A REPORT ON

MARINE POLLUTION AND EFFECT ON MARINE ECOSYSTEM

Submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the award of the degree of Bachelor of Technology in Mechanical Engineering

by
NIKHIL NAIR K.N. NAVANEETH TITTY DANY ABRAHAM

VIKASH KUMAR TONY JHONSON

(ROLL NO: B090919ME) (ROLL NO: B090588ME) (ROLL NO: B090073ME) (ROLL NO: B090937ME) (ROLL NO: B090150ME)

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY CALICUT NOVEMEBER 2011

CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that the report entitled MARINE POLLUTION AND EFFECT ON MARINE ECOSYSTEM is a bonafide record of the Environmental studies Project done by NIKHIL NAIR (Roll No: B090919ME), K.N. NAVANEETH (Roll No: B090588ME), TITTY DANY ABRAHAM (Roll No: BO90073ME, VIKASH KUMAR (Roll No: B090937ME), TONY JHONSON (Roll No: B090150ME) under my supervision, in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the award of the degree of Bachelor of Technology in Mechanical Engineering from National Institute of Technology Calicut, and this work has not been submitted elsewhere for the award of a degree.

Dr. R MANU
(Guide)

ASSITANT PROFFESOR
Dept. of Mechanical Engineering

Professor & Head

Dept. of Mechanical Engineering

Place: NIT Calicut Date: 3rd Nov 2011

Acknowledgements

The successful presentation of our discussion would not have been possible without the help from the following people. We extend our gratitude to all those people who have offered aid throughout the preparation period.

First of all we thank God Almighty for having given us the opportunity to undertake such an endeavor and complete it.

We thank our project guide Dr. R. Manu for his valuable guidance and belief in us. We thank Dr. V. Kripa, Principal Scientist and Head, Fishery Environment Management Department, CMFRI for giving us the necessary data and her valuable suggestions.

We also thank the local people who took active part in our questionnaire that we conducted and who helped us sight many points that we required in relation to our case study.

-Nikhil Nair K.N. Navaneeth Titty Dany Abraham Vikash Kumar Tony Johnson

ABSTRACT

There has been a manifold increase of dangerous trends in our marine ecosystem due to pollutant inputs and human interference. One of the vital steps required to counteract this dangerous situation is the collection of information on marine environmental damage created by various sources of pollution and human interference and its analysis to find an optimum solution. It helps us to formulate effective strategies to control the influx of pollutants as well as heal the ecosystem in future. Water quality is a vital aspect for the survival and well-being of the living resources, especially in the coastal and estuarine areas. Some of these areas are now under direct threat from the increasing load of various types of pollution.

OBJECTIVES

The main objectives of the project undertaken are To gather information on the marine ecosystem of coastal Kerala, influence of increase in pollution on this ecosystem Methods of alleviating the stress created in this ecosystem due to human interference. Our activities will include data collection, its analysis and case studies

CASE STUDY

Our case study is divided into two major parts: Study the amount of pollutants in the coastal waters of Kochi and its effect on marine species, it involves, o Collecting the relevant data from CMFRI (Central Marine Fisheries Research Institute), Kochi. o Interpreting and analyzing the obtained data and draw conclusions. As a continuation, we will study the impact of human interference on the marine life, under it, o We will focus our attention on endangered Olive Ridley turtles of Kannur. o Observe the current situation of turtles and effort on their conservation. o Interact with the local people. o Role of government and local authorities for the conservation of turtles.

o Final conclusion regarding the visit.

CONTENTS

List of tables List of figures 1) Introduction 1.1 Introduction 1.2 Major types of marine pollution 1.2.1 Toxic materials 1.2.2 Sewage and Eutrophication 1.2.3 Garbage 1.2.4 Oil spill 1.2.5 Radioactive waste 1.2.6 Deep sea mining

iv iv 1 1 2 2 2 3 4 5 5

2) Case Study- Marine pollution in coastal areas of Kochi 2.1 Heavy metal concentrations and Assimilative capacity of coastal waters of Cochin6 6

2.1.1 Discussion

2.1.2 Toxic effects of some heavy metals

10

2.1.3 Prevention methods

11

2.1.4 Remedies

12

2.2 Oil spill in inshore waters of cochin

13

2.2.1 Sources of oil spill pollution

14

2.2.2 Effects of oil spill pollution

14

2.2.3 Prevention

15

2.2.4 Remedies

15

2.3 Tarballs and waste materials on the beaches of Kerala

17

2.3.1 Discussion

20

2.3.2 Effects of beach pollution

21

2.3.3 Efforts to reduce debris

21

3) CASE STUDY (EFFECT OF HUMAN INTERVENTION ON AQUATIC SPECIES) 3.1 Olive Ridley Turtles 3.2 Distribution 3.3 Nesting 3.4 Threats 3.6 Conservation Status 3.7 What Caught Our Attention 3.8 What We Saw

22

22 23 23 24 25 26 27

ii

3.9 Current Hatchery Status 3.10 Conclusion 3.11 Our Suggestions

31 32 37

4) FINAL CONCLUSION 5) REFERENCES

39 40

iii

LIST OF TABLES

2.1.a

Comparative amount of metal concentration in marine sediment and tissues of finfishes and shell fishes 7

2.1.b Assimilative factors of various contaminants for estuary and the inshore waters of Cochin 2.3.a Solid Waste Materials Occurrence Table 8 19

2.3.b Weight of tar and details of wind observed from some beaches in Kerala during 2000-2001 20

LIST OF FIGURES

2.i

Figure showing the estuaries and inshore areas of Cochin where the levels of distribution of Cd, Pb, Cu and Zn 7 17 18

2.ii 2.iii

Beach Pollution in beypore, Calicut Tar Ball

iv

INTRODUCTION

Over two third of Earth's surface is covered by water; less than a third is taken up by land. As Earth's population continues to grow, people are putting ever-increasing pressure on the planets water resources. In a sense, our oceans, rivers, and other inland waters are being "squeezed" by human activitiesnot so they take up less room, but so their quality is reduced. We know that pollution is a human problem because it is a relatively recent development in the planet's history. Before the 19th century Industrial Revolution, people lived more in harmony with their immediate environment. As industrialization has spread around the globe, so the problem of pollution has spread with it. When Earth's population was much smaller, no one believed pollution would ever present a serious problem. It was once popularly believed that the oceans were far too big to pollute. Today, with almost 7 billion people on the planet, it has become apparent that there are limits. Pollution is one of the signs that humans have exceeded those limits. How serious is the problem? According to the environmental campaign organization WWF: "Pollution from toxic chemicals threatens life on this planet. Every ocean and every continent, from the tropics to the once-pristine polar regions, is contaminated." Water pollution almost always means that some damage has been done to an ocean, river, lake, or other water source. A 1971 United Nations report defined Marine Pollution as: "The introduction by man, directly or indirectly, of substances or energy into the marine environment (including estuaries) resulting in such deleterious effects as harm to living resources, hazards to human health, hindrance to marine activities, including fishing, impairment of quality for use of sea water and reduction of amenities."

Major types of marine pollution:

a) Toxic Materials i) Heavy Metals and slowly degrading chemicalsCadmium, Mercury, Lead etc. ii) Persistent Organic Pollutants- Dioxin, Polychlorinated Biphenyls (PCBs), Polynuclear Aromatic, Hydrocarbons (PAHs) etc. iii) Sources(1) Factory waste (2) Agriculture (3) Air pollution (4) Household cleaning supplies iv) Effects(1) Destroy normal immune function. (2) Organisms become susceptible to diseases such as pneumonia and cancer. (3) Toxics can bioaccumulate and biomagnify in an ecosystem, increasing in concentration as they go up the food chain.

b) Sewage and Eutrophication i) Sources(1) Many cities around the world dump their sewage, either treated or untreated, into the ocean.

(2) Large vessels, such as cruise ships, can also add substantial amounts of sewage to the environment. ii) Effects(1) Eutrophication: Having waters rich in nutrients that promote a proliferation of plant life, especially algae. Eutrophication leads to oxygen depletion. (2) Sewage increases nutrient levels in the ocean causing large algae blooms. After the bloom dies, microbes decompose the algae using up all the oxygen in the water. Without oxygen, other organisms, such as fish, die. (3) Pathogens found in human waste enter the food web and may, in turn, infect people who eat fish and shellfish from the contaminated area.

c) Garbage i) Sources(1) Unregulated dumping of garbage from ships and coastal communities. Its very hard to enforce bans on ocean dumping. (2) 14 Billion pounds of garbage are dumped in the ocean each year. ii) Effects(1) Large pieces of garbage can ensnare marine animals, killing them.

(2) Many animals ingest the garbage, which can also kill them. 267 marine species have been reported entangled in or having ingested marine debris.

d) Oil Spill i) Sources(1) Runoff (2) Routine Maintenance (3) Air Pollution (4) Natural Seeps (5) Big Spills (6) Offshore Drilling

ii) Effects(1) Kills marine animals. (2) Damages coastal ecosystems, consequences can last decades. (3) Covers coast lines destroying flora and fauna. (4) Economically important species of shell fish and fin fish are easily killed by oil pollution, which devastates local economies dependent on fishing.

e) Radioactive Waste i) Sources1) Nuclear power plant effluents, which ocean currents carry to different parts of world. ii) Effects1) Long term exposure causes cancer and birth defects.

f) Deep Sea mining i) Sources1) Ocean mining sites are usually around large areas of polymetallic nodules or active and extinct hydrothermal vents at about 1,400 - 3,700 meters below the oceans surface. ii) Effects1) Removing parts of the sea floor disturbs the habitat of benthic, possibly, depending on the type of mining and location, causing permanent disturbances. Aside from direct impact of mining the area, leakage, spills and corrosion would alter the mining areas chemical makeup.

CASE STUDY (Marine pollution in coastal areas of Kochi)

Heavy metal concentrations and assimilative capacity of coastal waters of Cochin

Water and sediment quality is a vital aspect for the survival and well being of the living resources, especially in the coastal and estuarine areas. Some of these areas are now under the direct threat from the increasing load of various pollutants. Among them, the heavy metal needs special mention as they are indicators of the impact of industrialization. Several water bodies in the country are in mortal changes of pollution caused by excessive sewage, industrial effluents, fertilizer and pesticide run-off. The seas around India have several hot spots with regard to thermal wastes, nuclear wastes and oil pollution. Apart from plastics, there are particular problems with other toxins that do not disintegrate rapidly in the marine environment. Examples of persistent toxins are PCBs, DDT, pesticides, furans, dioxins, phenols and radioactive waste. Heavy metals are metallic chemical elements that have a relatively high density and are toxic or poisonous at low concentrations. Examples are mercury, lead, nickel, arsenic and cadmium. Such toxins can accumulate in the tissues of many species of aquatic life in a process called bioaccumulation. They are also known to accumulate in benthic environments, such as estuaries and bay mud: a geological record of human activities of the last century.

The figure next shows the estuaries and inshore areas of Cochin where the levels of distribution of Cd, Pb, Cu and Zn in sediment and the extent of bioaccumulation in some commonly available finfish and Shellfish species were studied.

Distribution of metals in sediment and their accumulation by organisms were studied from the port area and the inshore areas of Cochin at monthly intervals from January 1990 to December 2000 on board R.V.Cadalmin. Tissue samples of fishes such as Nemiptevus japonicus, Otolithus ruber and the prawn Metapenaeus dobsoni were collected.

The Table 2.1.a below shows the comparative amount of metal concentration (g/g dry wt) in marine sediment and tissues of finfishes and shell fishes-

Assimilative capacity is defined as the ability of an area to maintain a healthy

environment and to accommodate the contaminants it receives. Cochin inshore areas along the south-west coast of the Arabian Sea receives water, sediment and silt from the extensive Vembanad Lake system at Ernakulam (Cochin barmouth) and at Munambam (Azheekode barmouth), discharged from the lower reaches of Periyar River. The urbanization, industrialization and related anthropogenic activities produce a large quantity of sewage and effluents laden with toxic contaminants that are discharged into the Cochin barmouth through the backwaters. More than 240 industrial units operating in Edayar village of Eloor panchayath make this part of the river into a cesspool of chemical pollutants. The volume of industrial effluents from Eloor- Kalamasery belt is about 2.6 million litres per day, much of which is discharged directly into the Periyar River from where it is emptied into Cochin backwaters. Frequent instance of fish kill along this belt especially during the south-west monsoon is a common affair. The common contaminants of Cochin backwaters are acids, alkalis, suspended solids, fluorides, free ammonia, insecticides, dyes, trace metals and radioactive nuclei. As river water mixes with seawater at the estuary, metals and other contaminants may be lost or transformed from soluble form to the sediments by flocculation or to the plankton and macrophytes by adsorption and bioaccumulation and finally get assimilated.

The Table 2.1.b below shows assimilative factors of various contaminants for estuary and the inshore waters of Cochin-

TSS-: total suspended solids

The results presented assimilative factor for estuary (ratio between concentration of contaminants in estuary and their concentration in the backwaters) as well as the inshore waters (ratio between concentration of contaminants in the inshore waters (sea) and their concentration in the estuary. Assimilative factor thus computed for each parameter was indexed at 0.5 unit interval as safe (<0.5), normal (>0.5 - <1), caution (>1- 1.5) and critical (>1.5 - 2) based on the level of assimilation.
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DISCUSSION

In general, the tissue and sediment inshore areas of Cochin showed the order of metal levels as Zn> Cu> Pb> Cd .Samples from estuarine as well as the sediment from the inshore areas contained higher levels of these metals than in the estuarine regions which might be due to flocculation and settlement of suspended metals to the bottom as accelerated by increasing salinity (Webster, 1995). The levels of Cu, Cd and Pb recorded from sediment and the tissue
samples of shellfishes and finfishes over a period from 1990 to 1998 revealed that these levels were well within the permissible limit (Table 1) recommended for sediment and fish and seafood products (WHO., 1987). The earlier results available for Cochin and that of the current study are

compared with the recommended permissible levels for sediment and fish samples (Table 1).

Although the levels of metals distributed in the sediment and fish tissue from Cochin were well below the permissible levels (Table 1) their effect on the ambient biota may be undesirable in the long run.

The trace metal distribution in the coastal environments, to a great extent is influenced by freshwater inflow and terrestrial contamination and anthropogenic inputs. Cochin backwater is known to contain higher concentration of almost all trace metals during premonsoon and postmonsoon. High level of PO4 especially may be due to the inputs from the fertilizer factory near the Ambalamughal area which is subsequently utilized by the water hyacinth population. The metal Pb is found unassimilated in the inshore waters as well as in the estuary. It is felt that Pb levels are added from the inshore waters released possibly through anthropogenic activities such as mechanized fishing, shipping and port activities. However, metals such as Zn and Cu originate from the backwaters and get assimilated in the inshore waters along the estuary.

An assimilative factor for a particular input within 0- 0.5 indicates that inputs received either in the estuary from the upstream backwater areas or in the inshore areas from the estuary are completely assimilated and hence considered safe, which revealed that in the Cochin estuary TSS and Cadmium have reached critical levels while copper and lead have reached cautionable levels. Similarly in the Cochin inshore waters cadmium and lead have attained level of caution.
9

Toxic Effects of Some Heavy Metals

a) Cadmium
High levels of cadmium can lead to depressed growth, kidney damage, cardiac enlargement, hypertension, foetal deformity, cancer. In humans cadmium concentrations above 200-400 ppm in kidney tissue can lead to renal damage.

For marine organisms, ambient Cd levels between 0.5 and 10.0 ppb resulted in decreases in growth, respiratory disruption, and shortened life span of first level generation crustaceans (crabs etc), altered enzyme levels, and abnormal muscular contractions.

b) Lead
The toxic effects of lead include anaemia, kidney damage, hypertension, cardiac disease, immune system suppression (antibody inhibition) neurological damage in humans. Various effects occur over a broad range of doses, with the developing fetus and infant being more sensitive than the adult. High levels of dose may result in toxic biochemical effects in humans which in turn cause problems in the synthesis of hemoglobin, effects on the kidneys, gastrointestinal tract, joints and reproductive system, and acute or chronic damage to the nervous system.

Fish exposed to high levels of lead exhibit a wide-range of effects including muscular and neurological degeneration and destruction, growth inhibition, mortality, reproductive problems, and paralysis. Lead adversely affects invertebrate reproduction; algal growth is affected. At elevated levels in plants, lead can cause reduced growth, photosynthesis, mitosis, and water absorption.

c) Copper
Copper is highly toxic in aquatic environments and has effects in fish, invertebrates, and amphibians, with all three groups equally sensitive to chronic toxicity. Copper is highly toxic
10

to amphibians (including mortality and sodium loss), with adverse effects in tadpoles and embryos.

Single-cell and filamentous algae and cyanobacteria are particularly susceptible to the acute effects, which include reductions in photosynthesis and growth, loss of photosynthetic pigments, disruption of potassium regulation, and mortality.

While mammals are not as sensitive to copper toxicity as aquatic organisms, toxicity in mammals includes a wide range of animals and effects such as liver cirrhosis, necrosis in kidneys and the brain, gastrointestinal distress, lesions, low blood pressure, and fetal mortality.

d) Zinc
In many types of aquatic plants and animals, growth, survival, and reproduction can all be adversely affected by elevated zinc levels. Zinc is toxic to plants at elevated levels, causing adverse effects on growth, survival, and reproduction.

Elevated zinc can cause a wide range of problems in mammals including: cardiovascular, developmental, immunological, liver and kidney problems, neurological, hematological (blood problems), pancreatic, and reproductive.

Prevention Methods
Combustion processes of fuel and waste, impurities in the materials used for combustion processes in industrial plants, energy production as well as residential heating are the biggest sources for heavy metals and should be addressed thoroughly. Furthermore, the emissions of heavy metals from waste incineration need addressing. The reduction of these emissions may be obtained by

Reduced consumption of contaminated fuel, or Use of cleaner/heavy metal-free alternative materials.

11

The restriction of cadmium content in fertilizer should be addressed at an appropriate level. The introduction of restrictions for products which may contain zinc, cadmium and lead e.g. in instruments, electronic equipment, light sources, batteries and others. Various government regulations include laws which limit the amount of heavy metals in the oceans and seas, some of them are Marine Fishing Regulation Act, 1978;
MARPOL 73/78 (regulation on ship wastes); Water (Prevention & Control of

Pollution) Act, 1974.

Remedies
Waste water from residential sources including sinks, toilets, body wastes and industrial wastewater from manufacturing processes and commercial enterprises are dumped into rivers and backwaters which carry them to the oceans and estuaries causing contamination of ocean water resulting in the spread of disease, fish deaths, and destruction of other forms of aquatic life.

Waste water treatment Wastewater is treated to remove pollutants (contaminants). Wastewater treatment is a process to improve and purify the water, removing some or all of the contaminants, making it fit for reuse or discharge back to the environment. Discharge may be to surface water, such as rivers or the ocean, or to groundwater that lies beneath the land surface of the earth. Properly treating wastewater assures that acceptable overall water quality is maintained. Following are few methods employed in waste water treatments1) Rural unsewered areas, for the most part, use septic systems. In these, a large tank, known as the septic tank, settles out and stores solids, which are partially decomposed by naturally occurring anaerobic bacteria. The solids have to be pumped out and hauled by tank truck to be disposed of separately. They often go to municipal wastewater treatment plants, or are reused as fertilizer in closely regulated land-application programs. Liquid wastes are dispersed through perforated pipes into soil fields around the septic tank 2) Most urban areas with sewers first used a process called primary treatment, which was later upgraded to secondary treatment. Some areas, where needed, employ advanced or tertiary treatment. Common treatment schemes are presented in the following paragraphs.

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Primary treatment
In primary treatment, floating and suspended solids are settled and removed from sewage. Floating large materials like rags and sticks is removed by passing the sewage through the screen/bar racks. It is then directed to the grit chamber where sand and small stones are removed. Organic and inorganic sediments are settled out in a sedimentation tank. The final effluent is disinfected by chlorine in the form of sodium hypochlorite solution prior to discharge to receiving water.

Secondary treatment In secondary treatment, the bacteria in sewage is used to further purify the sewage. Secondary treatment, a biological process, removes 85 percent or more of the organic matter in sewage compared with primary treatment, which removes about 50 percent. Flow from the sewer goes into an aeration tank, where compressed air is mixed with sludge that is recycled from secondary clarifiers which follow the aeration tanks. The recycled, or activated, sludge provides bacteria to consume the "food" provided by the new wastewater in the aeration tank, thus purifying it. 3) Industrial waste water treatment Heavy metals, toxic chemicals and other pollutants can be removed from industrial wastewater to an increasing degree. Advanced treatments like micro filtration, carbon adsorption, evaporation /distillation, and chemical precipitation are used.

Oil Spill in inshore waters of Cochin

Oil spill in the sea may be accidental, operational or even deliberate but it causes a lot of concern to fisheries, beach ecology and tourism. In the last few decades, with the development of industries and mechanization of fishing crafts the use of hydrocarbons and other petroleum products has increased considerably. The pollution occurs due to spills at oil ports and terminals, offshore drilling and production, during transport, debacles of oil tankers, and discharge of oil refinery effluents and from other land based wastes. In the early hours of 23rd April 1998 an oil slick was noticed in the inshore waters of Narakkal, (lat. 10 N & long. 76 15"E) north of Cochin port. The oil deposited was seen like tar and was very fresh and Oily. The oil sample resembled that of Gulf crude oil and was not seen in Fort Cochin area south of the fairway channel, Indicating possibilities that some oil
13

tanker while returning from the Cochin port might have emptied or cleaned the ballast. Although no mortality was reported, the oil slick might have caused extensive damage to the intertidal organisms. The oil spill occurred in the Mangalavanam an international bird area (IBA) of Cochin, choked the mangrove plants Acanthus illicifocus growing on the mud plants resulting in the wilting and drying.

SOURCES OF OIL SPILL POLLUTION The major sources of oil spill pollution are the following:

1. Tanker accidents: Large tankers carrying oil over the sea increase the possibility of more oil spillage in the event of an accident.

2. Ballast water: When unloaded, returning tankers fill sea water as ballast to be carried in the compartments previously occupied by oil. The walls of compartments are cleaned with dinging oil by powerful seawater jets hence ballast water inevitably acquires a considerable quantity of oil, which when discharged causes unacceptable oil spill pollution.

EFFECTS OF OIL SPILL POLLUTION

The most obvious effects of oil spills on wildlife are the deaths that occur immediately after the spill, due to coating of animal fur or feathers with oil and exposure to high concentrations of the toxic components of crude oil.

When birds and mammals become coated with oil, the insulating property of their feathers or fur is lost. Feathers and fur provide insulation by trapping a layer of air between the skin and the external environment. Oiling disrupts the arrangement of feathers and hair that retains this insulating layer. In arctic environments, the resulting hypothermia contributes to the death of many animals.

Oiled animals are exposed to acute doses of hydrocarbons absorbed through their skin, inhaled, or accidentally swallowed. Oiled animals also intentionally swallow the toxic material as they preen their bodies.

The long-term effects of oil spills are far more subtle and difficult to assess than the short-term effects. The presence of persistent toxic chemicals on the beaches, in the
14

water, and in the food web may result in a variety of impacts on wildlife, including impaired reproduction, decreased resistance to disease, anemia, eventual development of cancerous tissue growth (particularly in fish), neurological damage, and birth defects in offspring.

PREVENTION Oil industry should take greater precaution against spills and should have detailed emergency response plans for cleaning up spills that do occur. International cooperation and stronger legislation can play an important factor in prevention of incidents related to oil spills. Improvement in technology like improved tanker navigation equipment especially with the introduction of global positioning systems can reduce the levels of oil spill incidents. Strict safety standards must be followed and the ships which are not up to the standard shall not be allowed to sail.

REMEDIES Oil tends to form insoluble layers with water as a result of its water repelling characteristics, which can be easily separated from seawater by gravity and skimming. When it forms emulsion with water as a result of turbulent mixing it becomes difficult to break, hence there are a number of methods which may apparently be used to deal with oil spills in seawater. Some options used for marine protection from oil pollution include Setting fire to the oil spill: Frequently crude oil is set on fire in a wrecked ship when an accident occurs. The problem of burning surface oil is very difficult due to less thickness of the layer and large surface area. The volatile fraction evaporates quickly and makes impossible to ignite without doping special measures. Skimming: It can be performed by employing devices for collecting oil from a large area of water to make it a thicker layer in harbour sheltered places.

15

Gelling: Spraying gelling agents with a certain amount of mixing energy into the oil spill causes formation of gel or coagulation. The resulting lumps can be collected easily in the vicinity of a wrecked ship.

Sinking: Mixing small fine granular solids of fairly high density (sand) culminates into slurry, sinking the oil spill to the bottom of the seabed.

Absorbing: Floating oil can be separated due to absorbsion applying chemicals.

However, many of the methods described above have limited usage and at times prove to be expensive in view of regional conditions and other influencing parameters. But in reality to achieve cost effectiveness in prevention of oil spill pollution, the selection of materials should be based on the following factors Efficiency in removing oil Relatively cheap cost Environment friendly by-product. Local availability Ability to regenerate and reuse. Some of the naturally available materials that follow above criteria are the plants Corchorus depressus (It is commonly available in Oman wherever compact sandy soil is present) and Arachis hypogaea. Powdered Corchorus depressus contains AlCl3 40-70 %, NaSo4 0 to +8, H3Bo3 and considerable amount of ethanol, which gives the plant the ability to coagulate. This material acts as a sinking material when used in the powder form for removal of oil from seawater by absorbing oil and settling to the bottom. While the solid pulp that remains after edible oil of Arachis hypogaea is extracted from it as a high protein live stock feed, enables it to absorb the oil spill from sea water which gets collected on the surface.

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TARBALLS AND WASTE MATERIALS ON THE BEACHES OF KERALA

Due to increasing human activities alongside the beaches which includes fishing, recreation,
transport, aquaculture, tourism, etc the beaches are getting polluted. They have become dumping sites of plastics, domestic wastes, sewage water and sometimes industrial effluents, items that are

brought to the beach and left there by beachgoers, garbage deliberately or accidentally

discarded by ships at sea or from offshore oil platforms. The above picture is of beypore beach
at Calicut. It is a major beach of Calicut and is a major tourist spot of Kerala. It is always occupied with people and what I observed there was the absence of a proper waste management system.

There was debris all over the beach with foul smell. The picture on side shows why a proper system to manage the waste collection in Beypore beach is required.

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Tar balls are residues of oil released to the marine environment. Being lighter than seawater, they float on the surface until they reach and settle on beaches. The occurrence of tar ball residues on beaches has been reported on an almost global scale. The coastline of Kerala extending upto 690 km is intercepted by fishing harbours, ports, tourist resorts, bridges, mangrove beds, river mouths, boat yards, sandy beaches, etc. To assess the sanitary status along the Kerala coast, monthly observations on the quantity of tar ball contamination and other solid waste material deposited on the beaches were made during October 2000 to
September 2001.

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Table -2.3.a below shows the occurrence of solid waste materials collected monthly from some beaches in Kerala during 2000-2001. (Letter in each column represent the months in which the waste materials were observed such as I-January, F-February, M-March, A- April, My- May, In-June, 11-July, Au- August, S- September, O- October, N- November, DDecember)

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During the year 2001, major tar ball deposit along beaches north of Cochin in appreciable quantities (Table 4) was observed in April especially in Cherai, Kaipamangalam and Chavakkad beaches and it continued till May. Table- 2.3.b below shows the Weight of tar and details of wind observed from some beaches in Kerala during 2000-2001-

DISCUSSION On studying the table-3 it showed that beaches at Puthuvyppu and Cherai stations north of Cochin as well as Andhakaranazhi south of Cochin are more contaminated than the other beaches studied (Table 3). The contaminants included pieces of thermocol, polyurethane foams (PUF), soft drink sachets, electric bulbs, night soil and discarded drugs (date expired) indicating the degree of anthropogenic interferences in these beaches adjoining Cochin. The suburban locations situated north of Cochin such as Chavakkad, Kaipamangalam and Thrikunnapuzha and Purakkad in the south were comparatively cleaner, indicating less anthropogenic activities. However, these areas showed the presence of vegetable wastes such as Eichhornia, Salvinia and coconut husks brought by river run off.

PUF and antibiotic suspensions discarded will have greater impacts on the beach ecology than other solid waste materials observed. Plastic bottles and pieces floating across the seas could be the transporters of the seeds of ecological chaos for wherever they end up. The fate of oil spill depends on the climate of the location and the density of oil. After evaporation, emulsions of water in oil and oil in water may form and ultimately result in tar balls or lump. Nearly 750 -1000 tonnes of tar get deposited along the west coast of India every. As per the 1979 estimates, 357 million tonnes of oil from the Gulf countries (35.3 % of

20

total transportation from Gulf) moved through the EEZ of India and intensities of oil slick were highest along the tanker rout in the Arabian Sea.

The alarming magnitude of tar that gets deposited along the coasts of Kerala warrant immediate steps to check the oil spill and to conduct micro level investigations on the fate of tar being deposited every year.

EFFECTS OF BEACH POLLUTION

For humans, swimming in the infected water causes allergies, and skin disease. Apart from this exposure, contaminated beach water may lead to gastroenteritis as well as ear, nose, and throat infections. Woven plastic onion sacks floating in the sea have entrapped endangered hawksbill sea turtles. Plastic bags become invisible to birds diving for food. Plastic is also mistaken for food and is eaten at sea by birds, turtles, and even whales. This can choke them or poison them which can eventually lead to their death. Many marine animals get entangled in fishing lines used by recreational anglers.

EFFORTS TO REDUCE DEBRIS

Improving the general public's awareness, concern, and attitude towards littering. Reducing the use of plastic and other materials for disposable packaging. Enforcing existing laws, especially at sea, to punish habitual litterers. Mass beach cleanup campaigns must be organised to encourage people to keep their beaches clean and secure. Standards should be set for effluents. Setting up of recycling waste box at beaches.

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CASE STUDY
(EFFECT OF HUMAN INTERVENTION ON AQUATIC SPECIES)

SPECIES CHOSEN: OLIVE RIDLEY TURTLES

The olive ridley is a small extant sea turtle, with an adult carapace length averaging 60 to 70 cm. The heart-shaped carapace is characterized by four pairs of pore-bearing inframarginal scutes on the bridge, two pairs of prefrontal, up to nine lateral scutes per side. Olive ridleys are unique in that they can have a variable and asymmetrical lateral scute count ranging from five to nine plates on each side, with six to eight being most commonly observed. Each side of the carapace has 12-14 marginal. The carapace is flattened dorsally and highest anterior to the bridge. It has a mediumsized, broad head that appears triangular in planar view. The head has concave sides, most obvious on the upper part of the short snout. It has paddle-like forelimbs, each having two anterior claws. The upperparts are grayish green to olive in color, but sometimes appear reddish due to algae growing on the carapace. The bridge and hingeless plastron of an adult varies from greenish white (younger) to a creamy yellow on older specimens. Hatchlings are dark gray with a pale yolk scar, but appear all black when wet. Carapace length ranges from 37-50mm. A thin white line borders the carapace, as well as the trailing edge of the fore and hind flippers. Both hatchlings and juveniles have serrated posterior marginal, which become smooth with age. Juveniles also have three dorsal keels; the central longitudinal keel gives younger turtles a serrated profile, which remains until sexual maturity is reached.

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DISTRIBUTION The olive ridley turtle has a cirumtropical distribution living in tropical and warm waters of the Pacific and India Oceans from India, Arabia, Japan, and Micronesia south to southern Africa, Australia, and New Zealand. In the Atlantic Ocean, it has been observed off the western coast of Africa and the coasts of northern Brazil, Suriname, Guyana, French Guiana, and Venezuela. Additionally, there have been records of the olive ridley in the Caribbean Sea as far north as Puerto Rico. It is also found in the eastern Pacific Ocean from the Galapagos Islands and Chile north to the Gulf of California, and along the Pacific coast to at least Oregon. Migratory movements have been studied less intensely in olive ridleys than other species of marine turtles, but they are believed to use the coastal waters of over 80 countries. Historically, this species has been widely regarded as the most abundant sea turtle in the world. According to Carr (1972), more than 1 million olive ridleys were commercially harvested off the coasts of Mexico in 1968 alone. Clifton et al. (1982) had estimated the population of Pacific Mexico to be at least 10 million prior to the era of mass exploitation. More recently, Spotilia (2004) estimated that the global population of annual nesting females has been reduced to approximately 2 million, and Abreu-Gabrois and Plotkin (2008) estimated that number to have been further reduced to 852 550. This indicated a dramatic decrease of 28-32% in the global population within only one generation (i.e. 20 years). The olive ridley sea turtle nests at several sites in the western Indian Ocean, Indian subcontinent and Southeast Asia. The single most important breeding area for olive ridleys in the Indian Ocean along the Bay of Bengal is Orissa. NESTING
Olive ridley turtles are best known for their behaviour of synchronized nesting in mass numbers, termed arribada. In the India Ocean, the majority of olive ridleys nest in two or three large aggregations near Gahirmatha in the Orissa. In 1991, over 600,000 turtles nested along the coast of Orissa in one week. Nesting occurs elsewhere along the Coromandel Coast and Sri Lanka, but in scattered locations. However, olive ridleys are considered a rarity in most areas of the Indian Ocean. They are also rare in the western and central Pacific with known arribadas occurring only

within the tropical eastern Pacific, in Central America and Mexico. In Costa Rica, they occur at Nancite and Ostional beaches. There are two active arribadas in Nicaragua; Chacocente

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and La Flor; and a small nesting ground in Pacific Panama. Historically, there were several arribadas in Mexico, yet only one remains at Playa Escobilla in Oaxaca. Although olive ridleys are famed for their arribadas, many of the nesting grounds can only support relatively small to moderate-sized aggregations (e.g. 1,000 nesting females). The overall contribution and importance of these nesting beaches to the population may be underestimated by the scientific community. The Olive Ridley turtles nest in very few places in the western coast of India. The only arribada worthy of conservation is in Muzhappilangad, Kannur, Kerala. This is the place we chose for our case study. THREATS Known predators of olive ridley nests include raccoons, coyotes, feral dogs and pigs, opossums, coatimundi, caimans, ghost crabs, and the sunbeam snake. Hatchlings are preyed upon as they travel across the beach to the water by vultures, frigate birds, crabs, raccoons, coyotes, Iguanas, and snakes. In the water, hatchling predators most likely include oceanic fishes, sharks, and crocodiles. Adults have relatively few known predators, other than sharks and killer whales responsible for occasional attacks. Females are often plagued by mosquitoes during nesting. Humans are still listed as the leading threat to these turtles, responsible for unsustainable egg collection, slaughtering nesting females on the beach, and direct harvesting adults at sea for commercial sale of both the meat and hides. Other major threats include mortality associated with boat collisions and incidental takes in fisheries. Trawling, gill nets, ghost nests, long line, and pot fishing, have significantly impacted olive ridley populations, as well as other species of marine turtles. During 19932003, more than 100000 olive ridley turtles were reported dead in Orissa, India from fishery-related practices. In addition, entanglement and ingestion of marine debris is listed as a major threat for this species. Coastal development, natural disasters, climate change, and other sources of beach erosion, have also been cited as potential threats to nesting grounds. Additionally, coastal development also threatens newly hatched turtles through the effects of light pollution. Hatchlings which use light cues to orient themselves to the sea are now misled into moving towards land, and die from dehydration, exhaustion or are killed on roads.

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However, the greatest single cause of olive ridley egg loss results from 'arribadas', in which the density of nesting females is so high that previously laid nests are inadvertently dug up and destroyed by other nesting females. In some cases nests become cross-contaminated by bacteria or pathogens of rotting nests. For example, in Playa Nancite, Costa Rica, only 0.2% of the 11.5 million eggs produced in a single arribadas event successfully hatched. Although some of this loss had resulted from predation and high tides, the majority was attributed to co-specifics unintentionally destroying existing nests. The extent that arribadas contribute to the population status of olive ridleys has created debate among scientists. Many believe that the massive reproductive output of these nesting events is critical to maintaining populations, while others maintain that traditional arribada beaches fall far short of their reproductive potential and are most likely not sustaining population levels. In some localities, this debate eventually led to legalizing egg collection. CONSERVATION STATUS The olive ridley is classified as Vulnerable according to the International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources (IUCN), and is listed in Appendix I of CITES. These listings were largely responsible for halting the large scale commercial exploitation and trade of olive ridley skins. The Convention on Migratory Species (CMS) and the Inter-American Convention for the Protection and Conservation of Sea Turtles (IAC) have also provided olive ridleys with protection, and led to increased conservation and management for this marine turtle. National listings for this species range from Endangered to Threatened, yet enforcing these sanctions on a global scale has been unsuccessful for the most part. Conservation successes for the olive ridley have relied on well-coordinated national programs in combination with local communities and non-government organizations, which focused primarily on public outreach and education. Arribada management has also played a critical role in conserving olive ridleys. Lastly, enforcing the use of Turtle Excluder Devices (TEDs) in the shrimp trawling industry has also proved effective in some areas. The olive ridley turtle is still abundant enough to be revived. The only thing that needs to be done is ensuring proper availability of nesting grounds. But this is exactly what is being destroyed by the over-ambitious humans. By this introduction it must be evident that the case of the Olive Ridley is indeed worth consideration.

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WHAT CAUGHT OUR ATTENTION Turtle hatchlings emerge from hatchery THE HINDU: Monday, Feb 12, 2007 Staff Reporter

SETTING THEM FREE: A foreign tourist among those watching Olive Ridley sea turtle hatchlings emerging from a temporary hatchery at Muzhappilangad in Kannur. KANNUR: It was a rare experience for them. People living along the Muzhappilangad beach were elated when 60 Olive Ridley turtle hatchlings emerged from a hatchery in the area. The people had been waiting since, for the first time, 80 sea turtle eggs were collected and kept in the hatchery on December 15. It took 55 days for them to see the light of day. The hatchery was set up in November under a joint initiative of the Muzhappilangad grama panchayat and the Adventure Academy to protect the eggs laid on the beach. As many as 150 eggs collected in the second batch have been kept in another hatchery. "It is for the first time in Kannur that sea turtle eggs have been collected for hatching, and our first initiative has turned out to be a success,'' said A.T. Sebastian, special officer of the academy. The initiative was inspired by turtle egg protection measures by volunteers in Kozhikode and Kasaragod districts, he said.
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A volunteer force of local people, named Theera Sena, was formed under the initiative of the academy and the panchayat to collect the eggs. An incentive of Rs. 250 was given to each collector. District Collector Ishita Roy was among those who reached the beach to see the hatchlings emerging from the eggs. A few tourists from Sweden and France were among the 300-odd people who turned out to the drive-in beach, a major tourist destination in the region, to see the event. Panchayat president V. Prabhakaran was present. It was the first such initiative in Kerala and it occurred at the only place it was possible. Such a project usually takes 4-5 years to achieve its full capacity; also September-December was the primary nesting period here. So we decided to undertake the region as a case study and visit it in September 2011. What we expected to see was a thriving hatchery with full time staff and participation of the locals. We were hoping to meet Mr. A. T. Sebastian, the leader of this initiative and gather vital information from him. We were hoping that as the collector and other authorities were taking part in this initiative, it would have stood the test of time and succeeded. WHAT WE SAW

The Picture above shows two of our team members Titty Dany Abraham (left) and Nikhil Nair (right) at the proposed hatchery site in Muzhappilangad, Kannur.

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When we reached the place we saw an adventure academy building under renovation and we saw a tourism facility centre also under construction. There was no hatchery or other such building to be seen. We thought that indeed we were at the wrong place. But as we had gone that far we decided to enquire at the adventure academy building the whereabouts of the hatchery. We were also hoping that someone there would be in charge of the operation and he/she would act as our guide. The in charge of the adventure academy office was Ms. Haritha. She had been posted for just one year there and she told us that after the initial hype the entire programme had died down. The only year when there was an active hatchery and live turtles were released into the ocean was 2007.

She told us that the entire idea of the hatchery was formulated by Mr. A. T. Sebastian, the then director of this Adventure Academy. From our interactions with the locals we were able
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to understand that they used turtle eggs as food before Mr. Sebastian educated them about the need to conserve this species. With the locals help he was able to form a task force or theerasena to collect the eggs and take them to the hatchery. As he had tie ups with the district collector and local bodies he was able to utilize allotted funds and construct a hatchery and other prerequisites for breeding centre. The year 2007-08 was a golden year for the hatchery. The first batch of turtle hatchlings to the sea after a successful stint at the breeding centre. But sadly, it was the only batch that could achieve the feat. The hatchery was situated on Muzhappilangad beach, Kannur, the only drive-in beach in all of Kerala. It was gathering attention as a tourist destination during the time. The Kerala Government was planning major tourism development at the place. But instead of including the hatchery as an ecotourism development operation, the authorities who planned this development sought to destroy it.

This is kaitha, the plant that made this region a hotspot for turtle nesting. The turtles need firm, dry ground to lay eggs. The eggs cannot tolerate contact with the salt water. This plant can hold the soil together while keeping it dry and soft enough to dig and lay eggs. At the time, a wide enough region close to the beach was densely vegetated by this plant. This was the reason for turtles coming to nest at this place.

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The government planned to construct a platform and walkway along the 5 km stretch of beach and they wanted to construct it right over the patch where this plant grew. Mr. A. T. Sebastian knew that this would destroy any hope of survival for this hatchery. He lodged official protests and was subsequently removed from his post. He is now with an environmental protection endeavor by an NGO in New Delhi The lack of logic in the Government construction is evident from the following photograph.

The steps that you see are constructed of cement blocks. With no chance of shade, and no place even to sit, no tourists come here during the day. At night it is the haven of certain antisocial elements that has deemed it a suitable area for their night-time drinking and mongering. The construction has caused a lot of dust and other chemicals to be dumped into the sea. Dead fish and other aquatic species are common occurrence now, said some of the local people we interviewed. The Government says the construction was to aid in tourism but as you can clearly see the entire drive-in beach is destroyed. Not even a safari vehicle can drive in now. We saw efforts that were underway to extricate trapped vehicles from the sand several times.
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CURRENT SITUATION OF THE HATCHERY

They say pictures speak a lot more than words so we have decided to add some more pictures here with captions so that you may understand what they are....

The abandoned hatchery; the rusted lock on the front door is seen on top.

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The abandoned POLICE AID POST at the site. This is symbolic of the extent to which Government encourages an indigenous effort to protect our biodiversity.

CONCLUSION
We visited Kannur in hopes of getting to know an ecosystem that was revitalized by human intervention but we were witnesses to an ecosystem that was reeling under the ravages of human activities. As a conclusion, we would like to draw your attention to a similar initiative in Orissa, which is another breeding ground for the same species of turtle.

The olive ridley sea turtle nests at several sites in the western Indian Ocean, Indian subcontinent and Southeast Asia. The single most important breeding area for olive ridleys in the Indian Ocean along the Bay of Bengal is Orissa.
In 1993, biologists from the Orissa Forest Department and the Wildlife Institute of India learned that large scale nesting of olive ridley turtles was taking place near the mouth of the Rushikulya River.

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This area is the location of one of the largest mass nesting (Arribada) sites of olive ridley sea turtles in India.

Villagers learn how to become members of the Sea Turtle Protection Committee in this Interpretation Centre. There are several fishing villages near this important nesting site. Local fishers use various fishing methods including gill and drift nets. The villagers have known about the Arribada of olive ridley turtles since time immemorial.

This nesting beach in Rushikulya is one of the most important breeding areas for the Olive Ridley sea turtle in the Indian Ocean.
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Hindu mythology worships sea turtles as an incarnation of their gods. Thus, most fishing communities along the coast do not consume turtle eggs or meat. Olive ridley sea turtles nest at this beach without any apparent threats from these local communities. In 1995, the Wildlife Institute of India initiated a research program on olive ridley turtles along Rushikulya rookery. As part of this program, youths from the local communities help tag turtles and collect data. Community groups also provide protection to olive ridleys during the nesting, and hatching seasons. These groups need training in order to continue a long-term conservation program. The Community Reserve at Rushikulya project is designed to mobilize the local community and streamline their conservation efforts by:

Surveying current levels of understanding, and educating local villagers about sea turtle conservation issues.

Educating villagers in coastal regions adjacent to Rushikulya rookery. Creating a local network, providing training workshops for community organizations for sea turtle protection and conservation.

Examining the prospect of community based eco-tourism at Rushikulya. Evaluating the possibilities of Rushikulya as a Community Reserve.

Olive Ridley (Lepidochelys Oliveacea)

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Funds for this project will help provide training manuals for sea turtle monitoring, census techniques, and hatchery management. Moneys will help support educational programs utilizing slides and films about sea turtles and sea turtle conservation issues in villages and schools. The Community Reserve program will also help train local guides for the ecotourism trade. Community Reserve or Protected Area? The government of Orissa is planning to declare Rushikulya rookery a Protected Area. Declaration of a Protected Area automatically strips the rights of local people on this traditional sea turtle nesting site. The Indian Wild Life Protection Act (1972), Amendment 2002, has a provision of declaring certain wildlife areas as Community Reserve (CR). The Rushikulya rookery of Orissa coast offers an ideal site for such a Community Reserve. The proposed program will adequately document these efforts and a case will be put up before the State and Union Government to declare Rushikulya rookery as a Community Reserve.

Recently, the World Turtle Trust received a quarterly report from Mr. Basudev Tripathy the leader of the Rushikulya Project in Orissa, India. The torn and tattered parcel arrived at the Honolulu office. In addition to a detailed quarterly report, Mr. Tripathy shared with them the wide variety of training materials that he has incorporated into a vibrant community project.

Orissa Beach
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The package also contained photographs of olive ridley Arribada, fishers with their boats and nets, and a white-washed building that serves as the on-site interpretive training facility. Using extremely modest funds, Mr. Tripathy printed educational pamphlets, procured posters, purchased educational movies, and developed slide shows. His efforts also provided a wide range of educational initiatives for the local populace in five coastal villages.

Tripathys goal for this program is to promote the long term survival of the sea turtle population while simultaneously, protecting the welfare and needs of the nearby rural communities that depend on the coastal resources. After setting up a base camp in Purunabandha, Mr. Tripathy trained local community leaders to assist his efforts. Together they conducted interviews with at least 50 individuals in each of five villages. Fisher folk, coastal dwellers and secondary school students all had an opportunity to speak about their knowledge of sea turtles. They reported their observations of nesting behavior, changes in population trends, and their opinions on how best to protect sea turtles. Mr. Tripathy and his local helpers conducted a survey through the use of questionnaires printed in the regional language of Telugu. He called upon a local bank and an environmental education agency to contribute study materials, posters and pamphlets for an extensive sea turtle awareness campaign. These campaigns extend to the tourists who visit the Rushikulya rookery during the nesting season.

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Rushikulya Sea Turtle Protection Committee provides educational exhibitions for villagers. Goals for the next quarter include building workshops, publicity campaigns for Community Reserve, training of local villagers to help manage eco-tourists on the beach and in the sea. This comparison shows us exactly how it should have been done at Muzhappilangad beach.

OUR SUGGESTIONS
We believe that the hatchery can still be reclaimed if it is undertaken as an initiative of the government. The remaining areas of the beach that remains unmolested by construction should be deemed as a community reserve and protected with the help of the local community. The plant kaitha should be allowed to grow in these areas so that the natural habitat of the turtles is strengthened. The villagers should understand that harvesting eggs in a controlled manner will be profitable to them. 1) The villagers should be organized into task forces on shift basis to do the work of collecting eggs. 2) The hatchery should be renovated with more modern facilities and protected from tampering by kids etc. Full time staff should be there during the nesting season and part time staff in the other seasons. 3) The rural community should be made aware of the need for turtle conservation. Educational initiatives, workshops, exhibitions, seminars etc. should be undertaken as part of this project.

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4) Community based eco tourism should be instituted in Muzhappilangad. The turtle conservation project should be upgraded to a community reserve. If these steps are instituted without fail, this fragile ecosystem can be reclaimed. Without doubt, it will be a golden feather in the cap of Indian biodiversity conservationists. Human intervention can produce an amazing transformation in a depleted ecosystem. But the horrors it can unleash on a thriving ecosystem is equally potent. It is us, the new generation, who are to decide how our skills should be put to use to destroy or to rejuvenate.

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FINAL CONCLUSION

All the Environmental Studies undertaken as part of this project points to just one thing.
The world is edging towards a great catastrophe if its proceeding down the path it has currently chosen. Our country is also leaning towards such a policy. But as of now, most of the damage done to our environment is reversible, provided prompt and diligent actions are undertaken. The conclusions that we offered after each of our case studies clearly indicate this. In Kochi, the rate of pollution hasnt risen that much. The pollution caused as of now can be reverted to a state in which we wont recognize that such actions were needed to bring it about. The greatest problem that is faced by environmentalists today is the lack of cooperation from government. All the actions that should be taken are at pretty large scale, whether it be conserving the biodiversity or reversion of pollution. It is impossible for individuals or small enterprises to undertake such large processes. If the government takes an initiative, the turtle conservation project featured in our second case study and many others like that will get a timely boost and they will go all the way in achieving their objectives. World history has always been dictated by heroes. They arise to challenge fate and lead their brethren to their objective. While yesteryear heroes were born to battle it out in some of the great wars that we know about, the heroes of the future are those who take initiative in conserving what is left of our environment. Let us become the heroes of the future. Jai Hind.....

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heavy metal concentrations in sediment, finfishes and shellfishes in inshore waters of Cochin, southwest coast of India, J. mar. biol. Ass. India, 47 (1): 1 - 7, Central Marine Fisheries Research Institute, Cochin, 2005. P. Kaladharan, P. K. Krishnakumar, D. Prema , A. Nanadakumar, L. R. Khambadakar

and K. K. Valsala, Assimilative capacity of Cochin inshore waters with reference to contaminants received from the backwaters and the upstream areas, Indian J. Fish., 58(2) : 75-83, Calicut Research Centre of Central Marine Fisheries Research Institute, Kozhikode, 2011. P. Kaladharan. V.K. Pillai, K.P. Said Koya, K.S. Leela Bhai and N. Palaniswamy, Oil

sick in the inshore waters to the north of Cochin Port Channel, Marine Fisheries Information Service, Technical and Extension Series, CMFRI,1999. P. Kaladharan, D. Prema, A. Nandakumar and K. K.Valsala, Occurrence of tarball

and waste materials on the beaches along Kerala coast in India, J. mar. biol. Ass. India, 46 (1): 93 97, Central Marine Fisheries Research Institute, Cochin, 2004.

http://www.epa.gov/R5Super/ecology/html/toxprofiles.htm (As on 19-05-2005)

http://marinebio.org/oceans/conservation/moyle/ch11.asp (As on 24-08-2011)

http://world-turtle-trust.org

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Olive_ridley_sea_turtle (As on 29-10-2011)

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