What is Discourse?

*Discourse* refers to written or spoken communication or debate. It goes beyond the use of language at
the sentence level and involves the interrelatedness of language and what it's being used for in specific
social contexts. It includes the ways that specific language choices convey meanings, attitudes, and
convey a sense of identity and social relationships.

For example, the discourse in a courtroom is formal and legalistic, often involving specialized
terminology and a structured format of interaction. This contrasts with casual discourse among friends,
which is informal, might include slang, and follows a more fluid structure.

Features of Discourse

1. *Cohesion and Coherence*: Texts are unified, and ideas are logically connected. Cohesion refers to
the grammatical and lexical linking within a text or sentence, while coherence refers to the underlying
logic and meaning.

2. *Purpose and Function*: Discourse serves a specific purpose, such as to inform, persuade, entertain,
or instruct.

3. *Interactivity*: Especially in spoken discourse, there's an interaction between speaker and listener.
This can include turn-taking, responding to feedback, and adapting language to the listener.

4. *Context Dependence*: Discourse is shaped by its context – the situation, participants, and cultural
norms influence the language used.

5. *Structure*: Different types of discourse follow specific structures. For instance, academic discourse
often follows a structured approach with an introduction, body, and conclusion.

Text and Discourse

While "text" and "discourse" are sometimes used interchangeably, they have distinct meanings. A *text*
is any written or spoken communication. It's a physical product – words on a page or spoken words.
*Discourse*, on the other hand, encompasses the broader social and cultural context in which the text
exists. It includes the interpretation of the text, the intentions behind its production, the way it's
received by audiences, and its function in society.

For example, Martin Luther King Jr.'s "I Have a Dream" speech is a text. The discourse surrounding it
includes the historical context of the Civil Rights Movement, the societal impact of the speech, and the
ongoing discussion about race and equality that it influences.
Types of Discourse

*Written Discourse*: Typically more structured and formal than spoken discourse. It includes books,
essays, emails, legal documents, etc. Written discourse often involves careful organization and the use
of formal grammar and vocabulary.

2. *Spoken Discourse*: This encompasses any form of spoken communication, like conversations,
speeches, interviews, and oral storytelling. It tends to be more informal, interactive, and may include
non-verbal elements.

3. *Media Discourse*: Encompasses the language used in media, including news reports, social media,
blogs, and advertising. It's characterized by its wide reach and influence and often blends both written
and spoken discourse styles.

4. *Political Discourse*: Involves language used in a political context, like debates, legislation, policy
discussions, and campaign speeches. It's often persuasive, uses rhetoric, and is aimed at influencing
public opinion or policy.

Each type of discourse serves different purposes and employs different language features and
structures. Understanding discourse in its various forms is crucial for effective communication and
analysis in diverse fields such as linguistics, sociology, and media studies.

What is Discourse Analysis?

*Discourse Analysis* is the study of how language is used in texts and contexts, focusing on the
construction of meaning and how language functions in communication. It goes beyond mere structural
or grammatical analysis, delving into the nuances of language in use – including tone, style, and the
underlying sociocultural and psychological aspects.

Discourse analysis examines the ways in which language shapes and is shaped by the social, cultural, and
political contexts in which it is used. It looks at both written and spoken language, including everyday
conversation, media texts, political speeches, and literary works.

A Short History of Discourse Analysis

Discourse analysis emerged in the 1960s and 1970s as an interdisciplinary field, drawing from linguistics,
anthropology, sociology, psychology, and philosophy. Its roots can be traced to various theoretical
backgrounds:
1. *Structuralism*: Early developments in linguistics and anthropology, emphasizing structures in
language and culture.

2. *Post-Structuralism and the Work of Michel Foucault*: Foucault's ideas on discourse as practices that
systematically form the subjects and the world’s objects were influential.

3. *Ethnomethodology and Sociology*: This perspective emphasized the role of social practices in the
construction of discourse.

4. *Functional Linguistics*: Influenced by the work of M.A.K. Halliday, this approach views language as a
social semiotic system, focusing on the functions of language in context.

Major Contributors

1. *Ferdinand de Saussure*: While not a discourse analyst per se, Saussure's work on structural
linguistics laid the foundation for considering language in its social context.

2. *Michel Foucault*: A central figure in post-structuralism, Foucault's theories about the relationship
between power, knowledge, and discourse have been hugely influential. He viewed discourse as a
means of exercising power and shaping knowledge in society.

- Example: Foucault’s analysis of the discourse surrounding mental illness in his book "Madness and
Civilization" illustrates how language and practices define what is considered 'normal' and 'abnormal'.

3. *Jürgen Habermas*: Known for his theory of communicative action and public sphere, Habermas’s
work focuses on the role of discourse in democratic societies and rational communication.

4. *M.A.K. Halliday*: Halliday's Systemic Functional Linguistics provides tools for analyzing the
relationship between language and its functions in social settings.

- Example: Analyzing classroom interaction, where language both conveys content and establishes
teacher-student relationships.

5. *Norman Fairclough*: A key figure in Critical Discourse Analysis (CDA), Fairclough's work focuses on
the relationship between language, power, and ideology.

- Example: Fairclough’s analysis of political speeches, showing how they can reinforce certain ideologies
and power structures.

6. *Deborah Tannen*: Known for her research in the field of sociolinguistics and discourse analysis,
particularly regarding gender and communication.

- Example: Tannen's analysis of conversational styles highlights how differences in discourse can lead to
misunderstandings between genders.
Discourse analysis, thus, encompasses a wide range of methodologies and theoretical approaches, each
contributing to our understanding of language in use. It provides valuable insights into the complexities
of communication and the role of language in society.

Grammatical Analysis of Discourse

Grammatical analysis of discourse focuses on understanding how the structure of language contributes
to meaning in larger texts or spoken interactions. This analysis includes examining aspects like cohesion,
coherence, thematic structures, and how they contribute to the overall understanding of the discourse.\

Cohesion & Coherence

*Cohesion* refers to the linguistic elements that connect sentences or parts of a text to create a unified
whole. It involves grammatical and lexical means to link different parts of a text, making it
understandable and meaningful.

*Coherence*, on the other hand, is about the logical organization and consistency of a text. It's the 'big
picture' that makes the text make sense as a whole. While cohesion is about tangible linguistic ties,
coherence is more about the reader’s or listener’s perception of unity and clarity.

Cohesive Devices

Cohesive devices are specific linguistic features used to create cohesion in texts. These include:

1. *Reference*: Using pronouns or other referring words to link back to earlier parts of the text.

- Example: "John went to the store. He bought milk."

2. *Conjunction*: Connective words that link sentences or clauses, such as 'and', 'but', 'therefore', etc.

- Example: "It was raining, so the match was canceled."

3. *Lexical Cohesion*: Involves the use of word choice to create links, such as reiteration (using
synonyms or related terms) and collocation (words that typically occur together).

- Example: "The scientist made a discovery. This finding was significant."

4. *Ellipsis and Substitution*: Omitting a word or phrase that is understood from the context, or
substituting one term for another.

- Example (Ellipsis): "Would you like more tea? Yes, I would like more."

- Example (Substitution): "I prefer tea; my friend likes the other (coffee)."

Theme & Rheme

In functional linguistics, especially as articulated by M.A.K. Halliday, a sentence in a discourse is divided

into two parts: the *Theme* and the *Rheme*.

- *Theme*: It's the element that serves as the point of departure of the message; it's what the sentence
is about. It typically comes first in the sentence.

- Example: In "The weather is terrible today," "The weather" is the theme.

- *Rheme*: This part of the sentence consists of what is being said about the theme. It usually follows
the theme and contains new information.

- Example: In the above sentence, "is terrible today" is the rheme.

Thematic Progression

Thematic Progression is about how the theme and rheme of sentences are ordered and developed
across a text or conversation to construct meaning and maintain coherence. There are different patterns
of thematic progression:

1. *Simple Linear Progression*: The rheme of one clause becomes the theme of the next.

- Example: "A storm is coming. The storm could be severe."

2. *Constant Theme*: The same theme is maintained across multiple clauses or sentences.

- Example: "Technology is evolving. Technology has changed our lives."

3. *Split Theme*: Multiple themes are developed, often alternating between them.

- Example: "Cats are independent. Dogs often need more attention."

The analysis of these aspects helps in understanding how texts are structured to convey meaning
effectively. It’s not just the words themselves, but how they’re connected and structured that makes
communication coherent and cohesive.

Pragmatic Analysis of Discourse

Pragmatic analysis of discourse focuses on how context and situation influence the interpretation of
language. It goes beyond the literal meaning of words to consider how meaning is created and
understood in different social interactions. This includes studying how language is used to perform
actions, convey politeness, imply meanings, and adhere to conversational norms.

Language in Context

In pragmatics, the context is crucial for understanding how language is interpreted. This includes the
physical setting, the relationship between speakers, their intentions, and cultural norms. Language in
context takes into account not just what is said, but how, by whom, and in what circumstances it is said.

Speech Act Theory

Developed by J.L. Austin and further elaborated by John Searle, Speech Act Theory proposes that
language is used to perform various actions, not just to communicate information. There are three types
of acts in language:

1. *Locutionary Act*: The actual act of uttering a statement, with its literal meaning.

2. *Illocutionary Act*: The intention behind the statement (e.g., requesting, promising, apologizing).

3. *Perlocutionary Act*: The effect achieved by the statement on the listener.

- Example: Saying, "Could you close the window?" The locutionary act is the question itself, the
illocutionary act is making a request, and the perlocutionary act might be the listener closing the
window.

Co-operative Principles
Proposed by Paul Grice, the Co-operative Principle suggests that speakers and listeners usually
cooperate with each other, adhering to four maxims to make conversation effective:

1. *Maxim of Quantity*: Provide as much information as is needed, but not more.

2. *Maxim of Quality*: Be truthful and do not provide information that is false or unsupported.

3. *Maxim of Relation*: Be relevant to the conversation.

4. *Maxim of Manner*: Be clear, avoid ambiguity, and be orderly.

- Example: In a conversation, if someone asks, "Do you know the time?" responding with the current
time adheres to these maxims, assuming the speaker wants to know the time and not your ability to tell
time.

Conversational Implicature

This concept, also introduced by Grice, refers to what is suggested in an utterance, even if not explicitly
stated. It relies on the listener's ability to infer additional meanings based on context and the Co-
operative Principles.

- Example: If Person A says, "It's getting late," and Person B responds, "Yes, I have an early meeting
tomorrow," Person B implicates that they want to end the conversation and go to bed without saying it
directly.

Politeness Theory

Developed by Penelope Brown and Stephen Levinson, Politeness Theory suggests that speakers often
seek to maintain each other’s "face" or self-esteem in interaction. There are two types of face needs:

1. *Positive Face*: Desire to be liked, appreciated, and valued.

2. *Negative Face*: Desire to be autonomous and not imposed upon.

To address these needs, individuals use strategies like indirectness, hedging, and euphemism.

- Example: Instead of saying, "Give me your report," which is direct and potentially face-threatening, one
might say, "Could you please send me your report when you have a chance?" This is more polite and
considers the listener's negative face needs.
Pragmatic analysis of discourse reveals the complex and often subtle ways in which language is used to
navigate social interactions, convey intentions, and maintain relationships. Understanding pragmatics is
crucial for effective communication and for interpreting the deeper meanings and intentions behind
words.

Analysis of Conversation as Discourse

The analysis of conversation as discourse involves examining the patterns, structures, and social
functions of spoken interaction. It recognizes conversation as a form of discourse with its unique
characteristics and rules.

Conversation as Discourse

Conversations are not random or chaotic; they follow certain conventions and patterns. They are
interactive, dynamic, and context-dependent, involving two or more participants who exchange ideas,
information, or feelings. Unlike many forms of written discourse, conversation typically involves
spontaneous, real-time communication.

Structure of Conversation

1. *Opening*: Conversations usually start with greetings or other ritualistic exchanges. These set the
tone and establish the social context.

- Example: "Hi, how are you?" "I'm good, thanks, and you?"

2. *Turn-taking*: Speakers take turns in a conversation. There are subtle cues and rules about when to
speak, when to listen, and how to signal that it's someone else's turn.

- Example: Pausing or using phrases like "you know?" or "isn't it?" to invite the other person to speak.

3. *Topic Management*: Topics are introduced, developed, and switched. Participants collaboratively
maintain, shift, or terminate topics.

- Example: "Speaking of movies, have you seen the latest Marvel film?"
4. *Repair*: This involves fixing problems in speaking, hearing, or understanding that occur in
conversation.

- Example: "Sorry, I meant Tuesday, not Thursday."

5. *Feedback and Backchanneling*: Listeners give feedback through verbal nods, like "mm-hmm,"
"right," or nonverbal cues like nodding. This shows they are listening and understanding.

6. *Closing*: Like openings, closings are ritualistic, signaling the end of a conversation.

- Example: "Well, I should get going. It was great talking to you!"

Analyzing a Conversation

When analyzing a conversation, various aspects are considered:

- *Content*: What is being discussed? This includes the explicit and implicit topics and themes.

- *Function*: Why is the conversation taking place? Functions can be social (building relationships),
transactional (exchanging information), or persuasive (influencing others).

- *Interaction*: How are participants interacting? This includes turn-taking, managing topics, and the
balance of speaking time.

- *Language Use*: This includes the choice of words, the use of politeness strategies, and the level of
formality.

- *Non-verbal Cues*: Gestures, facial expressions, and body language are crucial in conveying meaning
and emotion.

- *Context*: The physical setting, relationship between participants, and broader social and cultural
contexts are key to understanding the conversation's meaning and purpose.

For example, consider a conversation between two friends meeting for coffee. The analysis would note
the informal language, the balanced turn-taking, the use of backchanneling to show active listening, and
the friendly tone. The conversation might serve multiple functions: social bonding, information
exchange, and mutual support.
In summary, analyzing conversation as a form of discourse provides insights into the complex and
nuanced ways we use language in everyday interactions. It reveals the unspoken rules and patterns that
guide our spoken communication and reflects the intricacies of human social behavior.

What is Critical Discourse Analysis

Critical Discourse Analysis (CDA) is an interdisciplinary approach to studying discourse that focuses on
the ways discourse shapes and is shaped by power and inequality in society. It seeks to understand how
discourse contributes to the maintenance of social power and control, and how it can produce or
challenge social and political inequalities.

CDA involves a critical examination of the language used in various forms of communication (like
speeches, media texts, conversations) to uncover the ideological influences and power relations
inherent in the discourse.

Key aspects of CDA include:

1. *Power and Ideology in Discourse*: Analyzing how language is used to exercise power, influence
people's beliefs, and perpetuate ideologies.

2. *Contextual Analysis*: Understanding how discourse is shaped by and shapes its sociopolitical and
cultural context.

3. *Discursive Strategies*: Examining how specific language choices, narrative styles, and rhetorical
devices are used to advance certain ideologies and interests.

4. *Historical and Social Analysis*: Placing discourse within its broader historical and social context to
understand its impact and origins.

For instance, in analyzing media discourse on climate change, CDA would look at how the choice of
words, framing of arguments, and presentation of information reflect and shape societal attitudes
towards environmental issues. This could involve examining how certain narratives might downplay the
urgency of climate action or alternatively, how they might mobilize public support for environmental
protection.
In summary, Critical Discourse Analysis provides a tool for understanding the deep connection between
language, power, and ideology. It unveils the ways in which discourse functions not just as a medium of
communication, but as a powerful instrument in the construction and perpetuation of social realities.