇔ y = sin x, x ∈ [ − , ]
2 2

• Graph of the Secant Function 2. Arccosine: The inverse of cos x is f–1(x) = arccos x with
f –1: [–1, 1] → [0, π].
π
f : − { + kπ} → – (–1, 1), f ( x) = sec x.
2 x = arccos y ⇔ y = cos x, x∈ [0, π]
y
3. Arctangent: The inverse of tan x is f –1(x) = arctan x
y = sec x
⎛ π π⎞
with f –1 : → ⎜ − , ⎟.
⎝ 2 2⎠
1
⎛ π π⎞
-3p/2 -p/2 p/2 3p/2
x x = arctan y ⇔ y = tan x, x ∈ ⎜ − , ⎟
-2p -p
-1
p 2p ⎝ 2 2⎠
y = cos x
4. Arccotangent: The inverse of cot x is f –1(x) = arccot x
with f –1: → (0, π).

x = arccot y ⇔ y = cot x, x∈ (0, π)

The period of sec x is 2π.

128 Trigonometry: Functions, Equations and Inequalities

3. Trigonometric Equations and Inequalities a. If c2 > a2 + b2 then there is no solution.
• sin x = a b. If c2 = a2 + b2 then x = α + 2kπ, k ∈ .
1. sin x = a ⇔ {x1 = arcsin a + 2kπ, k ∈ } and c. If c2 < a2 + b2 then use the formulas for equations
{x2 = π – arcsin a + 2πn, n ∈ } where –1 ≤ a ≤ 1. with a common ratio.
2. sin x = a ⇔ x = (–1)k arcsin a + kπ,
• Homogeneous Equations
k ∈ for –1 ≤ a ≤ 1.
a
3. sin x = 0 ⇔ x = kπ, k ∈ . 1. If acos x + b sin x = 0 then solve tan x = – and
b
π a
sin x = 1 ⇔ x = + 2kπ, k ∈ . x = arctan(– )+ kπ, k ∈ .
2 b
π 2. If a cos2x + b cos x ⋅ sin x + c sin2x= 0 then solve
sin x = –1 ⇔ x = − + 2kπ, k ∈ .
2 a + b tan x + c tan2x = 0.
• cos x = a
1. cos x = a ⇔ x = ±arccos a + 2kπ, k ∈ , –1 ≤ a ≤ 1. • If f(x) = a cos x + b sin x for a, b ∈ then
π 2 2
maximum value of f ( x)= a + b .
2. cos x = 0 ⇔ x = + kπ, k ∈ .
2 2 2
cos x = 1 ⇔ x = 2kπ, k ∈ . minimum value of f ( x)= – a + b .
cos x = –1 ⇔ x = π + 2kπ, k ∈ . • If a trigonometric equation includes an absolute value,
solve it by considering the possible values of the absolute
• tan x = a
expression.
tan x = a ⇔ x = arctan a + kπ, k ∈ , where a ∈ .
• If an equation includes inverse trigonometric functions
• cot x = a such as arcsin, arccos, arctan etc., solve it by using the
cot x = a ⇔ x = arccot a + kπ, k ∈ , where a ∈ . rules of inverse trigonometric functions, i.e if arcsin
• Factorizing method: If we can rewrite an equation in the x = y then sin y = x, if arctan x = y then tan y = x, etc.
factorized form ab = 0 where a and b are the • To solve a system of trigonometric equations, either
trigonometric ratios, the solution is the union of the eliminate one of the trigonometric ratios by adding or
solutions of a = 0 and b = 0.
subtracting, or find one ratio in terms of the other and
• If one part of a solution set contains the other part, we then use substitution.
write only the larger set as the answer.
• Basic Trigonometric Inequalities
• Drawing solutions on a unit circle can help us to find all
of the solutions. To solve any simple trigonometric inequality, follow the
2π steps:
If there are n answers, x = a + k, k ∈ .
n 1. Find the region which satisfies the inequality on the
• Equations with a common ratio: unit circle.
1. If cos x = cos a then 2. Write the boundaries of the selected region moving in
x = a + 2kπ or x = –a + 2kπ, k ∈ . an anticlockwise direction. Remember that the smaller
2. If sin x = sin a then bound (for example, a negative bound) must always be
x = a + 2kπ or x = (π – a)+2kπ, k ∈ . the first bound.
⇒ x = (–1)ka + kπ, k ∈ . 3. For sin x and cos x add 2kπ, and for tan x and cot x add kπ.
3. If tan x = tan a then x = a + kπ, k ∈ . sin x > a y
4. If cot x = cot a then x = a + kπ, k ∈ . If a > 1 there is no solution.
a
• Linear Equations in sin x and cos x If a < –1 the answer is p – arc sin a arc sin a

An equation in the form a cos x + b sin x = c is a linear (–∞, ∞).

equation in sin x and cos x. To solve a linear equation: x
If –1 ≤ a ≤ 1 the answer is
b sin α
1. Let tan α = = .
a cos α
2. Equalize the denominators and solve
cos x ⋅ cos α + sin x ⋅ sin α c
= . (arcsin a + 2kπ) < x < (π – arcsin a + 2kπ), k ∈ .
cos α a
Chapter Summary 129
sin x < a y cot x > a
If a < –1 there is no y
a a cot x
solution. –p – arc sin a arc sin a
arc cot a
If a > 1 the answer is
x
(–∞, ∞).
If –1 ≤ a ≤ 1 the answer is x

(–π – arcsin a + 2kπ) < x < (arcsin a + 2kπ), k ∈ . p + arc cot a

kπ < x < (arccot a + kπ), k ∈ .

cos x > a y
If a > 1 there is no solution. arccos a cot x < a
y
If a < –1 the answer is (–∞, ∞). a
a cot x
If –1 ≤ a ≤ 1 the answer is
x arccot a

x
– arccos a

(–arccos a + 2kπ) < x < (arccos a + 2kπ), k ∈ . p + arccot a

(arccot a + kπ) < x < (π + kπ), k ∈ .

cos x < a y
arccos a

• Advanced Trigonometric Inequalities

If a < –1 there is no solution. a
x Strategies for solving advanced trigonometric inequalities:
If a > 1 the answer is (–∞, ∞).
1. If the question has two inequalities (for example,
If –1 ≤ a ≤ 1 the answer is
2p – arccos a a < cos x < b), draw a unit circle and find the
answer on the circle.
(arccos α + 2kπ) < x < (2π – arccos α + 2kπ), k ∈ .
tan x > a y
2. If the inequality contains a trigonometric ratio with
π different powers, try to factorize it and then use
(arctan a + kπ) < x < ( + kπ), k ∈ .
2 substitution to change the inequality into a
arctan a
quadratic inequality.
x

3. If the problem involves more than one type of

trigonometric ratio, try to simplify or factorize it
tan x < a y
p using the summation formulas, sum to product or
π 2 a product to sum formulas, trigonometric identities or
( − + kπ ) < x < (arctan a+ kπ),
2 other types of trigonometric substitution.
arctan a
k∈
x
4. If there is a system of trigonometric inequalities, try
p + arc tan a to solve all inequalities separately, then find the
–p
2 common solution.

130 Trigonometry: Functions, Equations and Inequalities

 26. How can we find the period of a function which is the
Concept Check
sum or difference of two or more periodic functions?
1. What is the unit circle?
27. How can we draw the graph of a trigonometric function?
2. What is a directed angle?
28. How do we use a period to draw the graph of a
3. What is a negative angle?
trigonometric function?
4. What do we mean when we say that an angle is in
standard position? 29. Name the three main types of graph translation and
5. What are coterminal angles? describe the function changes that produce them.

6. State four quadrantal angles between 0° and 360°. 30. Can we always find the inverse of a trigonometric
7. Which geometric figure gives us the trigonometric function?
ratios?
31. If we know the graph of a trigonometric function, how
8. What are the relations between the sides and angles of a can we draw the graph of its inverse?
right triangle?
32. What is the difference between a trigonemetric identity
9. Why do we need trigonometric identities?
and a trigonometric equation?
10. How can we find the radius of a circumscribed circle by
using the sides and angles of a triangle? 33. What are the solutions of the equations sin x = a and
11. If we know the trigonometric ratios of an angle, how can cos x = a for a = –1, 0 and 1?
we calculate the trigonometric ratios of half of this
34. How can we use the graph of a trigonometric function to
angle?
solve a trigonometric equation?
12. If we know the trigonometric ratios of all the angles in
the first quadrant, can we calculate the trigonometric 35. How can we solve a trigonometric equation which
ratios of angles which are not in the first quadrant? includes more than one type of trigonometric ratio?
Explain your answer.
36. A trigonometric equation involves the square of a
13. How can we rewrite the sum or difference of two
trigonometric ratio. How can we solve this equation?
trigonometric ratios as a product of trigonometric ratios?
14. Why do we call the x-axis the cosine axis and the y-axis 37. How can we write the solution of an equation concisely
the sine axis? if the equation has n different roots and these roots
15. What are the properties of the sine function? divide the unit circle into n equal parts?

16. What are the properties of the cosine function? 38. How can we solve a linear equation in sin x and cos x?
17. What are the properties of the tangent function? 39. How do we solve a homogeneous equation in sin x and
18. What are the properties of the cotangent function? cos x?
19. What are the properties of the secant function? 40. How can we find the maximum and minimum values of
20. What are the properties of the cosecant function? a trigonometric function?
21. If a function includes more than one type of trigonometric 41. How can we solve a system of trigonometric equations?
ratio, how can we find its domain?
42. How can we solve a trigonometric inequality?
22. What is a periodic function?
23. Can we say that all trigonometric functions are periodic? 43. How can we solve a trigonometric inequality if it has two
Explain your answer. boundaries?
24. What is one advantage of a periodic function? 44. How can we solve a trigonometric inequality if it involves
25. What is the fundamental period of a function? a sum or difference of trigonometric ratios?

Chapter Summary 131

 CHAPTER REVIEW TEST 1
1. What is 240° in radians? 5. A triangle ABC has side lengths a = 5 and b = 3.
Find c if m(∠C) = 60°.
3π 5π 7π 4π 11π
A) B) C) D) E)
4 3 6 3 6 21
A) 6 B) ò19 C) D) 4 E) ò17
2

1 sin x ⋅ tan x
2. In a right triangle, cos x = . Find .
3 cot 2 x 6. In a triangle ABC, m(∠A) = 60°, m(∠C) = 15°,
64 6 2 81 2 and N is a point on BC such that AN bisects ∠A
A) B) C) and BN = 4 cm. Find the length of AB.
3 5 2
17 8 2 A) 4ñ2 B) 3ñ3 C) 6ñ2 D) 2ñ3 E) 4
D) E)
3 3

7. A triangle ABC has the property

3cos x + 2 sin x 2
3. If = , what is cot x? sin2A + sin2B = sin2C.
2 cos x − sin x 3
Find m(∠C).
8 7 7 9 8
A) B) – C) D) E) –
5 4 4 5 5 A) 30° B) 45° C) 60° D) 90° E) 120°

sin x cos x
⋅ 5
4. Simplify tan x cot x . 8. x and y are acute angles. If sin x = and
13
1 − sin 2 x 3
cos y = , find sin(x – y).
A) 1 – tan x B) cos x C) 1 5
2
cos x 33 63 33 13 14
D) tan x E) A) B) C) – D) E) –
sin x 65 65 65 48 65

132 Trigonometry: Functions, Equations and Inequalities

 9. Find cos 75°. 13. What ratio is not equal to sin 15°?

6+ 2 3− 2 2− 6 A) sin 165° B) –cos 255° C) cos 75°

A) B) C)
4 2 2
D) sin 105° E) –cos 105°
6 −2 6− 2
D) E)
4 4

3 sin 410 ° ⋅ sin 210 ° ⋅ tan105 °

10. 90° < x < 180° and sin x = are given. 14. Simplify .
5 cot( −15 °) ⋅ cos 220 °
Find sin 2x + cos 2x.
2 1 1
27
A) B) 0 C) D) – E) 1
7 17 7 2 2 2 2
A) B) – C) D) – E) –
25 25 5 25 5

π 2
11. Given that 0 < x < and sin x − cos x = , find
2 3
cos 2x. sin105 °+ sin15 °
15. Simplify .
cos105 °+ cos15 °
2 14 5 13
A) B) C) 3 3
9 9 13 A) B) ñ3 C) –ñ3 D) – E) 1
3 3
3 14 4
D) E)
14 9

sin15° ⋅ cos15 °
12. Calculate .
tan15° ⋅ cot15 ° 16. Simplify cos 20° ⋅ cos 40° ⋅ cos 60° ⋅ cos 80°.
2 3 3+ 2 1 1 1 1 3 2 1
A) B) C) D) E) A) B) C) D) E)
3 4 4 4 2 16 8 8 32 2

Chapter Review Test 1 133

 CHAPTER REVIEW TEST 2
(sin0° ⋅ cos 90 °)+ tan0 ° − cos180 °
1. Calculate . 5. Write the signs of the trigonometric ratios
2sin 270 °+cot 90 °
sin 233°, cos 125°, tan 500° and sec 200° in order.
1 1
A) B) – C) 1 D) –1 E) 0
2 2 A) –, –, –, – B) –, –, +, +

C) –, +, –, + D) +, –, –, +

E) –, +, –, –

2. Find the range of f(x) = 3sin 4x + 5.

A) [3, 4] B) [–1, 1] C) [–7, 17]

D) [2, 8] E) [3, 5]
6. Which ratio is the biggest?

A) sin 250° B) cos 300° C) sec 80°

D) cot 250° E) tan 80°

π
3. Find the domain of f ( x) = 2 tan(2 x + ) − 5.
3

π kπ π
A) x ≠ + , k∈ B) x ≠ + kπ, k ∈
6 2 6
π kπ π
C) x ≠ + , k∈ D) x ≠ + kπ, k ∈
12 2 12 7. Find the fundamental period of f(x) = 3sin3 5x.
π
E) x ≠ + kπ, k ∈ π π 2π 2π 2π
2 A) B) C) D) E)
5 3 3 15 5

4. In which expression is x undefined?

7 8. Find the fundamental period of

A) cos x = B) tan x = 28
3
3 f(x) = tan 3x + sin2 2x.
C) sec x = 12 D) sin x =
2 π 5π π
E) cot x = 0.001 A) 2π B) C) D) π E)
2 6 6

134 Trigonometry: Functions, Equations and Inequalities

 2x
9. Find the fundamental period of f ( x) = sin . 12. Find the domain of f(x) = arccos(2x – 3).
π
A) π B) π2 C) 2 D) 4 E) 2π A) [1, 2] B) [–1, 1] C) [–5, –1]

D) [1, 5] E) (–∞, ∞)

10. The graph of the function f(x) = sin x is given.

Which of the following operations should be
combined to draw the graph of 1
13. Calculate arccos( − ).
f(x) = sin(2x – 3) + 1? 2
I. move the graph 3 units left π π 5π 2π π
A) B) – C) – D) E)
II. move the graph 3 units right 3 3 3 3 6

III. move the graph 3 units down

IV. move the graph 1 unit up
V. move the graph 1 unit down
VI. divide all values on the x–axis by 2
2
VII. multiply all values on the x–axis by 2 14. Calculate sin(arccos ).
3
A) I, IV, VII B) I, V, VI C) IV, II, VI 2 1 5 2 5
A) B) C) D) – E)
3 3 2 3 3
D) II, IV, VII E) II, V, VI

11. What is the equation of the graph? π 3

15. Calculate cos( + arctan ).
2 4
y
p 3p 4 3 4 4 3
2 p 2 2p A) B) – C) – D) E)
–1
x 5 5 5 3 5

–3

–5

A) y = 2cos 2x – 3 B) y = 2 sin 2x – 3 5 4
16. Calculate sin(arccos + arccot ).
C) y = 3 cos 2x – 2 D) y = 3 sin 2x + 2 13 3
E) y = 3 cos 2x + 2 33 37 63 13 20
A) B) C) D) E)
65 39 65 65 39

Chapter Review Test 2 135

 CHAPTER REVIEW TEST 3
1. Solve 2cos 3x – 1 = 0. 6. Solve 3sin x – 5 cos x = 0.
π π 2kπ 5
A) ± + 2kπ, k ∈ B) ± + , k∈ A) arctan + kπ, k ∈
9 9 3 3
π π 2kπ 4
C) ± + 2kπ, k ∈ D) ± + , k∈ B) arc cot + kπ, k ∈
3 3 3 3
π 2 kπ 3
E) ± + , k∈ C) arcsin + 2 kπ, k ∈
18 3 5
3
D) arctan + 2 kπ, k ∈
5
2. Which of the following is not a solution of
5
2sin2 x – 1 = 0? E) arc cot + 2 kπ, k ∈
3
A) 45° B) 135° C) 225° D) 425° E) 585°

3. What is the sum of the roots of 2cos2x – cos x = 0

7. What are the maximum and minimum values of
in [0, 2π]?
f(x) = 4 sin x – 5 cos x?
11π 17 π
A) 2π B) C) 4π D) E) 6π A) 3, –3 B) 5, –5 C) ò41, –ò41
3 3
D) 9, –9 E) ñ7, –ñ7
π π
4. Solve tan(3x − ) = tan .
3 4

7π kπ π kπ
A) + , k∈ B) + , k∈ 8. Find the roots of sin 2x + cos x = 0 in [–π, π].
12 2 12 3
π kπ 7π kπ π 5π π π π π π π
C) + , k∈ D) + , k∈ A) − , – , − , B) − , − , ,
36 3 36 3 2 6 6 2 2 6 6 2
3π kπ π π π π π
E) + , k∈ C) −π, − ,π D) − , − , − ,
4 3 6 2 3 6 2
π π π π
E) − , − , ,
4 6 4 2
5. Solve sin x – cos x = 1.
π π
A) + 2 kπ, k ∈ B) { + kπ, 2 nπ}, k, n ∈
2 2
2

C) 2kπ, k ∈
π
D) { + 2 kπ, 2 nπ}, k, n ∈ 9. Find the sum of the roots of cot x − 3 = 0 in
2 tan x +1
[0°, 540°].
π
E) { + 2kπ, π + 2 nπ}, k, n ∈
2 A) 1130° B) 720° C) 630° D) 1620° E) 1480°

136 Trigonometry: Functions, Equations and Inequalities

 ⎧sin x + cos y =1 π
10. Solve the system ⎪⎨ π. 13. Solve cot(2 x + ) − 3 < 0 .
x+ y = 6
⎪⎩ 2
π π
A) ( + 2 kπ, − 2 kπ), k ∈ ⎛ 5π ⎞
6 3 A) ⎜ kπ, + kπ ⎟ , k ∈
⎝ 6 ⎠
π π 5π π
B) ( + 2 kπ, − 2 kπ) ∪( +2 nπ, − − 2 nπ), k, n ∈ ⎛ kπ 5π kπ ⎞
6 3 6 3 B) ⎜ , + ⎟, k ∈
⎝ 2 12 2 ⎠
5π π
C) ( + 2kπ, − − 2kπ), k ∈ ⎛π 5π ⎞
6 3 C) ⎜ + kπ, + kπ ⎟ , k ∈
⎝6 6 ⎠
π
D) ( + 2 kπ, 2 kπ), k ∈ ⎛π ⎞
2 D) ⎜ + kπ, π + kπ ⎟, k ∈
⎝ 6 ⎠
π π π
E) ( + 2 kπ, 2 kπ) ∪ ( + 2 n π, + 2 n π), k, n ∈ ⎛ π kπ 5π kπ ⎞
2 6 3 E) ⎜ + , + ⎟, k ∈
⎝ 12 2 12 2 ⎠

2
11. Solve sin x ≤ .
2
14. Solve –1 < tan x ≤ ñ3.
⎡ π π ⎤
A) ⎢ − + 2kπ, + 2kπ ⎥ , k ∈
⎣ 4 4 ⎦ ⎛π 3π ⎤
A) ⎜ + kπ, + kπ ⎥ , k ∈
⎝3 4 ⎦
⎡π 3π ⎤
B) ⎢ + 2kπ, + 2 kπ ⎥ , k ∈ ⎛ π π ⎤
⎣ 4 4 ⎦ B) ⎜ − + kπ, + kπ ⎥ , k ∈
⎡ 5π π ⎤ ⎝ 4 6 ⎦
C) ⎢ − + 2kπ, + 2k π ⎥ , k ∈
⎣ 4 4 ⎦ ⎛ π π ⎤
C) ⎜ − + kπ, + kπ ⎥ , k ∈
⎡ 5π 3π ⎤ ⎝ 4 3 ⎦
D) ⎢ − + 2kπ, − + 2k π ⎥ , k ∈
⎣ 4 4 ⎦ ⎡ π π ⎞
D) ⎢ − + kπ, + kπ ⎟ , k ∈
⎡π 3π ⎤ ⎣ 3 4 ⎠
E) ⎢ + 2kπ, + 2 kπ ⎥ , k ∈
⎣4 4 ⎦ ⎛ π π ⎤
E) ⎜ − + 2kπ, + 2kπ ⎥ , k ∈
⎝ 4 3 ⎦
π 3
12. Solve cos(3 x − ) ≥ .
3 2
15. Solve 2cos2x + 3cos x – 2 > 0.
⎡π π ⎤
A) ⎢ + 2kπ, + 2kπ ⎥ , k ∈
⎣18 6 ⎦ ⎛ π π ⎞
A) ⎜ − + 2kπ, + 2 kπ ⎟, k ∈
⎝ 3 3 ⎠
⎡π π ⎤
B) ⎢ + 2 kπ, + 2 kπ ⎥ , k ∈ ⎛ π π ⎞
⎣6 2 ⎦ B) ⎜ − + 2kπ, + 2 kπ ⎟, k ∈
⎡ π 2 k π π 2 k π ⎤ ⎝ 6 6 ⎠
C) ⎢ + , + , k∈
⎣9 3 6 3 ⎥⎦ ⎛π 2π ⎞
C) ⎜ + 2 kπ, + 2 kπ ⎟, k ∈
⎡ π 2kπ π 2kπ ⎤ ⎝ 3 3 ⎠
D) ⎢ − + , + , k∈
⎣ 18 3 6 3 ⎥⎦ D) ( − arccos 2+ 2 kπ,arccos 2+ 2 k π), k ∈
⎡ π 2kπ π 2kπ ⎤
E) ⎢ + , + , k∈ ⎛ π π ⎞
⎣18 3 6 3 ⎥⎦ E) ⎜ − + kπ, + 2 kπ ⎟ , k ∈
⎝ 2 3 ⎠

Chapter Review Test 3 137

 EXERCISES 1
1. a. fourth b. third c. third d. third e. third f. second 2. a. 0.785 b. 1.832 c. –1.221 d. 1.346
1 2+ 21 2 2 +1 11
e. 16.336 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. a. 1 b. 1 c. –cos x d. 0 e. 1 f. 1
5 5 9 12
6 35 6
8. Hint: rewrite tan x, cot x, sec x and csc x in terms of sin x and cos x 9. 5 10. r = cm, R = cm
2 24
a−b 6+ 2 6+ 2
11. x = 2ñ6, R = 2ñ3 12. 13. 135° 14. a. 2 + ñ3 b. c. d. ñ3 – 2
a+ b 4 4
7 2 16 1 10 3 10 1 7
15. sin( x + y) = , cot( x − y) = – 1 16. 17. 18. sin x = , cos x = , tan x = 19. –
10 37 5 10 10 3 9
56 2 1 3 3 1
20. 2a 1 – a2 21. 22. a. – b. – c. 1 d. – e.
81 2 2 3 2
1 3
23. a. 2cos x b. cos2 50° c. cos x – sin x d. 1 24. a. tan 3x b. 2ñ2 c. –1 25. –1 26. 27. cot10 D
4 16

EXERCISES 2
1 π kπ
1. a. 0 b. 0 c. –1 d. 3 e. 0 2. a. \ b. \ c. \ − { + + }, k ∈ ] d. \ − {–1 + kπ}, k ∈ ]
2 8 4
2 kπ 5 π kπ π kπ nπ
e. \ − { + }, k ∈ ] f. \ − { + }, k ∈ ] g. \ h. \ − { + } ∪ { }, k, n ∈ ] 3. a. [–1, 1] b. [–5, 5]
3 3 18 3 4 2 5
c. [–7, –1] d. [–2, 6] e. [0, 6] f. [–4, 0] g. \ h. \ i. (–∞, 0] ∪ [2, ∞) j. (–∞, –3] ∪ [1, ∞) k. \ 4. a. +
b. – c. + d. + e. + f. – g. – h. + i. – j. + k. + l. – 5. e, f, j, k 6. a. 7, 1 b. 2, –2 c. 4, –6
d. ∞, –∞ e. ∞, –∞ f. ∞, –∞ 7. a. cos 299° b. sin 66° c. tan 88° d. cot 30° 8. a. y < x < z b. b < a < c < d
π 2π
c. r < m < n d. y < x < z < k e. b < a < c 9. a, b, c, d, f 10. a, d, e, f 11. a, b, d 12. a. b.
3 5
2π π 2π π π π π
c. π d. e. f. 13. a. b. c. 5π d. 14. 2π2 15. a. b. 2π c. 2π d. 2π e. π
3 5 3 2 5 5 2
f. π g. 2π h. 2π i. π j. 3π 16. π 17. 2
18. a. y
3

p
–p 1
2
6
0 p p
–p 6 3
2p x
3 3
–1

138 Trigonometry: Functions, Equations and Inequalities

b. y c. y
5

1 p p p p p p x
– – –
–p p 2p 2 3 6 6 3 2
–p p 3p x
2 2 2

d. y e. y

p p p p
– 3p – – 3p 3p
6
–p 4 2 4 4 2 4 p 2 2p
x
1
–2
p 3p
–
8 8
p p p
–4
p
– –3p – p 8 4 2 x
2 2 4

–4

19. a. y b. y

1
p p 3p
4 2 4 p
p x
2
p p 2p 5p p x
6 3 3 6 –1

–1

c. y d. y e. y
2 3
ñ2

p 3
2 2
p x
2
p
p x
p x
2

Answers to Exercises 139

20. III, V, VI 21. a. y = 2 sin x b. y = sin 3x c. y = 3+sin x 22. a. 0° b. –45° c. –90° d. 45°

π π π π 5π π π 2π
e. 0° f. 150° g. 90° h. 180° 23. a. b. – c. d. e. f. – g. – h. 24. a. 1
4 4 4 2 6 6 3 3

3 1 12 3 3 2 3 π π π 24 4
b. c. d. e. 0 f. 25. a. b. c. d. e. − f. − 26. a. b.
2 2 13 4 2 2 2 3 4 4 25 5

1 17 4 5 3 24 3 7 120 ⎡ 5 3⎤
c. 2ñ2 d. – e. f. ñ3 27. a. b. – c. d. – e. f. 28. a. ⎢ − , − ⎥
3 17 7 2 3 7 7 169 ⎣ 2 2⎦

⎡ 1⎤ ⎡2 4⎤ π 5π 17 13 π 4
b. ⎢ −1, − ⎥ c. [2, 4] d. ⎢ , ⎥ e. \ f. \ 29. − 30. 0 31. 32. 33. 34. –
⎣ 3⎦ ⎣5 5⎦ 4 6 65 3 5

48+ 25 3 π 5
35. − 36. 0 37. 1 38. 39.
11 3 2

EXERCISES 3
π 3π π π 2π π
1. a. + 2 kπ, + 2 nπ, k, n ∈ ] or ( −1) k + k π, k ∈ ] b. − + 2kπ, − + 2 nπ, k, n ∈ ] or ( −1) k +1 + k π, k ∈ ]
4 4 4 3 3 3
π kπ π kπ π π kπ 3π
c. ( −1)k +1
+ , k ∈ ] d. ( −1)k + , k ∈ ] e. ( −1)k +1 + + kπ, k ∈ ] f. , k ∈ ] g. − +6 kπ, k ∈ ]
12 2 9 3 3 5 5 4
k +1 2
( −1) arcsin
π
h. ± + kπ, k ∈ ] i. 3 + kπ , k ∈ ] j. π + 4kπ, k ∈ ] k. ( −1)k +1 π + 2 kπ, k ∈ ] l. no solution
3 4 4 2
π 5π π π 2 kπ π 2 kπ
2. a. ± + 2kπ, k ∈ ] b. ± + 2 kπ, k ∈ ] c. ± + + , k ∈] d. no solution e. ± + , k∈]
4 6 20 20 5 18 3
π π 2kπ π 3π 9π 11π π π kπ
f. + kπ, k ∈ ] g. + , k∈] h. , , , i. 0 3. a. − + kπ, k ∈ ] b. + , k∈]
6 30 5 8 8 8 8 4 12 2
11π kπ π kπ π π
c. + , k∈] d. + , k∈] e. –3arccot 2 + 3kπ, k ∈ ] f. + kπ, k ∈ ] 4. a. + kπ, k ∈ ]
60 5 90 3 2 4
π kπ 3π kπ π kπ 3π
b. + , k∈] c. + , k∈] d. + , k∈] e. − + 3kπ, k ∈ ] f. –2arccot 2 + 2kπ, k ∈ ]
24 4 8 2 3 3 4
π kπ π π kπ π
5. a. 4340 ° b. 3420° c. 1620° 6. a. + , + nπ, k, n ∈ ] b. + , ± + nπ, k, n ∈ ]
8 4 2 4 2 3

π π 3 π
c. π + 2 kπ, ± + 2 nπ, k, n ∈ ] d. + kπ, ± arccos + 2 n π, k, n ∈ ] e. kπ, ( −1)n+1 + nπ, k, n ∈ ]
3 2 4 6
π kπ π π kπ π kπ n π
f. + , 2 nπ, k, n ∈ ] 7. a. kπ, ± + 2 nπ, k, n ∈ ] b. ( −1)k + , k ∈] c. + , , k, n ∈ ]
8 4 3 30 5 8 4 2
kπ 2π 4π π 3π π kπ π kπ π
d. , k∈] e. , f. , g. + , k∈] h. + , ( −1)n +1 + nπ, k, n ∈ ]
3 3 3 4 4 4 2 4 2 6

140 Trigonometry: Functions, Equations and Inequalities

 π kπ π π kπ π kπ π
8. a. + , k ∈ ] b. + kπ, − arctan 2+ nπ, k, n ∈ ] c. + , k ∈ ] d. + , k ∈ ] e. + kπ, k ∈ ]
18 6 4 4 2 6 2 4
π π 2 kπ 5 π 2 n π π kπ π
f. π + 2 kπ, + 2 nπ, k, n ∈ ] 9. a. + , + , k, n ∈ ] b. ± + , k ∈] c. + kπ, k ∈ ]
2 18 3 18 3 36 2 4
π kπ 7π kπ 4
d. + 2 kπ, k ∈ ] 10. , k∈] 11. + , k∈] 12. a. no solution b. − arctan + 2 kπ, k ∈ ]
6 2 36 3 3
12 π 7π π
c. arctan + 2 kπ, k ∈ ] d. − + 2kπ, + 2 nπ, k, n ∈ ] e. + 2kπ, π + 2 nπ, k, n ∈ ]
5 12 12 3

π π 1 π
f. + 2 kπ, + 2 arctan 2+ 2 n π, k, n ∈ ] 13. a. − arctan + kπ, k ∈ ] b. + kπ, k ∈ ]
2 2 2 6

π π
c. d. − + kπ,arctan3+ nπ, k, n ∈ ] 14. a. 5, –5 b. 2, –2 c. 3, –3 d. ñ2, –ñ2
+ kπ, − arctan 2+ nπ, k, n ∈ ]
4 4
π π π π π π
15. a. [0, 26] b. [–2, 4] c. [–5, –1] 16. + kπ, nπ, k, n ∈ Z 17. a. ( , ) b. ( , 0) c. ( , 0), (0, )
2 6 6 2 4 4
π 3π π
18. 0, , π, , 2π 19. kπ, + 2 nπ, k, n ∈ Z 20. –ò34 ≤ a ≤ ò34 21. 0
2 2 2

π π π π
22. ( x, y) = (2 kπ, − 2 kπ) or ( + k π, − k π), k ∈ Z 23. ( −1)k +1 + kπ, ( −1)n + n π, k, n ∈ Z
4 4 3 3

π π 2kπ 7 π 2kπ π π
24. + kπ, arccot2+ nπ, k, n ∈ Z 25. a. − + < x< + , k ∈ ] b. − + 2kπ < x < + 2k π, k ∈ ]
4 18 3 18 3 2 6
π 5π 17 π 2 kπ 8 π 2 kπ π 2 kπ
c. − + kπ ≤ x ≤ + kπ, k ∈ ] d. − + ≤x≤ + , k ∈ ] e. x ≠ − +
8 8 45 3 45 3 10 5

π π π 5π 9π 9π
26. a. − + kπ < x < + kπ, k ∈ ] b. + kπ < x < + kπ, k ∈ ] c. − +6 kπ ≤ x ≤ +6 k π, k ∈ ]
3 3 2 6 4 4

π π kπ π kπ
d. no solution e. + 4kπ < x < π + 4kπ, k ∈ ] 27. a. − + < x< + , k ∈]
3 6 3 12 3

π kπ π kπ 2π 23 π π kπ π kπ
b. − + < x< – + , k ∈] c. − + 2 kπ ≤ x < + 2 k π, k ∈ ] d. − + < x< + , k ∈]
8 4 24 4 9 18 15 5 10 5

5π kπ π kπ 3π
28. a. + < x< + , k∈] b. 2kπ < x ≤ + 2k π, k ∈ ]
18 3 3 3 2

⎡ π π ⎞ ⎛ 3π 7π ⎤
29. a. ⎢ − + 2kπ, + 2kπ ⎟ ∪ ⎜ + 2 nπ, + 2 nπ ⎥ , k, n ∈ ]
⎣ 6 4 ⎠ ⎝ 4 6 ⎦

⎛ π π ⎤ ⎡π π ⎞ ⎡π 2π ⎤ ⎡ 2π π ⎤
b. ⎜ − + 2kπ, − + 2kπ ⎥ ∪ ⎢ + 2 nπ, + 2 nπ ⎟ , k, n ∈ ] c. ⎢ + 2 kπ, + 2 kπ ⎥ ∪ ⎢− + 2 n π, − + 2 n π ⎥, k, n ∈ ]
⎝ 3 6 ⎦ ⎣ 6 3 ⎠ ⎣ 3 3 ⎦ ⎣ 3 3 ⎦
⎛ π π ⎤ π 3π
d. ⎜ − + kπ, + kπ⎥ , k ∈ ] e. ( kπ, + kπ) ∪ ( + k π, π+ k π), k, n ∈ ]
⎝ 3 6 ⎦ 4 4

Answers to Exercises 141

 2π 4π
30. a. [–π + 2kπ, 2kπ], k ∈ ] b. ( + 2 kπ, + 2 kπ), k ∈ ]
3 3
2π 1 1 2π ⎡ π π ⎤
c. ( − + 2 kπ, − arccos + 2 k π) ∪(arccos + 2 n π, + 2 n π), k, n ∈] d. ⎢ − + kπ, + kπ ⎥ , k ∈ ]
3 3 3 3 ⎣ 4 4 ⎦
π 3π π π
e. ( + kπ, + kπ), k ∈ ] 31 a. ( − + kπ, + kπ), k ∈ ]
4 4 3 3
π π π ⎡π π ⎤ ⎡ 3π 5π ⎤
b. ( − + kπ, − arctan 2+ kπ) ∪( + n π, + n π), k, n ∈ ] c. ⎢ + kπ, + kπ ⎥ ∪ ⎢ + n π, + n π ⎥, k, n ∈ ]
2 4 2 ⎣ 6 4 ⎦ ⎣ 4 6 ⎦
⎡ π 2kπ π 2kπ ⎤ ⎡ 7π 2 kπ π 2 kπ ⎤ ⎡π 5π ⎤
32. a. ⎢ − + , + , k ∈] b. ⎢ − + , + , k ∈] c. ⎢ + kπ, + kπ ⎥ , k ∈ ]
⎣ 12 3 12 3 ⎥⎦ ⎣ 18 3 18 3 ⎥⎦ ⎣12 12 ⎦
7π π π 5π
d. ( − + kπ, + kπ), k ∈ ] e. ( + 2 kπ, + 2 kπ) ∪ ( π + 2 n π, 2 n π), k, n ∈ ]
12 12 6 6
π kπ π kπ π kπ π kπ π π π
33. a. ( − + ,– + ), k ∈ ] b. ( + , + ), k ∈ ] 34. a. + 2 kπ, k ∈ ] b. ( + kπ, + kπ), k ∈ ]
12 6 36 6 4 2 2 2 4 4 2
π 5π
c. ( + kπ, + kπ), k ∈ ]
3 12

TEST 1 TEST 2 TEST 3

1. D 9. E 1. B 9. B 1. B 9. D
2. A 10. B 2. D 10. C 2. D 10. B
3. E 11. A 3. C 11. A 3. C 11. C
4. D 12. D 4. D 12. A 4. D 12. E
5. B 13. D 5. A 13. D 5. E 13. B
6. A 14. C 6. C 14. E 6. A 14. C
7. D 15. B 7. E 15. B 7. C 15. A
8. C 16. A 8. D 16. C 8. A

142 Trigonometry: Functions, Equations and Inequalities

angle: the union of two rays which have a common degree: one part of a circle, when the circle is divided
endpoint. into 360 parts.
arccosine function: the inverse of the function directed angle: If one of the rays of an angle is called
f(x) = cos x, written arccos x, Acos x or cos-1 x. the initial side of the angle and other ray is called the
arccotangent function: the inverse of the function terminal side, then the angle has a direction and is
f(x) = cot x, written arccot x, Acot x or cot-1 x. called a directed angle. A clockwise direction
corresponds to a negative angle measure. An
arcsine function: the inverse of the function
anticlockwise direction corresponds to a positive angle
f(x) = sin x, written arcsin x, Asin x or sin-1 x.
measure.
arctangent function: the inverse of the function
f(x) = tan x, written arctan x, Atan x or tan-1 x.

fundamental period: the smallest possible positive

hypotenuse period of a periodic function.
cosecant: 1. the ratio in a right triangle,
opposite side
written cosec α.
2. the function f(x) : \ – {kπ}, k ∈ ] → \ – (–1, 1),
f(x) = csc x. The cosecant function corresponds to homogeneous equation in sin x and cos x: a trigonometric
the y-coordinates of points on the y-axis with
equation in which all the powers of sin x and
y ∉ (–1, 1)
cos x are the same. a cos x + b sin x = 0 is a first order
adjacent side
cosine: 1. the ratio in a right triangle, homogeneous equation.
hypotenuse
written cos α. a cos2 x + b cos x sin x + c sin2 x = 0 is a
2. the function f(x): \ → [–1, 1], f(x) = cos x. The second-order homogeneous equation.
cosine function corresponds to the x-coordinates of
points on the unit circle.
adjacent side
cotangent: 1. the ratio in a right
opposite side inverse trigonometric function: the inverse of a
triangle, written cot α.
trigonometric function, defined on an interval where
2. the function f(x): \–{kπ}, k ∈ ] → \, f(x) = cot x. the trigonometric function is one-to-one and onto.
The cotangent function corresponds to the
x-coordinates of points on the cotangent axis.
coterminal angles: two or more angles whose terminal
sides coincide with each other when they are in linear equation in sin x and cos x: an equation of the
standard position. form a sin x + b cos x = c.
negative angle: a directed angle which is measured in hypotenuse
secant: 1. the ratio in a right triangle,
a clockwise direction from its initial side. adjacent side
written sec α.
π
2. the function f(x) : \ − { + kπ}, k ∈ ] → \ – (–1, 1),
2
f(x) = sec x. The secant function corresponds to the
period: When a function f(x) satisfies the rule
x-coordinates of points on the secant axis with
f(x + T) = f(x) for all the x-values in its domain, the
x ∉ (–1, 1).
number T is called the period of f(x).
opposite side
sine: 1. the ratio in a right triangle,
periodic function: a function whose values repeat over hypotenuse
written sin α.
each multiple of a fixed interval: f(x) is periodic if
f(x + T) = f(x) for all values of x and a fixed value of 2. the function f(x): \ → [–1, 1], f(x) = sin x. The
sine function corresponds to the y-coordinates of
T.
points on the unit circle.
positive angle: a directed angle which is measured in
special angles: the angles 0°, 30°, 45°, 60° and 90°
a counter-clockwise direction from its initial side. π π π π
(or , , and ) which correspond to common
primary directed angle: α is called the primary directed 6 4 3 2
trigonometric ratios.
angle of β if α ∈ [0°, 360°) and α is coterminal with β.
We can write β = α ± k ⋅ 360°, i.e. β = α ± 2kπ. standard position (of an angle): An angle in the
coordinate plane is in standard position if its vertex is
at the origin and its initial side lies along the positive
x-axis.

quadrant: The unit circle is divided into four equal

parts by the coordinate axes. These four parts are opposite side
tangent: 1. the ratio in a right triangle,
adjacent side
called quadrants.
written tan α.
quadrantal angle: an angle in standard position whose π
2. the function f(x): \ − { + kπ}, k ∈ ] → \,
2
terminal side lies along a coordinate axis. 0°, 90°, 360°, f(x) = tan x. The tangent function corresponds to the
3π
π and are all examples of quadrantal angles. y-coordinates of points on the tangent axis.
2
trigonometric equation: an equation involving
trigonometric ratios as variables.
trigonometric identity: a trigonometric equation
radian: one part of a circle, when the circle is divided which is satisfied for all values of the variable in its
into 2π equal parts. domain.

reduction formulas: a set of formulas which can be

used to reduce a trigonometric function value in any unit circle: a circle in the coordinate plane which has
quadrant to a value in the first quadrant. its center at the origin (0, 0) and radius 1 unit.