Outline

• Introduction

• Classification of Polymers

• Kinetics of Polymerization

• Number-average Concept

• Weight-average Concept

• Methods of Molecular mass determination

 Polymers - What are they?

• Polymers are a special kind of macromolecules.

• The word polymer comes from the Greek words

“poly,” meaning “many”, and “meres,” meaning
“parts” or “repeating units”

• A Polymer consists of a large chain of repeating

molecules (monomers) that are attached in an end to
end fashion.
• Well known examples of Polymers include plastics, DNA and
proteins. E.g.- Polyethylene (PE), Poly vinyl chloride (PVC)
Polypropylene whose repeating unit structures are shown below.

“Poly” “mer”
many repeat unit

repeat repeat repeat

unit unit unit

H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H

C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C

H H H H H H H Cl H Cl H Cl H CH3 H CH3 H CH3

Poly(vinyl chloride) (PVC) Polypropylene (PP)
Polyethylene (PE)

4
 Classification of Polymers
Polymers are classified in a number of ways:

(1) On the basis of source or origin

(2) On the basis of structure

(3)On the basis of mode of synthesis

(4) On the basis of interparticle forces

(1) Classification of Polymers Based upon Origin or
Source
On the basis of origin or source, the polymers are classified
into three types:

(a) Natural Polymers

(b) Semi-synthetic Polymers
(c) Synthetic Polymers

(a) Natural Polymers: The polymers, which are isolated

from natural materials, mostly plants and animal sources,
are called natural polymers. The classification of natural
polymers are:
(i) Polysaccharides
 Starch and cellulose are very common examples of polysaccharides. They
are the polymers of glucose. Starch is a chief food reserve of plants while
cellulose is chief structural material of plants.

Structure of Starch

Structure of Cellulose
(ii) Polypeptides and Proteins
 Amino acids are the building blocks for proteins. All amino acids contain
an amino or NH2 group and a carboxyl (acid) or COOH group. There are
20 different amino acids commonly found in proteins and often 300 or
more amino acids per protein molecule.

 To form polypeptides and proteins, amino acids are joined together by

peptide bonds, in which the amino or NH2 of one amino acid bonds to the
carboxyl (acid) or COOH group of another amino acid .
(iii) Polynucleotides
 A polynucleotide molecule is a biopolymer composed of 13 or more
nucleotide monomers covalently bonded in a
chain. DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) and RNA (ribonucleic acid) are
examples of polynucleotides with distinct biological function.
Polynucleotides occur naturally in all living organisms.
(iv) Polyesters
 Polyester is a synthetic polymer made of purified terephthalic acid (PTA)
or its dimethyl ester dimethyl terephthalate (DMT) and monoethylene
glycol (MEG). With 18% market share of all plastic materials produced,
it ranges third after polyethylene (33.5%) and polypropylene (19.5%).
(b) Semi-synthetic Polymers
(c) Synthetic Polymers: The polymers which are prepared in the
laboratory are referred to as synthetic polymers or man-made polymers. Some
examples of synthetic polymers are Polyethylene, Polystyrene, Teflon, PVC,
Synthetic Rubber, Nylon, Bakelite, Orlon, Polyester, Terylene etc.

Polyethylene Polystyrene Polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE)

Polyvinylchloride
(PVC)
Synthetic Rubber

Bakelite Nylon
(2) Classification of Polymers Based on Structure

• This classification of polymers is based upon how the monomeric

units are linked together. Based on their structure, the polymers
are classified as :

(a) Linear Polymers

(b) Branched Chain Polymers

(c) Cross-linked Polymers or Network Polymers

(a) Linear Polymers
A polymer is a general term for any molecule that is a long
string of smaller repeating parts formed by carbon-carbon bonds.
The bonds can form long straight chains known as linear
polymers.
Properties of Linear Polymers
1) High melting point
2) High density
3) High tensile strength due to close packing of polymer chains.

Applications
Food packaging, shampoo bottles, Milk, water, and juice containers, grocery
bags, toys, liquid detergent bottles, Soft drink based cups, flower pots, drain
pipes, signs, stadium seats, trash cans, re-cycling bins, traffic barrier cones, golf
bag liners etc.

Food packaging Bag Toys Liquid detergent bottles

(b) Branched Chain Polymers
(c) Cross-linked Polymers or Network Polymers
In this type of polymers, the monomeric units are linked together to
constitute a three dimensional network. The links involved are called
cross links. Cross-linked polymers are hard, rigid and brittle because
of their network structure. Common examples of this type of Cross-
linked polymers are bakelite, formaldehyde resin, melamine, etc.
 Bakelite

Melamine Formaldehyde Resin

(3) Classification of Polymers Based on Synthesis

• On the basis of the mode of synthesis, the polymers are

classified as :

(a) Addition Polymers (b) Condensation Polymers

(a) Addition Polymers: When the monomer units are repeatedly

added to form long chains without the elimination of any by-
product molecules, the product formed is called addition polymer
and the process involved is called addition polymerization.
A few examples of addition polymerisation are:
(b) Condensation Polymers: In this type of polymers, the monomers
react together with the elimination of a simple molecule like H2O, NH3 or ROH,
etc. The reaction is called condensation and the product formed is called
condensation polymer.

• As the process involves the elimination of by-product molecules, the

molecular mass of the polymer is not the integral multiple of the monomer
units.
Dacron

Bakelite
(4) Classification of Polymers Based on Inter Particle
Forces:

On the basis of the magnitude of intermolecular forces,

the polymers have been classified into the following
four categories:

(a) Elastomers
(b) Fibers
(c) Thermoplastics
(d) Thermosetting Polymers
(a) Elastomers:
• These are the polymers in which the polymer chains are held up
by weakest attractive forces. They are amorphous polymers
having high degree of elasticity.

• The weak forces permit the polymer to be stretched out about

ten times their normal length but they return to their original
position when the stretching forces is withdrawn.

• These polymers consist of randomly coiled molecular chains

having few cross links.
• When the stress is applied, these randomly cross chains
straighten out and the polymer gets stretched. As soon as the
stretching force is released, the polymer regain the original
shape

• because weak forces do not allow the polymer to remain in

the stretched form.
(b) Fibers
 These are the polymers which have quite strong interparticle
forces such as Hydrogen-bonds. They have high modulus and
high tensile strength.

 These are thread-like polymers and can be woven into

fabrics. Silk, terylene, nylon, etc., are some common
examples of such types of polymers. The H-bonds in nylon-
66 are shown below:
(c) Thermoplastics: These are the polymers in which the
interparticle forces of attraction are in between those of
Elastomers and fibers.
• The polymers can be easily molded into desired shapes by
heating and subsequent cooling to room temperature. There
is no cross-linking between the polymer chains.
• Thermoplastics polymers soften on heating and becomes
fluids, but on cooling they become hard. They are capable
of undergoing such reversible changes on heating and
cooling repeatedly.
A few examples of Thermoplastics are:
• polyethylene, polystyrene, PVC etc.
(d) Thermosetting Polymers:
• These are the polymers which become hard and
infusible on heating.

• They are normally made from semi-fluid substances

with low molecular masses, by heating in mould.
Heating results in excessive cross-linking between the
chains forming three dimensional network of bonds as a
consequence of which a non-fusible and insoluble hard
material is produced
 Polymerization
• Polymerization is a process which allows simple low molecular
weight compounds to combine and forms a complex high molecular
weight compound. For this process, each molecule of the compound
should have the capability to react at least with two other molecules of
the same or some other compound.

• The functionality of a compound depends on the number of its

reactive sites. Due to the presence of the reactive functional groups, a
compound assumes its functionality. These groups are such as -OH, -
COOH, -NH2, -SH, -NCO, etc. The number of these functional
groups per molecule of the compound defines its functionality.
(1) ADDITION (CHAIN) POLYMERISATION

• This type of polymerisation is characterised by a self-addition of the

monomer molecules, rapidly through a chain reaction

• In this reaction no byproduct is formed. Since the compounds

containing reactive double bonds, therefore, can proceed by
a chain reaction mechanism.

Some examples are :-

(a) Olefines (CH2=CHR) (b) Dienes (CH2=CR-CH=CH2)
Ethylene Isoprene
Propylene 1, 3-Butadiene
Isobutylene Chloroprene
(c) Vinyl compounds (CH2=CHX)
Acrylarnide , Acrylic Acid, Styrene, Acrylonitrile
(A) Free-Radical Addition Polymerisation

The polymer chain is initiated by free radicals produced by the

decomposition of compounds called initiators:

. .
R R R +R
Free radicals

• The initiators can also be decomposed by using ultraviolet light

and form the same free radicals as those formed by its thermal
decomposition.

• The polymerisation reactions initiated by UV light are known as

'photo initiated polymerization' .
• Free-radicals are also formed when initiators are induced by
suitable catalysts. The decomposition of hydrogen peroxide
by a ferrous ion and hydro peroxide by a cobaltous ion are
the examples of initiators, decomposed by reduction-
oxidation (redox) reaction.

-
H2O2 + Fe2+ HO + HO· + Fe3+
Hydrogen peroxide

R-O-OH + Co2+ RO· + HO- + Co3+

Hydroperoxide
 Kinetics of Polymerization

• Stepwise polymerization: Any two monomers

present in the reaction mixture can link together at any
time. The growth of the polymer is not confined to chains
that are already formed.

• Chain polymerization: an activated monomer attacks

another monomer, links to it, then that unit attacks
another monomer, and so on.
 Stepwise polymerization

• Commonly proceeds through a condensation reaction, in

which a small molecule is eliminated in each step.

• The formation of nylon-66

H2N(CH2)6NH2 + HOOC(CH2)4COOH →

H2N(CH2)6NHOC(CH2)4COOH
• HO-M-COOH + HO-M-COOH → HO-M-COO-M-COOH

• Because the condensation reaction can occur between

molecules containing any number of monomer units, chains of
many different lengths can grow in the reaction mixture.
 Stepwise polymerization

• The rate law can be expressed as

d [ A]
  k [ A]2
dt
• Assuming that the rate constant k is independent of
the chain length, then k remains constant throughout
the reaction.
[ A]0 [ A]0  [ A]
[ A]  p 
kt[ A]0
1  kt[ A]0 [ A]0 1  kt[ A]0

• The degree of polymerization: The average number of

monomers per polymer molecule, <n>
[ A]0 1
n 
[ A] 1  p
 Chain polymerization
• Occurs by addition of monomers to a growing polymer, often
by a radical chain process.

• Rapid growth of an individual polymer chain for each activated

monomer.

• The addition polymerizations of ethene, methyl methacrylate,

and styrene.

• The rate of polymerization is proportional to the square root of

the initiator concentration.
 Three basic types of reaction step in a Chain
polymerization

(a) Initiation: I → R. + R. vi = ki[I]

M + R. → .M1 (fast)
(b) Propagation: M + .M1→ .M2
M + .M2→ .M3
░ vp = kp[M][.M]
M + .Mn-1→ .Mn
(c) Termination:
Mutual termination: .Mn + .Mm→ Mn+m
Disproportionation: .Mn + .Mm→ Mn + Mm
Chain transfer: M + .Mn→ Mn + .M
 Influences of termination step on the
polymerization

• Mutual termination: two growing radical chains

combine. vt = kt ([.M])2

• Disproportionation: Such as the transfer of a

hydrogen atom from one chain to another, which
corresponds to the oxidation of the donor and the
reduction of acceptor.
vt = kt ([.M])2

• Chain transfer: vt = ?
• the net rate of change of radical concentration is calculated as

 d[.M ] 
   2 fki [ I ]  2kt [.M ]2
 dt 
  production

• Using steady-state approximation (the rate of production of

radicals equals the termination rate)

1/ 2
 fk 
[.M ]   i  [ I ]1 / 2
 kt 
• The rate of polymerization

1/ 2
 fk i 
vp = kp[.M][M] = kp[M]   [I ]1 / 2
 t 
k
The above equation states that the rate of polymerization is
proportional to the square root of the concentration of the initiator.

Kinetic chain length, v,

number of monomer units consumed

v  k[ M ][I ]1/ 2
number of activated centres produced
1
where k  k p ( fki kt ) 1/ 2
2

<n> = 2v (for mutual termination)

• Example: For a free radical addition polymerization with ki =
5.0x10-5 s-1 , f = 0.5, kt = 2.0 x107 dm3 mol-1 s-1, and kp = 2640
dm3 mol-1 s-1 , and with initial concentrations of [M] = 2.0 M
and [I] = 8x10-3 M. Assume the termination is by combination.
(a) The steady-state concentration of free radicals.
(b) The average kinetic chain length.
(c) The production rate of polymer.

1/ 2
Solution: (a)  fk 
[.M ]   i  [ I ]1 / 2
 kt 

1 / 2 1
(b) v  k[ M ][ I ] where k  k p ( fki kt ) 1/ 2
2

(c) The production rate of polymer corresponds to the rate

of polymerization is vp: vp = kp[.M][M]
Generalization of the Foregoing Concepts

• The number-average molecular weight is designated as Mn and

the weight-average molecular weight is designated as Mw.

• To calculate the molecular weight of a polymer one can also use

either the number-fraction or the weight-fraction of the
molecules present in the polymer.

• With the help of ordinary mathematics, one can be easily

generalised the method of working out Mn and Mw.
• Suppose that there are n number of molecules are present in a
polymer sample and nl of them have Ml molecular weight, and
n2 have M2 molecular weight and so on till one get ni having
Mi molecular weight;
NUMBER-AVERAGE CONCEPT

The number-average molecular weight of a polymer can be

calculated by the following ways:

Suppose, a bag containing four different types of fruits: apples,

papayas, pine apples and watermelons. To clarify and just for
understanding, let each apple of the apple lot weight the same, and
similarly also each of the other fruits. Suppose that the number of
each fruit and its weight are as given below:
Now, we have to find out the average weight of the fruits present in
the bag. It is assumed that the individual fruit contributes to the
average weight in the ratio of its numbers. Then we get the number-
average weight as follows:
Total number of fruits in the bag = 15
Total number of the apples in the bag = 6
Therefore,
Number fraction of fruits (to the total number of fruits) = 6/15
In the same manner, Number fraction of papayas = 4/15
Number fraction of pine apples = 3/15
Number fraction of watermelons = 2/15
Contribution made by 6 apples towards average weight of fruits in the
bag;
Number fraction of apples x weight of each apple
= 6/15 x 10 = 4.0 g
• Similarly, contribution made by 4 papayas to the average weight
of fruits in the bag = 4/15 x 50 = 13.30 g

• Similarly, contribution made by 3 pine apples to the average

weight of fruits in the bag = 3/15 x 100 = 20.0 g

• Similarly, contribution made by 2 watermelons to the average

weight of fruits in the bag = 2 x 200 = 26.60 g

By summing up the contributions made by each fruits variety, we

get the number-average weight of the total fruits as the :

4.0 + 13.30 + 20.0 + 26.60 = 63.90 g

WEIGHT-AVERAGE CONCEPT

The weight-average can be calculated by the other method

which is based on the assumption that the individual fruit variety
contribute to the total weight in the proportion not of its number
but its weight. The weight-average can be get as :

Total weight of all the fruits present in the bag = 960 g

Weight of apples present in the bag = 60 g

Therefore, Weight fraction of apples = 60/960

• Similarly, weight fractions of papayas, pine apples, and
watermelons are 200/960, 300/960 and 400/960 respectively.

Next, contribution made by apples towards average-weight of

fruits in the bag =

Weight fraction of apples x Average weight of apples

60/960 x10 = 0.62 g
Similarly,

Corresponding contribution by papayas = 200/960 x 50 = 1.41 g

Corresponding contribution by pine apples = 300/960 x 100 = 31.2 g

Corresponding contribution by watermelons = 400/960 x 200 = 83.3 g

Summing up the contributions made by each fruit variety, we get the

weight-average weight of the total fruits as :

0.62 + 1.41 + 31.2 + 83.3 = 116.53 g

 Methods of Molecular mass determination

(1) OSMOMETRY
The osmometry technique is a very widely used
method to determine the molecular weight of polymers.
It is of two types :

(i) Membrane osmometry

(ii) Vapour phase osmometry

1. Membrane Osmometry

• It is used to determine the number-average molecular weight of

polymers. It is based on the principle of osmosis. In the
phenomenon of osmosis a semipermeable membrane is used,
which allows only one species to pass through but not the others.

• In osmometry, a semipermeable membrane is placed between a

pure solvent and a solution. The solvent molecules diffuse into
the solution through the membrane till the solution gets dilute.
An osmotic pressure is then applied on the solution.
• The osmotic pressure is that pressure which is applied on
the solution so as to totally prevent the flow of the
solvent through the semipermeable membrane.

• The osmotic pressure is related to the number-average

molecular weight of the polymer as :
Experimental Technique: There are different types of
osmometers, which are in use, e.g.,

(a) Fuoss-Mead block osmometer

(b) Pinner-Stabin glass osmometer

(c) Reiff osmometer

(d) Stabin-Shell automatic osmometer etc.

Osmometer
• The osmometer consists of two metallic chambers. These are
made of stainless steal. The face of the chamber possesses a
series of the concentric grooves, which are interconnected by
vertical horizontal channels. In between of these grooves of the
two metallic chambers, a semipermeable membrane is placed.

• The two internal grooved faces of the metallic chambers are

interconnected on bolting the apparatus. These chambers are
separated by only a semipermeable membrane. In between the
grooves of the two chambers, the solvent and solution are placed.
• The glass capillaries are inserted through a bore-drill into the
metallic chambers of the solvent and solution compartments.
Both the two metallic chambers are filled with solvent one of
the chamber is then emptied of the solvent and filled with the
solution of known concentration.

• The osmometer is maintained at constant temperature. Due to

the osmotic pressure, the solvent passes to the solution
compartment through the membrane. It causes rise in liquid
level in glass capillary tube.
• The process is continue until the hydrostatic pressure developed in
the capillary tube due to the increased level of the solution.

• Once the osmotic equilibrium is achieved, the solvent stops

entering the solution side. When this state is achieved, the height
difference between the solution and the solvent levels in the two
capillaries is measured with the help of a cathetometer. For that
particular concentration, the height provides the 'osmotic head' of
the solution.

• This procedure is repeated with solution of different

concentrations and the 'osmotic heads' are measured.
The osmometry possesses following drawbacks :

(a) The above method is simple but takes several hours to few
days in diffusion of solvent through the semipermeable
membrane. It is a very slow process and the time taken to attain
equilibrium is extremely high.

(b) The non-availability of the true semipermeable membranes,

made this technique obsolete these days.
(c) Commercially available membranes such as 'gel-cellophane'
membrane, 'bacterial-cellulose' membrane, and 'denitrated-
collodion' membranes are permeable to very low molecular
weight polymers and, hence, the average-molecular weight
measured will always be higher than actual weight.

(d) Membrane osmometry is useful in the molecular weight range

of 30,000 to 1,000,00.
2. Vapour Phase Osmometry

• The vapour phase osmometry is based on the fact that at a

given temperature the vapour pressure of a solution is less
than a pure solvent.

• For an experiment, place a drop each of a pure solvent and

the solution in an atmosphere saturated with the solvent
vapour. Since vapour pressure of a pure solvent is more
than a solution hence, condensation of the solvent takes
place from the saturated vapour phase on to the solution
droplet.
• The solution droplet starts getting diluted and also heated up by
the latent heat of condensation of the solvent condensing on it.
Meanwhile, the temperature rises, and increases the
concentration of the solvent, the vapour pressure of the solution
droplet also increases steadily.

• The process of condensation and rise in the temperature

continues till the vapour pressure of the solution droplet at the
new elevated temperature gets equal to the pure solvent at the
original temperature.
Instrumentation and Operation :

Schematic diagram of a vapour pressure osmometer

• In vapour phase osmometer a vessel is available which contains
solvent. This vessel is made up of glass. It is placed in an anodised
aluminium block. It is sealed by a stainless steel lid through teflon
gasket.

• This vessel provides the space for the atmosphere of solvent

vapour. In this vessel thermistors are placed.

• The stainless steel lid is covered by another metal block through

which several syringes for placing the solution and solvent drops
on the thermistors are inserted. This apparatus is maintained at a
constant temperature by a thermostat.
• At the time of operation, the solvent is added to the solvent-
vessel through a syringe and solvent drops are also placed on
each thermistor. Since, there will not be any condensation on the
thermistors, there is no temperature difference, and now the
instrument reading should be zero.

• The next step is to calibrate the instrument with a standard

sample of a known molecular weight. Solutions of a standard
sample of four or five known concentrations are prepared.
• One of the thermistors should be used with the solution of one
concentration and a drop of the same solution is placed on the
thermistor, while the other thermistor still consist of a drop of the
pure solvent.

• The solvent starts condensing on the solution droplet and the rise
in temperature is directly measured as the bridge imbalance
output voltage, ΔV, when a output attains steady state.

• This process is repeated with solutions of different

concentrations, and ΔV values for each concentration is noted.
Measurement of Molecular Weight by Viscosity: Determination
of molecular weight of polymers by viscosity measurement method
is the most convenient and least complex method. The viscosity of
the polymer solution is measured by viscometer.

For the determination of viscosity two viscometers are generally

used :

(a) Ostwald viscometer

(b) Ubbelohde suspended level viscometer
• The viscometers are simple glass capillary instruments. In
Ostwald viscometer all measurements should be taken using
a constant volume of the solution; while in ubbelohde
suspended level viscometer, a single solution of known
concentration is required and it is unaffected by the volume
of the solution taken.
Experimental Technique:
• A known volume of the solution is taken in the viscometer and
the time of flow is measured.

• In Ubbelohde suspended level viscometer, known volumes of

pure solvent is taken and mixed inside the viscometer itself. Thus
subsequent concentrations can be achieved. This provides
sufficient data of flow times at different concentrations.

• In Ostwald viscometer one has to empty, clean and refill the

viscometer at each time with fresh solution before measuring the
flow time.
Precautions:
1. Viscosity is a temperature dependant property, therefore, all the
measurements must be taken at constant temperature.
2. Viscometer should be hold in vertical and straight direction in all
the time, otherwise the pressure head will change in each
measurements.
3. All solutions should be free from impurities, otherwise the
capillary tube may choked and the flow of the solution may be
obstructed.
4. The flow time of a solution or solvent must be sufficiently long.
The difference in flow time between two successive concentrations
should be atleast of 3 to 5 seconds.
LIGHT SCATTERING METHOD

• The light scattering phenomenon is used to determine the

weight-average molecular weight Mw , of polymers. It is
possible because solute molecules in a solution can scatter a
light beam. The scattering of the light occurs due to changes in
density or refractive index within the system arising from
composional vibrations.

• The light scattering technique is a convenient method for

measuring the molecular weight of polymers in the range of
10,000 to 10,000,000. This technique requires a light-scattering
photometer to determining Rθ or 𝜏 experimentally. To determine
n or dn/ dc,this method needs a differential refractometer.
Experimental set-up for light-scattering measurements
• In an experiment for light-scattering measurements, a mercury
lamp is used as a light source. After leaving the source, the light
then passes through condensing less via a monochromatic filter. It
then goes through a slit and enters into an achromatic system.

• It strikes against a beam splitter, and after passing through an

polariser, falls on the polymer sample solution, kept in the solution
cell. After leaving the cell, the incident beam is absorbed by a
light-absorber, the scattered light both from the cell and calibrated
turbidity standard reaches the moveable and the reference
photocell respectively.
• The turbidity can be measured from the scattered intensity. The
standard solution generally used are organic liquids, colloidal
suspensions or well-calibrated polymeric substances.

• The scattering values of these substances are obtained under the

same conditions which are identical to the sample.

• For determining Mw , apart from the scattering values, one has

to measure the concentrations of polymer solution, the refractive
index of the solvent and also the refractive index difference
between the polymer solutions at different concentrations and
the solvent.
• In light-scattering experiment, the sample solution should be
prepared completely dust free.

• In light-scattering phenomenon, the amplitude of scattering is

found to be proportional to the mass M; of the particle which
scatters the beam of light.
• In 1944, Debye expressed a relation between the molecular
weight of the solute particle to the intensity of scattered light.
This is a Debye equation and good for particles which are
smaller than the wavelength of light used for the scattering
experiment :