Department of Electronics & Communication Engineering

INDEX A.Y: 2020-21

UNIT-III: FREQUENCY RESPONSE ANALYSIS

TOPIC NO. TOPIC NAME PAGE NO.

3.1 SYLLABUS 2
3.2 COURSE OUTCOMES 3
3.3 PROGRAM OUTCOMES 3
3.4 PROGRAM SPECIFIC OUTCOMES 4
3.5 SCOPE 4
3.6 INTRODUCTION 4
3.7 SESSION PLANNER 5
3.8 UNIT2 NOTES 8
3.9 JNTUH QUESTION BANK 35
3.10 OBJECTIVE QUESTIONS 36
3.11 TUTORIAL QUESTIONS 36
3.12 UNIT TEST PAPERS 37
3.13 SEMINAR TOPICS 41
3.14 ASSIGNMENT QUESTIONS 41
3.15 REAL TIME APPLICATIONS 42
3.16 NPTEL 43
3.17 BLOOMS TAXONOMY 44

1
 EC503PC: ANALOG AND DIGITAL COMMUNICATION
III Year B.Tech. ECE I – Sem.

Pre-requisite: Linear Algebra and Calculus, Ordinary Differential Equations and Multivariable
Calculus
Laplace Transforms, Numerical Methods and Complex variables

Course objectives:
 To understand the different ways of system representations such as Transfer function
representation and state space representations and to assess the system dynamic
response.
 To assess the system performance using time domain analysis and methods for improving
it.
 To assess the system performance using frequency domain analysis and techniques for
improving the performance.
 To design various controllers and compensators to improve system performance.

Course Outcomes: At the end of this course, students will demonstrate the ability to.
 Understand the modeling of linear-time-invariant systems using transfer function and
statespace representations.
 Understand the concept of stability and its assessment for linear-time invariant systems.
 Design simple feedback controllers.
UNIT I:
Introduction to Control Problem: Industrial Control examples. Mathematical models of physical
systems. Control hardware and their models. Transfer function models of linear time-invariant
systems. Feedback Control: Open-Loop and Closed-loop systems. Benefits of Feedback. Block
diagram algebra.
UNIT – II:
Time Response Analysis of Standard Test Signals: Time response of first and second order
systems for standard test inputs. Application of initial and final value theorem. Design specifications
for second order systems based on the time-response. Concept of Stability. Routh-Hurwitz Criteria.
Relative Stability analysis. Root-Locus technique. Construction of Root-loci.
UNIT III:
Frequency-Response Analysis: Relationship between time and frequency response, Polar plots,
Bode plots. Nyquist stability criterion. Relative stability using Nyquist criterion – gain and phase
margin. Closed-loop frequency response.
UNIT IV:
Introduction to Controller Design: Stability, steady-state accuracy, transient accuracy,
disturbance rejection, insensitivity and robustness of control systems. Root-loci method of feedback
controller design. Design specifications in frequency-domain. Frequency-domain methods of design.
Application of Proportional, Integral and Derivative Controllers, Lead and Lag compensation in
designs. Analog and Digital implementation of controllers.
UNIT V:

State Variable Analysis and Concepts of State Variables: State space model. Diagonalization of
State Matrix. Solution of state equations. Eigen values and Stability Analysis. Concept of
controllability and observability. Pole-placement by state feedback. Discrete-time systems. Difference
Equations. State-space models of linear discrete-time systems. Stability of linear discrete-time
systems.

TEXTBOOKS:
 1. M. Gopal, “Control Systems: Principles and Design”, McGraw Hill Education, 1997.
2. B. C. Kuo, “Automatic Control System”, Prentice Hall, 1995.
REFERENCE BOOKS:
1. K. Ogata, ―Modern Control Engineering‖, Prentice Hall, 1991.
2. I. J. Nagrath and M. Gopal, ―Control Systems Engineering‖, New Age International, 2009.

2
 Key Attributes for Assessing Program Outcome(s):
No. of
PO No. NBA Statement / Vital Features Vital
Features
Apply the knowledge of mathematics, science, Engineering
fundamentals, and an Engineering specialization to the solution of
complex Engineering problems (Engineering Knowledge).
PO1 Knowledge, understanding and application of 3
1. Scientific principles and methodology
2. Mathematical principles
3. Own and/or other engineering disciplines to integrate/
support study of their own engineering discipline.
Identify, formulate, review research literature, and analyze
complex Engineering problems reaching substantiated conclusions
using first principles of mathematics natural sciences, and
Engineering sciences (Problem Analysis).
1. Problem or opportunity identification
2. Problem statement and system definition
PO2. 3. Problem formulation and abstraction 10
4. Information and data collection
5. Model translation
6. Validation
7. Experimental design
8. Solution development or experimentation / Implementation.
9. Interpretation of results
10. Documentation.
Design solutions for complex Engineering problems and design
system components or processes that meet the specified needs
with appropriate consideration for the public health and safety,
and the cultural, societal, and Environmental considerations
(Design/Development of Solutions).
1. Investigate and define a problem and identify constraints
including environmental and sustainability limitations, health
and safety and risk assessment issues;
2. Understand customer and user needs and the importance of
considerations such as aesthetics;
3. Identify and manage cost drivers;
PO3. 4. Use creativity to establish innovative solutions; 10
5. Ensure fitness for purpose for all aspects of the problem
including production, operation, maintenance and disposal;
6. Manage the design process and evaluate outcomes.
7. Knowledge and understanding of commercial and economic
context of engineering processes;
8. Knowledge of management techniques which may be used to
achieve engineering objectives within that context;
9. Understanding of the requirement for engineering activities to
promote sustainable development;
10. Awareness of the framework of relevant legal requirements
governing engineering activities, including personnel, health,
 safety, and risk (including environmental risk) issues;
Use research-based knowledge and research methods including
design of experiments, analysis and interpretation of data, and
synthesis of the information to provide valid conclusions (Conduct
Investigations of Complex Problems).
1. Knowledge of characteristics of particular materials, equipment,
processes, or products;
2. Workshop and laboratory skills;
3. Understanding of contexts in which engineering knowledge can
be applied (example, operations and management, technology
development, etc.);
4. Understanding use of technical literature and other information
sources Awareness of nature of intellectual property and
contractual issues;
PO4. 5. Understanding of appropriate codes of practice and industry 11
standards;
6. Awareness of quality issues;
7. Ability to work with technical uncertainty.
8. Understanding of engineering principles and the ability to apply
them to analyse key engineering processes;
9. Ability to identify, classify and describe the performance of
systems and components through the use of analytical methods
and modeling techniques;
10. Ability to apply quantitative methods and computer software
relevant to their engineering discipline, in order to solve
engineering problems;
11. Understanding of and ability to apply a systems approach to
engineering problems.
Create, select, and apply appropriate techniques, resources, and
modern Engineering and IT tools including prediction and
modeling to complex Engineering activities with an understanding
PO5. 1
of the limitations (Modern Tool Usage).
1. Computer software/simulation packages/diagnostic equipment /
technical library resources/literature search tools.
Apply reasoning informed by the contextual knowledge to assess
societal, health, safety, legal and cultural issues and the
consequent responsibilities relevant to the professional
engineering practice (The Engineer and Society).
1. Knowledge and understanding of commercial and economic
context of engineering processes;
2. Knowledge of management techniques which may be used to
PO6. achieve engineering objectives within that context; 5
3. Understanding of the requirement for engineering activities to
promote sustainable development;
4. Awareness of the framework of relevant legal requirements
governing engineering activities, including personnel, health,
safety, and risk (including environmental risk) issues;
5. Understanding of the need for a high level of professional and
ethical conduct in engineering.
 Understand the impact of the professional Engineering solutions
in societal and Environmental contexts, and demonstrate the
knowledge of, and need for sustainable development
PO7. (Environment and Sustainability). 3
Impact of the professional Engineering solutions (Not technical)
1. Socio economic,
2. Political and
3. Environmental
Apply ethical principles and commit to professional ethics and
responsibilities and norms of the Engineering practice (Ethics).
1. Comprises four components: ability to make informed ethical
PO8. choices, knowledge of professional codes of ethics, evaluates the 3
ethical dimensions of professional practice, and demonstrates
ethical behavior.
2. Stood up for what they believed in
3. High degree of trust and integrity.
Function effectively as an individual, and as a member or leader
in diverse teams, and in multidisciplinary settings (Individual and
Teamwork).
1. Independence
2. Maturity – requiring only the achievement of goals to drive their
performance
3. Self‐direction (take a vaguely defined problem and systematically
work to resolution)
4. Teams are used during the classroom periods, in the hands-on
labs, and in the design projects.
5. Some teams change for eight-week industry oriented Mini-
Project, and for the seventeen - week design project.
PO9. 6. Instruction on effective teamwork and project management is 12
provided along with an appropriate textbook for reference.
7. Teamwork is important not only for helping the students know
their classmates but also in completing assignments.
8. Students also are responsible for evaluating each other’s
performance, which is then reflected in the final grade.
9. Subjective evidence from senior students shows that the
friendships and teamwork extends into the Junior years, and
for some of those students, the friendships continue into the
workplace after graduation.
10. Ability to work with all levels of people in an organization.
11. Ability to get along with others.
12. Demonstrated ability to work well with a team.
Communicate effectively on complex Engineering activities with
the Engineering community and with society at large, such as,
being able to comprehend and write effective reports and design
documentation, make effective presentations, and give and receive
clear instructions (Communication).
PO10 "Students should demonstrate the ability to communicate effectively 5
in writing / Orally."
1. Clarity (Writing)
2. Grammar/Punctuation (Writing)
3. References (Writing)
4. Speaking Style (Oral)
5. Subject Matter (Oral)
 Demonstrate knowledge and understanding of the Engineering
and management principles and apply these to one’s own work, as
a member and leader in a team, to manage projects and in
multidisciplinary Environments (Project Management and
Finance).
1. Scope Statement
2. Critical Success Factors
3. Deliverables
PO11 4. Work Breakdown Structure 12
5. Schedule
6. Budget
7. Quality
8. Human Resources Plan
9. Stakeholder List
10. Communication
11. Risk Register
12. Procurement Plan.
Recognize the need for and have the preparation and ability to
engage in independent and life-long learning in the broadest
context of technological change (Life - Long Learning).
1. Project management professional certification / MBA
2. Begin work on advanced degree
3. Keeping current in CSE and advanced engineering concepts
PO12 8
4. Personal continuing education efforts
5. Ongoing learning – stays up with industry trends/ new
technology
6. Continued personal development
7. Have learned at least 2or 3 new significant skills
8. Have taken up to 80 hours (2 weeks) training per year.

COURSE OBJECTIVES:
At the beginning of the course, students have to learn:

 To study the performance of a control system using block diagrams and signal flow
graphs.
 To assess the system performance using differential equations model in time domain
analysis.
 To demonstrate the analytical and graphical techniques to study the stability of the
control system.
 To assess the system performance using transfer function model in frequency domain
analysis.
 To design various controllers and compensators to improve system performance.

Scope of Subject: This subject covers analysis and modelling of various systems in s-domain. The
time response analysis and frequency response analysis and stability of the system can be studied.
Design of various types of controllers and compensators is done.
COURSE OUTCOMES:
After successful completion of the course, Students will be able to achieve:

Knowledge
CO No Course Outcomes Level
(Bloom’s
Taxonomy)

Understand the real time examples, various types of control

CO1 Remember
systems that encounter in practice.

Determine the steady state errors and error constants for first &
CO2 Evaluate
second order systems by using step, ramp and impulse signals.

Apply the design procedures of root locus for finding the

CO3 stability of a control system and discuss the effect of poles & Apply
zeros on stability.

Evaluate the performance of a control system in terms of its

CO4 Evaluate
stability using bode plot, polar plot, nyquist plot.

Apply state space design techniques for modeling control system

CO5 Apply
design and solve state-variable models of linear systems.

Evaluate the transfer function of a control system using block

CO6 Evaluate
diagram reduction and signal flow graph techniques.

PROGRAM SPECIFIC OUTCOMES (PSO’s):

PSO 1: Analyze and design analog & digital circuits or systems for a given specification and
function.
1. Analyze the response of a circuit or system.

2. Design of a circuit or system for a given specifications.

PSO 2: Implement functional blocks of hardware-software co-designs for signal processing and
communication applications.

1. Implement operational block diagrams.

2. Applications of a circuit or system.

 Department of Electronics & Communication Engineering

SESSION PLANNER
Name of the Faculty: G. KIRAN KUMAR A. Y: 2020-21
Designation: Asst. Professor Branch: ECE
Year/Sem: III/I B.TECH (R18) W.e.f: 01-08-2020

Subject: Control Systems

Date Date
S.NO Class Topic Text/book
Planned Conducted
UNIT-1: INTRODUCTION TO CONTROL PROBLEM
Concepts of Control Systems - Different examples of control
1 LH1 T1 03.08.2020
systems,
2 LH2 Classification of control systems, T1 05.08.2020
3 LH3 Feedback Control: Open Loop and closed loop systems, T1 06.08.2020
4 LH4 Benefits of feedback, its drawbacks, T1 07.08.2020
5 LH5 Mathematical models of physical systems, T1 10.08.2020
6 LH6 Control hardware and their models, T1 12.08.2020
7 LH7 Transfer function basics, its types and properties. T1 13.08.2020
8 LH8 Transfer function models of linear time-invariant systems, T1 14.08.2020
9 LH9 Block diagram algebra. T1 17.08.2020
10 LH10 Representation by Signal flow graph, T1 19.08.2020
11 LH11 Practice Problems. T1 20.08.2020
12 REVISION-PPT 21.08.2020
13 ACTIVE LEARNING PROCESS-THINK PAIR & SHARE 24.08.2020
14 UNIT-TEST- 1 26.08.2020
UNIT-2: TIME RESPONSE ANALYSIS OF STANDARD TEST SIGNALS
15 LH1 Standard test signals, T1 27.08.2020
Time response of first and second order systems for standard test T1
16 LH2 28.08.2020
inputs,
17 LH3 Application of initial and final value theorem, T1 31.08.2020
Design specifications for second order systems based on the T1
18 LH4 02.09.2020
time-response,
19 LH5 Concept of Stability, T1 03.09.2020
20 LH6 Routh-Hurwitz Criteria, Relative Stability analysis. T1 04.09.2020
21 LH7 Root-Locus technique, T1 07.09.2020
22 LH-8 Construction of Root-loci, T1 09.09.2020
23 LH-9 Practice Problems. T1 10.09.2020
24 REVISION-PPT 11.09.2020
25 ACTIVE LEARNING PROCESS-STUMP YOUR PARTNER 14.09.2020
26 UNIT-TEST-2 16.09.2020
UNIT-3: FREQUENCY-RESPONSE ANALYSIS
27 LH1 Introduction, Frequency domain specifications, T1 17.09.2020
28 LH2 Relationship between time and frequency response, T1 18.09.2020
29 LH3 Polar plots, T1 21.09.2020
30 LH4 Bode plots, T1 23.09.2020
31 LH5 Nyquist stability criterion, T1 24.09.2020
32 REVISION 25.09.2020
MID-1 EXAMS
33 LH7 Relative stability using Nyquist criterion T1 28.09.2020
34 LH8 Gain and phase margin, T1 30.09.2020
35 LH9 Closed-loop frequency response, T1 01.10.2020
36 REVISION-PPT 05.10.2020
37 ACTIVE LEARNING PROCESS-COLLABORATIVE LEARNING 07.10.2020
38 UNIT-TEST- 3
UNIT-4: INTRODUCTION TO CONTROLLER DESIGN
39 LH1 Stability, steady-state accuracy, transient accuracy, T2 18.11.2020
Disturbance rejection, insensitivity and robustness of control
40 LH2 T2 19.11.2020
systems,
41 LH3 Root-loci method of feedback controller design, T2 20.11.2020
42 LH7 Design specifications in frequency-domain, T2 23.11.2020
43 LH8 Frequency-domain methods of design, T2 25.11.2020
44 LH9 Application of Proportional, Integral and Derivative Controllers, T2 26.11.2020
45 LH10 Lead and Lag compensation in designs, T2 27.11.2020
46 LH11 Analog and Digital implementation of controllers. T2 02.12.2020
47 REVISION-PPT 03.12.2020
48 ACTIVE LEARNING PROCESS-MUDDIEST POINT 04.12.2020
49 UNIT-TEST- 4 07.12.2020
UNIT-5: STATE VARIABLE ANALYSIS AND CONCEPTS OF STATE VARIABLES
50 LH1 Concepts of state, state variables and state space model, T2 09.12.2020
51 LH2 Diagonalization of State Matrix, Solution of state equations, T2 10.12.2020
52 LH3 Eigen values and Stability Analysis, T2 11.12.2020
53 LH4 Concept of controllability and observability, T2 14.12.2020
54 LH5 Pole-placement by state feedback, T2 16.12.2020
55 LH6 Discrete-time systems, T2 17.12.2020
56 LH7 Difference Equations, T2 18.12.2020
57 LH8 State-space models of linear discrete-time systems, T2 21.12.2020
58 LH9 Stability of linear discrete-time systems. T2 23.12.2020
59 REVISION-PPT 24.12.2020
60 ACTIVE LEARNING PROCESS-FLIPPED CLASSROOM 25.12.2020
61 UNIT-TEST- 5 28.12.2020
MID-2 EXAMS
TEXTBOOKS:
3. M. Gopal, “Control Systems: Principles and Design”, McGraw Hill Education, 1997.
4. B. C. Kuo, “Automatic Control System”, Prentice Hall, 1995.

REFERENCE BOOKS:
3. K. Ogata, “Modern Control Engineering”, Prentice Hall, 1991.
4. I. J. Nagrath and M. Gopal, “Control Systems Engineering”, New Age International, 2009.

7
 3.8 UNIT- 2 NOTES

FREQUENCY RESPONSE ANALYSIS

Frequency Response:
The Frequency Response of the system is the steady state response of the system obtained as
the output when a sinusoidal input signal is given to the system. For determining the frequency
response for a control system sinusoidal signal is given as input to the system with different
frequencies and response of the output was determined at different frequencies. In a linear Time
Invariant control system when the input is given as sinusoidal signal output will also be having
sinusoidal signal with same frequency however with 'change in magnitude and phase' of the input
sinusoidal signal. Therefore in determining frequency response of the control system at different band
of frequencies the change in the magnitude and phase difference of the system is determined.
Thus frequency domain analysis helps to determine the absolute and relative stability of the
closed loop system, frequency domain analysis can also be extended for analyzing and designing
nonlinear control systems Bode plots, M and N charts, Nicholas charts, and polar plots (Nyquist plots)
are the different graphical techniques available for determining the frequency response of the system.
From these plots frequency domain specifications such as Bandwidth, Gain Margin, Phase Margin and
other frequency domain specifications are determined. These details helps in determining the stability
of the system, adjust the gain of the control system and helps in designing the control system.

Frequency Domain Analysis:

We have already discussed time response analysis of the control systems and the time domain
specifications of the second order control systems. In this chapter, let us discuss the frequency
response analysis of the control systems and the frequency domain specifications of the second order
control systems.

Frequency Response
The response of a system can be partitioned into both the transient response and the steady
state response. We can find the transient response by using Fourier integrals. The steady state
response of a system for an input sinusoidal signal is known as the frequency response. In this
chapter, we will focus only on the steady state response.
 If a sinusoidal signal is applied as an input to a Linear Time-Invariant (LTI) system, then it
produces the steady state output, which is also a sinusoidal signal. The input and output sinusoidal
signals have the same frequency, but different amplitudes and phase angles.

Let the input signal be −

r(t)=Asin(ω0t)
The open loop transfer function will be −
G(s)=G(jω)
We can represent G(jω) in terms of magnitude and phase as shown below.

G(jω)=|G(jω)|∠G(jω)
Substitute, ω=ω0 in the above equation.

G(jω0)=|G(jω0)|∠G(jω0)
The output signal is
c(t)=A|G(jω0)|sin(ω0t+∠G(jω0))
 The amplitude of the output sinusoidal signal is obtained by multiplying the amplitude of the input
sinusoidal signal and the magnitude of G(jω) at ω=ω0.
 The phase of the output sinusoidal signal is obtained by adding the phase of the input sinusoidal signal and
the phase of G(jω) at ω=ω0.
Where,

 A is the amplitude of the input sinusoidal signal.

 ω0 is angular frequency of the input sinusoidal signal.

We can write, angular frequency ω0 as shown below.

ω0=2πf0
Here, f0 is the frequency of the input sinusoidal signal. Similarly, you can follow the same procedure
for closed loop control system.
POLAR PLOT
Polar plot is a plot which can be drawn between magnitude and phase. Here, the magnitudes are
represented by normal values only.

The polar form of G(jω)H(jω) is

G(jω)H(jω)=|G(jω)H(jω)|∠G(jω)H(jω)
The Polar plot is a plot, which can be drawn between the magnitude and the phase angle
of G(jω)H(jω) by varying ω from zero to ∞. The polar graph sheet is shown in the following figure.
 This graph sheet consists of concentric circles and radial lines. The concentric circles and
the radial lines represent the magnitudes and phase angles respectively. These angles are represented
by positive values in anti-clock wise direction. Similarly, we can represent angles with negative
values in clockwise direction. For example, the angle 2700 in anti-clock wise direction is equal to the
angle −900 in clockwise direction.

Rules for Drawing Polar Plots

Follow these rules for plotting the polar plots.

 Substitute, s=jω in the open loop transfer function.

 Write the expressions for magnitude and the phase of G(jω)H(jω).
 Find the starting magnitude and the phase of G(jω)H(jω) by substituting ω=0. So, the polar
plot starts with this magnitude and the phase angle.
 Find the ending magnitude and the phase of G(jω)H(jω) by substituting ω=∞. So, the polar
plot ends with this magnitude and the phase angle.
 Check whether the polar plot intersects the real axis, by making the imaginary term
of G(jω)H(jω) equal to zero and find the value(s) of ω.
 Check whether the polar plot intersects the imaginary axis, by making real term of G(jω)H(jω)
equal to zero and find the value(s) of ω.
 For drawing polar plot more clearly, find the magnitude and phase of G(jω)H(jω)) by
considering the other value(s) of ω.

Example
Consider the open loop transfer function of a closed loop control system.

G(s)H(s)=5/s(s+1)(s+2)
Let us draw the polar plot for this control system using the above rules.

Step 1 − Substitute, s=jω in the open loop transfer function.

G(jω) H(jω)=5/jω(jω+1)(jω+2)
The magnitude of the open loop transfer function is

The phase angle of the open loop transfer function is

Step 2 − The following table shows the magnitude and the phase angle of the open loop transfer
function at ω=0ω=0 rad/sec and ω=∞ rad/sec.

So, the polar plot starts at (∞, −900) and ends at (0, −2700). The first and the second terms
within the brackets indicate the magnitude and phase angle respectively.

Step 3 − Based on the starting and the ending polar co-ordinates, this polar plot will intersect the
negative real axis. The phase angle corresponding to the negative real axis is −180 0 or 1800. So, by
equating the phase angle of the open loop transfer function to either −1800 or 1800, we will get
the ω value as 2–√2.
By substituting in the magnitude of the open loop transfer function, we will
get M=0.83. Therefore, the polar plot intersects the negative real axis when and the polar
coordinate is (0.83, −1800).
So, we can draw the polar plot with the above information on the polar graph sheet.
 NYQUIST PLOT
Nyquist plots are the continuation of polar plots for finding the stability of the closed loop
control systems by varying ω from −∞ to ∞. That means, Nyquist plots are used to draw the complete
frequency response of the open loop transfer function.
Nyquist Stability Criterion:
The Nyquist stability criterion works on the principle of argument. It states that if there are P
poles and Z zeros are enclosed by the ‗s‘ plane closed path, then the corresponding G(s)H(s) plane
must encircle the origin P−Z times. So, we can write the number of encirclements N as, N=P−Z.
 If the enclosed‗s‘ plane closed path contains only poles, then the direction of the encirclement
in the G(s)H(s) plane will be opposite to the direction of the enclosed closed path in the ‗s‘
plane.
 If the enclosed‗s‘ plane closed path contains only zeros, then the direction of the encirclement
in the G(s)H(s) plane will be in the same direction as that of the enclosed closed path in the
‗s‘ plane.
Let us now apply the principle of argument to the entire right half of the‗s‘ plane by selecting it as a
closed path. This selected path is called the Nyquist contour.

We know that the closed loop control system is stable if all the poles of the closed loop transfer
function are in the left half of the‗s‘ plane. So, the poles of the closed loop transfer function are
nothing but the roots of the characteristic equation. As the order of the characteristic equation
increases, it is difficult to find the roots. So, let us correlate these roots of the characteristic equation
as follows.

 The Poles of the characteristic equation are same as that of the poles of the open loop transfer
function.

 The zeros of the characteristic equation are same as that of the poles of the closed loop
transfer function.

We know that the open loop control system is stable if there is no open loop pole in the right half of
the‗s‘ plane.

i.e., P=0⇒N=−Z
We know that the closed loop control system is stable if there is no closed loop pole in the right half
of the‗s‘ plane.

i.e., Z=0⇒N=P
Nyquist stability criterion states the number of encirclements about the critical point (1+j0) must be
equal to the poles of characteristic equation, which is nothing but the poles of the open loop transfer
function in the right half of the ‗s‘ plane. The shift in origin to (1+j0) gives the characteristic
equation plane.
Rules for Drawing Nyquist Plots
Follow these rules for plotting the Nyquist plots.
 Locate the poles and zeros of open loop transfer function G(s)H(s) in ‗s‘ plane.
 Draw the polar plot by varying ω from zero to infinity. If pole or zero present at s = 0, then
varying ω from 0+ to infinity for drawing polar plot.
−
 Draw the mirror image of above polar plot for values of ω ranging from −∞ to zero (0 if any
pole or zero present at s=0).
 The number of infinite radius half circles will be equal to the number of poles or zeros at
origin. The infinite radius half circle will start at the point where the mirror image of the polar
plot ends. And this infinite radius half circle will end at the point where the polar plot starts.
After drawing the Nyquist plot, we can find the stability of the closed loop control system using the
Nyquist stability criterion. If the critical point (-1+j0) lies outside the encirclement, then the closed
loop control system is absolutely stable.

Stability Analysis using Nyquist Plots

From the Nyquist plots, we can identify whether the control system is stable, marginally stable or
unstable based on the values of these parameters.
 Gain cross over frequency and phase cross over frequency
 Gain margin and phase margin
Phase Cross over Frequency
The frequency at which the Nyquist plot intersects the negative real axis (phase angle is 180 0)
is known as the phase cross over frequency. It is denoted by ωpc.
Gain Cross over Frequency
The frequency at which the Nyquist plot is having the magnitude of one is known as the gain
cross over frequency. It is denoted by ωgc.
The stability of the control system based on the relation between phase cross over frequency and
gain cross over frequency is listed below.
 If the phase cross over frequency ωpc is greater than the gain cross over frequency ωgc, then
the control system is stable.
 If the phase cross over frequency ωpc is equal to the gain cross over frequency ωgc, then the
control system is marginally stable.
 If phase cross over frequency ωpc is less than gain cross over frequency ωgcωgc, then the
control system is unstable.
Gain Margin
The gain margin GM is equal to the reciprocal of the magnitude of the Nyquist plot at the
phase cross over frequency.
GM=1Mpc
 Where, Mpc is the magnitude in normal scale at the phase cross over frequency.
Phase Margin
The phase margin PM is equal to the sum of 1800 and the phase angle at the gain cross over
frequency.
PM=1800+ϕgc
Where, ϕgc is the phase angle at the gain cross over frequency.
The stability of the control system based on the relation between the gain margin and the phase
margin is listed below.

 If the gain margin GM is greater than one and the phase margin PM is positive, then the
control system is stable.
 If the gain margin GM is equal to one and the phase margin PM is zero degrees, then the
control system is marginally stable.
 If the gain margin GM is less than one and / or the phase margin PM is negative, then the
control system is unstable.

COMPENSATORS
There are three types of compensators — lag, lead and lag-lead compensators. These are most
commonly used.
Lag Compensator
The Lag Compensator is an electrical network which produces a sinusoidal output having the
phase lag when a sinusoidal input is applied. The lag compensator circuit in the‗s‘ domain is shown
in the following figure.
 Here, the capacitor is in series with the resistor R2 and the output is measured across this
combination.
The transfer function of this lag compensator is –

From the above equation, α is always greater than one.

From the transfer function, we can conclude that the lag compensator has one pole
at s=−1ατ and one zero at s=−1τ. This means, the pole will be nearer to origin in the pole-zero
configuration of the lag compensator.
Substitute, s=jω in the transfer function.

We know that, the phase of the output sinusoidal signal is equal to the sum of the phase angles
of input sinusoidal signal and the transfer function.

So, in order to produce the phase lag at the output of this compensator, the phase angle of the
transfer function should be negative. This will happen when α>1.

Here, the capacitor is parallel to the resistor R1R1 and the output is measured across resistor
R2.
The transfer function of this lead compensator is -
 From the transfer function, we can conclude that the lead compensator has pole at s=−1/β and
zero at s=−1/βτ.
Substitute, s=jω in the transfer function.

We know that, the phase of the output sinusoidal signal is equal to the sum of the phase angles
of input sinusoidal signal and the transfer function.

So, in order to produce the phase lead at the output of this compensator, the phase angle of the
transfer function should be positive. This will happen when 0<β<10. Therefore, zero will be nearer to
origin in pole-zero configuration of the lead compensator.

Lag-Lead Compensator
Lag-Lead compensator is an electrical network which produces phase lag at one frequency
region and phase lead at other frequency region. It is a combination of both the lag and the lead
compensators. The lag-lead compensator circuit in the‗s‘ domain is shown in the following figure.

This circuit looks like both the compensators are cascaded. So, the transfer function of this
circuit will be the product of transfer functions of the lead and the lag compensators.
Compensation in Control System | Lag lead Compensation
Necessary of Compensation
1. In order to obtain the desired performance of the system, we use compensating networks. Compensating networks
are applied to the system in the form of feed forward path gain adjustment.
2. Compensate a unstable system to make it stable.
3. A compensating network is used to minimize overshoot.
4. These compensating networks increase the steady state accuracy of the system. An important point to be noted
here is that the increase in the steady state accuracy brings instability to the system.
5. Compensating networks also introduces poles and zeros in the system thereby causes changes in the transfer
function of the system. Due to this, performance specifications of the system change.
Methods of Compensation

1. Connecting compensating circuit between error detector and plants known as series compensation.

2. When a compensator used in a feedback manner called feedback compensation.

Feedback Compensator

3. A combination of series and feedback compensator is called load compensation.

Load Compensator

A compensating network is one which makes some adjustments in order to make up for deficiencies in
the system. Compensating devices are may be in the form of electrical, mechanical, hydraulic etc. Most
electrical compensator is RC filter. The simplest networks used for compensator are known as lead, lag
network.

Phase Lead Compensation

A system which has one pole and one dominating zero (the zero which is closer to the origin than all
over zeros is known as dominating zero.) is known as lead network. If we want to add a dominating zero for
compensation in control system then we have to select lead compensation network. The basic requirement of
the phase lead network is that all poles and zeros of the transfer function of the network must lie on -ve real
axis interlacing each other with a zero located at the origin of nearest origin.

Given below is the circuit diagram for the phase lead compensation network.

Equating above expression of I we get,

Now let us determine the transfer function for the given network and the transfer function can be determined by
finding the ratio of the output voltage to the input voltage.

So taking Laplace transform of both side of above equations,

 On substituting the α = (R1 +R2)/ R2 and T = {(R1R2) /(R1 +R2)} in the above equation.
Where, T and α are respectively the time constant and attenuation constant, we have

The above network can be visualized as an amplifier with a gain of 1/α. Let us draw the pole zero plot
for the above transfer function.

Clearly we have -1/T (which is a zero of the transfer function) is closer to origin than the -1/(αT)
(which is the pole of the transfer function).Thus we can say in the lead compensator zero is more dominating
than the pole and because of this lead network introduces positive phase angle to the system when connected in
series.

Let us substitute s = jω in the above transfer function and also we have α

Now in order to find put the maximum phase lead occurs at a frequency let us differentiate this phase function
and equate it to zero. On solving the above equation we get

Where, θm is the maximum phase lead angle. And the corresponding magnitude of the transfer function at
maximum θm is 1/a.
Effect of Phase Lead Compensation
1. The velocity constant Kv increases.
2. The slope of the magnitude plot reduces at the gain crossover frequency so that relative stability improves and
error decrease due to error is directly proportional to the slope.
3. Phase margin increases.
4. Response become faster.
Advantages of Phase Lead Compensation

Let us discuss some of the advantages of the phase lead compensation-

1. Due to the presence of phase lead network the speed of the system increases because it shifts gain crossover
frequency to a higher value.
2. Due to the presence of phase lead compensation maximum overshoot of the system decreases.
Disadvantages of Phase Lead Compensation

Some of the disadvantages of the phase lead compensation –

1. Steady state error is not improved.

Phase Lag Compensation

A system which has one zero and one dominating pole ( the pole which is closer to origin that all other poles is
known as dominating pole) is known as lag network. If we want to add a dominating pole for compensation in control
system then, we have to select a lag compensation network.
The basic requirement of the phase lag network is that all poles and zeros of the transfer function of the network must lie
in (-)ve real axis interlacing each other with a pole located or on the nearest to theorigin.

Given below is the circuit diagram for the phase lag compensation network.

We will have the output at the series combination of the resistor R2 and the capacitor C.
From the above circuit diagram, we get
 Clearly we have -1/T (which is a zero of the transfer function) is far to origin than the -1 / (βT)(which is the pole of
the transfer function). Thus we can say in the lag compensator pole is more dominating than the zero and because of this
lag network introduces negative phase angle to the system when connected in series.

Let us substitute s = jω in the above transfer function and also we have a

Now in order to find put the maximum phase lag occurs at a frequency let us differentiate this phase function and equate it
to zero. On solving the above equation we get

Where, θm is the maximum phase lead angle. Remember β is generally chosen to be greater than 10.
Effect of Phase Lag Compensation

1. Gain crossover frequency increases.

2. Bandwidth decreases.
3. Phase margin will be increase.
4. Response will be slower before due to decreasing bandwidth, the rise time and the settling time become larger.
Advantages of Phase Lag Compensation

Let us discuss some of the advantages of phase lag compensation –

1. Phase lag network allows low frequencies and high frequencies are attenuated.
2. Due to the presence of phase lag compensation the steady state accuracy increases.
Disadvantages of Phase Lag Compensation
Some of the disadvantages of the phase lag compensation –

1. Due to the presence of phase lag compensation the speed of the system decreases.
Phase Lag Lead Compensation
With single lag or lead compensation may not satisfied design specifications. For an unstable
uncompensated system, lead compensation provides fast response but does not provide enough phase
margin whereas lag compensation stabilize the system but does not provide enough bandwidth. So we
need multiple compensators in cascade.

Given below is the circuit diagram for the phase lag- lead compensation network.

Now let us determine transfer function for the given network and the transfer function can be
determined by finding the ratio of the output voltage to the input voltage.

On substituting the αT1 = R1C1, R2C2 = βT2, R1R2C1C2 = αβT1T2 and T1T2 = R1R2C1C2 in the above equation (where T 1,
T2 and α, β are respectively the time constants and attenuation constants). We have

Clearly we have -1/T (which is a zero of the transfer function) is far to the origin than the -1/(βT)(which is the
pole of the transfer function). Thus we can say in the lag-lead compensation pole is more dominating than the zero and
because of this lag-lead network may introduces positive phase angle to the system when connected in series.
Advantages of Phase Lag Lead Compensation

Let us discuss some of the advantages of phase lag- lead compensation-

1. Due to the presence of phase lag-lead network the speed of the system increases because it shifts gain crossover
frequency to a higher value.
2. Due to the presence of phase lag-lead network accuracy is improved.