EEF 205E: Introduction to Logic Design

Circuit Optimization

Asst. Prof. Ahmet Can Erten

Istanbul Technical University
Faculty of Electrical and Electronics Engineering
Office Number: 2411
E-mail: [email protected]

1st Midterm on November 17th @17:30

Chapter 3

Circuit Optimization

Goal: To obtain the simplest implementation for a given

function

Optimization is a more formal approach to simplification

that is performed using a specific procedure or algorithm

Optimization requires a cost criterion to measure the

simplicity of a circuit

Literal cost (L)

Distinct cost criteria we will Gate input cost (G)
use: Gate input cost with NOTs (GN)

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Literal Cost

 Literal – a variable or its complement

 Literal cost – the number of literal
appearances in a Boolean expression
corresponding to the logic circuit
diagram
 Examples:
• F = BD + A B C + AC D L =8
• F = BD + A BC + A B D + AB C L =11
• F = (A + B)(A + D)(B + C + D)(B + C + D) L= 10
• Which solution is the best?
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Gate Input Cost

 Gate input costs - the number of inputs to the gates in the

implementation corresponding exactly to the given equation
or equations. (G - inverters not counted, GN - inverters counted)
 For SOP and POS equations, it can be found from the
equation(s) by finding the sum of:
• all literal appearances
• the number of terms excluding single literal terms,(G) and
• optionally, the number of distinct complemented single literals (GN).
 Example:
• F = BD + A B C + AC D G = 11, GN = 14
• F = BD + AB C + A B D + AB C G = 15 GN = 18
• F = (A + B)(A + D)(B + C + D)( B + C + D) G =14 GN = 17
• Which solution is the best?
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 Cost Criteria (continued)

 Example 1:
 F = A + BC + BC L=5
G = L+ 2= 7
B GN = G + 2 = 9
C
A F

 L (literal count) counts the AND inputs and the single

literal OR input.
 G (gate input count) adds the remaining OR gate inputs
 GN(gate input count with NOTs) adds the inverter inputs
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Cost Criteria (continued)

 Example 2: A
B
 F = A B C + AB C C
 L = 6 G = 8 GN = 11 F
 F = (A + C)( B + C)( A + B)
 L = 6 G = 9 GN = 12
 Same function and same A
literal cost B
 But first circuit has better C
gate input count and better F
gate input count with NOTs
 Select it!

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Boolean Function Optimization
 Minimizing the gate input (or literal) cost of a (a
set of) Boolean equation(s) reduces circuit cost.
 We choose gate input cost.
 Boolean Algebra and graphical techniques are
tools to minimize cost criteria values.
 Some important questions:
• When do we stop trying to reduce the cost?
• Do we know when we have a minimum cost?
 Methods
• Karnaugh Maps (K-map)
• Quine-McCluskey

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Optimization Example
f(x1,x2,x3,x4)=m(1,3,5,6,7,8,12,14,15)
f(x1,x2,x3,x4)=x1x2x3x4+x1x2x3x4+
x1x2x3x4+x1x2x3x4+x1x2x3x4+x1x2x3x4
+x1x2x3x4+x1x2x3x4+x1x2x3x4

f(x1,x2,x3,x4)= x1x2x4(x3+x3) +x1x3x4(x2+x2) +x1x3x4(x2+x2)

+x1x2x4(x3+x3)+x1x2x3(x4+x4)+x2x3x4(x1+x1)
+x2x3x4(x1+x1)+x1x3x4(x2+x2)+x1x2x4(x3+x3)+x1x2x3(x4+x4)
f(x1,x2,x3,x4)=x1x2x4+x1x3x4+x1x3x4+x1x2x4+x1x2x3+x2x3x4
+x2x3x4+x1x3x4 +x1x2x4 +x1x2x3
f(x1,x2,x3,x4)= x1x4+x1x4+x2x3+x2x3+x1x3x4+x1x2x4
f(x1,x2,x3,x4)= x1x4+x2x3 +x1x3x4+x1x2x4 9
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 Karnaugh Maps (K-maps)

A K-map is a collection of squares The K-map can be viewed as

Each square represents a minterm
The collection of squares is a graphical A reorganized version of the truth table
representation of a Boolean function
A topologically-warped Venn diagram as
Adjacent squares differ in the value of one used to visualize sets in algebra of sets
variable
Alternative algebraic expressions for the same
function are derived by recognizing patterns of
squares

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Some Uses of K-Maps

 Provide a means for:

• Finding optimum or near optimum
 SOP and POS standard forms, and
 two-level AND/OR and OR/AND circuit
implementations
for functions with small numbers of
variables
• Visualizing concepts related to manipulating
Boolean expressions, and
• Demonstrating concepts used by computer-
aided design programs to simplify large
circuits
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Two Variable Karnaugh Map

 Two variable: x ve y
• 4 minterms:
 m0 = x’y’  00
 m1 = x’y  01
 m2 = xy’  10
 m3 = xy  11

y y
x 0 1 x 0 1
0 m0 m1 0 x’y’ x’y
1 m2 m3 1 xy’ xy

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K-Map and Truth Tables

 The K-Map is just a different form of the truth table.

 Example – Two variable function:
• We choose a,b,c and d from the set {0,1} to
implement a particular function, F(x,y).
Function Table
K-Map
Input Function
Values Value y=0 y=1
(x,y) F(x,y)
00 a
x=0 a b
01 b x=1 c d
10 c
11 d
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K-Map Function Representation
y
 Example: F(x,y) = x x 0 1
0 0 0
1 1 1

 For function F(x,y), the two adjacent cells

containing 1’s can be combined using the
Minimization Theorem:

F( x, y ) = x y + x y = x

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K-Map Function Representation

y
 Example: G(x,y) = x + y
x 0 1
0 0 1
1 1 1

 For G(x,y), two pairs of adjacent cells containing

1’s can be combined using the Minimization
Theorem:
G( x, y ) = (x y + x y )+ (xy + x y )= x + y
Duplicate xy

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3-Variable Karnaugh Map

yz
x 00 01 11 10
0 m0 m1 m3 m2
1 m4 m5 m7 m6

 Note that if the binary value for an index differs

in one bit position, the minterms are adjacent on
the K-Map
• m2  m6 , m3  m7
• m2  m0 , m6  m4

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Alternative Map Labeling

Map use largely involves:
Entering values into the map, and
Reading off product terms from the map.
Alternate labelings are useful:

yz y
x y y yz
x 00 01 11 10
x 0 1 3 2
0 0 1 3 2
x 4 5 7 6

x 1 4 5 7 6
z z z
z
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Combining Squares
• By combining squares, we reduce number of literals in a
product term, reducing the literal cost, thereby reducing the
other two cost criteria
• On a 3-variable K-Map:
– One square represents a minterm with three variables
– Two adjacent squares represent a product term with two
variables
– Four “adjacent” terms represent a product term with one
variable
– Eight “adjacent” terms is the function of all ones (no variables)
= 1.

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3-Variable Karnaugh Map

 Example Shapes of 2-cell Rectangles:
yz
x 00
0
01
1
11
3
10
2
0

4 5 7 6
1

 Read off the product terms for the rectangles shown

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3-Variable Karnaugh Map
Example Shapes of 4-cell Rectangles:
yz
x 00
0
01
1
11
3
10
2
0

4 5 7 6
x
1

 Read off the product terms for the rectangles shown

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3-Variable Karnaugh Map

F = m(2,3,6,7) y
0 1 3 2
1 1
• Example: Let
x 4 5 7
1 6
1
z
• Applying the Minimization Theorem three times:

F( x, y , z ) = x y z + x y z + x y z + x y z
= yz + y z
=y
• Thus the four terms that form a 2 × 2 square
correspond to the term "y".

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Example: 3-Variable Karnaugh Map
 F1(x, y, z) =  (2, 3, 4, 5)

yz
x 00 01 11 10
0 0 0 1 1

1 1 1 0 0

• F1(x, y, z) = xy’ + x’y

• F2(x, y, z) =  (3, 4, 6, 7)
yz
x 00 01 11 10
0 0 0 1 0
1 1 0 1 1
• F1(x, y, z) = xz’ + yz
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Example : 3-Variable Karnaugh Map

 F1(x, y, z) =  (0, 2, 4, 5, 6) y
yz
x 00 01 11 10
0 1 0 0 1
x 1 1 1 0 1

z
F1(x, y, z) =z+yx

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3-Variable Map Simplification

 Use a K-map to find an optimum SOP

equation for F(X, Y, Z) = m(0,1,2,4,6,7)

 F = Z’ + X’ Y’ + X Y

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4-Variable Karnaugh Map

 4 variables: w, x, y, z
• 16 minterms
y

yz
wx 00 01 11 10
00 m0 m1 m3 m2
01 m4 m5 m7 m6
x
11 m12 m13 m15 m14
w
10 m8 m9 m11 m10

z
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4-Variable Terms

 4-variable maps can have rectangles

corresponding to:
• A single 1 = 4 variables, (i.e. Minterm)
• Two 1s = 3 variables,
• Four 1s = 2 variables
• Eight 1s = 1 variable,
• Sixteen 1s = zero variables (i.e.
Constant "1")

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4-Variable Maps

 Example Shapes of Rectangles:

yz
wx
Y
0 1 3 2

4 5 7 6

12 13 15 14 X
W
8 9 11 10

Z
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4-Variable Maps

yz Y
wx
0 1 3 2

4 5 7 6
X
12 13 15 14
W
8 9 11 10

Z
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Example:
F(w,x,y,z) =  (0, 1, 2, 4, 5, 6, 8, 9, 12, 13, 14)

yz
wx 00 01 11 10
00 1 1 0 1
01 1 1 0 1
11 1 1 0 1
10 1 1 0 0

– F(w,x,y,z) =y’ +w’z’+xz’

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Example:
F(w,x,y,z)=w’x’y’+x’yz’+w’xyz’+wx’y’
yz
wx 00 01 11 10
00 1 1 0 1
01 0 0 0 1
11 0 0 0 0
10 1 1 0 1

• F(w,x,y,z) =x’z’+y’x’+w’yz’

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Optimization of POS Representation with Karnaugh Map

 Example: f(w,x,y,z)=M(1,4,5,8,11,12,14)

yz
wx 00 01 11 10
00 1 0 1 1
01 0 0 1 1
11 0 1 1 0
10 0 1 0 1

• f(x1,x2,x3,x4)= (w+y+z) (w+x+z)

(w+y+z) (w+x+y+z)
(w+x+y) or (x+y+z)
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Karnaugh-map usage

• Plot 1s corresponding to minterms of function.

• Circle largest possible rectangular sets of 1s.
– # of 1s in set must be power of 2
– OK to cross edges
• Read off product terms, one per circled set.
– Variable is 1 ==> include variable
– Variable is 0 ==> include complement of variable
– Variable is both 0 and 1 ==> variable not included
• Minimum number of gates and gate inputs

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Systematic Simplification

 A Prime Implicant is a product term obtained by combining

the maximum possible number of adjacent squares in the map
into a rectangle with the number of squares a power of 2.
 A prime implicant is called an Essential Prime Implicant if it is
the only prime implicant that covers (includes) one or more
minterms.
 Prime Implicants and Essential Prime Implicants can be
determined by inspection of a K-Map.
 A set of prime implicants "covers all minterms" if, for each
minterm of the function, at least one prime implicant in the
set of prime implicants includes the minterm.

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Example of Prime Implicants

 Find ALL Prime Implicants

CD ESSENTIAL Prime Implicants
C C
BD BD
1 1 1 1 1 1

BD 1 1 BD 1 1
B B
1 1 1 1
A A
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
AB
D D
AD Minterms covered by single prime implicant
BC
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Prime Implicants
 Find all essential prime implicants for
F(A, B, C, D) = m(0,2,3,8,9,10,11,12,13,14,15)

CD C
AB
0 1 3 2
1 1 1
4 5 7 6
B
12 13 115 1 14
1 1
A
8 9 11 10
1 1 1 1

D
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Five Variable or More K-Maps
 For five variable problems, we use two adjacent K-maps.
 It becomes harder to visualize adjacent minterms for selecting
PIs.
 You can extend the problem to six variables by using four K-
Maps
 5 variable  32 cells
xyz
vw 000 001 011 010 110 111 101 100
00 m0 m4 m12 m8 m24 m28 m20 m16
01 m1 m5 m13 m9 m25 m29 m21 m17
11 m3 m7 m15 m11 m27 m31 m23 m19
10 m2 m6 m14 m10 m26 m30 m22 m18

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5-Variable K-Maps
 Adjacent:
• A cell in v = 0 map is adjacent to the same cell in v = 1
map.
• Example, m4  m20 and m15  m31 are adjacent.
yz yz
wx 00 01 11 10 wx 00 01 11 10
00 m0 m1 m3 m2 00 m16 m17 m19 m18
01 m4 m5 m7 m6 01 m20 m21 m23 m22
11 m12 m13 m15 m14 11 m28 m29 m31 m30
10 m8 m9 m11 m10 10 m24 m25 m27 m26
v=0 v=1

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Example: 5-Variable K-Maps

 F(v, w, x, y, z) =  (0, 2, 4, 6, 9, 13, 21, 23, 25, 29, 31)

yz yz
wx 00 01 11 10 wx 00 01 11 10
00 1 1 00
01 1 1 01 1 1
11 1 11 1 1
10 1 10 1
v=0 v=1

• F(v,w,x,y,z) = v’w’z’+wy’z+vxz
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Don't Cares in K-Maps

 Sometimes a function table or map contains entries for which

it is known:
• the input values for the minterm will never occur, or
• The output value for the minterm is not used
 In these cases, the output value need not be defined
 Instead, the output value is defined as a “don't care”
 By placing “don't cares” ( an “x” entry) in the function table or
map, the cost of the logic circuit may be lowered.
 Example 1: A logic function having the binary codes for the
BCD digits as its inputs. Only the codes for 0 through 9 are
used. The six codes, 1010 through 1111 never occur, so the
output values for these codes are “x” to represent “don’t
cares.”

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Don't Cares in K-Maps
 Example 2: A circuit that represents a very common situation that
occurs in computer design has two distinct sets of input variables:
• A, B, and C which take on all possible combinations, and
• Y which takes on values 0 or 1.
and a single output Z. The circuit that receives the output Z observes
it only for combinations of A, B, and C such that A = 1 and B = 1 or C
= 0, otherwise ignoring it. Thus, Z is specified only for those
combinations, and for all other combinations of A, B, and C, Z is a
don’t care. Specifically, Z must be specified for AB + C = 1, and is a
don’t care for :
AB + C = (A + B)C = AC + BC
 Ultimately, each don’t care “x” entry may take on either a 0 or 1
value in resulting solutions
 For example, an “x” may take on value “0” in an SOP solution and
value “1” in a POS solution, or vice-versa.
 Any minterm with value “x” need not be covered by a prime
implicant.

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Example: BCD “5 or More”

 The map below gives a function F1(w,x,y,z) which

is defined as "5 or more" over BCD inputs. With
the don't cares used for the 6 non-BCD
combinations:
y
F1 (w,x,y,z) = w + x z + x y G = 7
00 01 03 02
 This is much lower in cost than F2 where
04 15 17 16 the “don't cares” were treated as "0s."
x
X12 X13 X15 X14 F2(w, x, y, z) = w x z + w x y + w x y G = 12
w  For this particular function, cost G for the
1 8 1 9 X11 X10
POS solution for F1(w,x,y,z) is not changed
z by using the don't cares.

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Product of Sums Example

 Find the optimum POS solution:

F(A, B, C, D) = m(3,9,11,12,13,14,15) +
d (1,4,6)

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Optimization Algorithm

1 2 3
Find all prime Include all essential Select a minimum cost
implicants. prime implicants in the set of non-essential
solution prime implicants to
cover all minterms not
yet covered:

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Prime Implicant Selection Rule

 Minimize the overlap among prime

implicants as much as possible. In
particular, in the final solution, make sure
that each prime implicant selected includes
at least one minterm not included in any
other prime implicant selected.

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Selection Rule Example

 Simplify F(A, B, C, D) given on the K-

map. Selected Essential
C C

1 1 1 1

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
B B
1 1
A A
1 1 1 1

D D
Minterms covered by essential prime implicants

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Selection Rule Example with Don’t Cares

 Simplify F(A, B, C, D) given on the K-map.

Selected Essential
C C

1 x 1 x

1 x x 1 1 x x 1
B B
x x
A A
1 1 x 1 1 x

D D
Minterms covered by essential prime implicants

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Quine-McCluskey Method

 The Boolean function is represented in SOP

or POS.
 1st Phase: Finding the prime implicants of f.
 2nd Phase: Finding optimal representation
of f by taking some of the prime implicants.

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Optimization of SOP Representation By Quine-McCluskey Method
1st Phase : Finding the prime implicants
 Example: f(x1,x2,x3,x4)=m(1,3,5,6,7,8,12,14,15)

x 1 x 2 x3 x 4 x1 x 2 x 3 x 4 x1 x 2 x 3 x4
 10 0 0 1 1,3  0 0 - 1 1,3,5,7 0 - - 1 C
 81 0 0 0 1,5  0 - 0 1 1,5,3,7 0 - - 1
 30 0 1 1 8,12 A 1 - 0 0
6,7,14,15 - 1 1 - D
 50 1 0 1 3,7  0 - 1 1
 60 1 1 0 5,7  0 1 - 1 6,14,7,15 - 1 1 -
12 1 1 0 0 6,7  0 1 1 -
6,14  - 1 1 0
 70 1 1 1
12,14 B1 1 - 0
14 1 1 1 0
7,15  - 1 1 1
15 1 1 1 1 14,15 1 1 1 -

Sum of Prime Implicants:

f(x1,x2,x3,x4)=x1x3x4+x1x2x4+x1x4+x2x3

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Optimization of SOP Representation By Quine-McCluskey Method

2nd Phase : Finding optimal representation

Coverage Table Method

A 8,12
1 3 5 6 7 8 121415
X X EPI
B 12,14 A
B X X
C X X X X EPI
C 1,3,5,7 D X X X X EPI
D 6,7,14,15

Optimal Representation:
f(x1,x2,x3,x4)=x1x3x4+x1x4+x2x3

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Optimization of SOP Representation By Quine-McCluskey Method
2nd Phase : Finding optimal representation

Petrick Method
A 8,12 P=C C C D (C+D) A (A+B) (B+D) D
B 12,14 X+XY=X and (X+Y)(X+Z)=X+YZ

C 1,3,5,7 P=1 => A=1, C=1, D=1

D 6,7,14,15
Optimal Representation:
f(x1,x2,x3,x4)=x1x3x4+x1x4+x2x3
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Example: f(x1,x2,x3,x4)=m(1,4,5,7,8,9,11,12,14,15)

x 1 x 2 x3 x4 x1 x2 x3 x4
 10 0 0 1 1,5 0 - 0 1 A
 40 1 0 0 1,9 - 0 0 1 B
 81 0 0 0 4,5 0 1 0 - C
 50 1 0 1 4,12 - 1 0 0 D
 91 0 0 1 8,9 1 0 0 - E
12 1 1 0 0 8,12 1 - 0 0 F
70 1 1 1 5,7 0 1 - 1 G
11 1 0 1 1 9,11 1 0 - 1 H
14 1 1 1 0 12,14 1 1 - 0 I
15 1 1 1 1 7,15 - 1 1 1 J
11,15 1 - 1 1 K
14,15 1 1 1 - L

Sum of Prime Implicants:

f(x1,x2,x3,x4)=x1x3x4+x2x3x4+x1x2x3+x2x3x4+x1x2x3+
x1x3x4+x1x2x4+x1x2x4+x1x2x4+x2x3x4+x1x3x4+x1x2x3
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Example: f(x1,x2,x3,x4)=m(1,4,5,7,8,9,11,12,14,15)
P=(A+B)(C+D)(A+C+G)(G+J)(E+F)

1 4 5 7 8 9 111214 15 (B+E+H)(H+K)(D+F+I)(I+L)(J+K+L)
A X X There is no essential prime implicant.
B X X None of the rows cover another row.
C X X None of the columns cover another column.
X Let A=1
D X
P= (C+D)(G+J)(E+F)(B+E+H)(H+K)
E X X
F X X (D+F+I)(I+L)(J+K+L)
G X X There is no essential prime implicant.
H X X E covers B. D covers C. J covers G.
I X X B=0, C=0, G=0
J X X P= D J (E+F)(E+H)(H+K)(D+F+I)(I+L)
K X X (J+K+L)
L X X D and J are essential prime implicants.
D=1, J=1
E and H essential prime implicant.
E=1, H=1 P= (E+F)(E+H)(H+K)(I+L)

There is no essential prime implicant. There is no essential prime implicant.

No row or column coverage. E covers F. H covers K. F=0, K=0
I=1 or L=1 P= E (E+H) H (I+L) 52
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Example: f(x1,x2,x3,x4)=m(1,4,5,7,8,9,11,12,14,15)

Optimal Representation:

A D J E H I or L
f(x1,x2,x3,x4)=x1x3x4+x2x3x4+x2x3x4+x1x2x3+x1x2x4+x1x2x4
or x1x2x3

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Optimization of POS Representation By
Quine-McCluskey Method
 Example: f(x1,x2,x3,x4)=M(1,4,5,8,11,12,14)

x1 x 2 x 3 x 4 x 1 x2 x3 x4
1 4 8 5 12 1114
 1 0 0 0 1 1,5 0 - 0 1 B
A X EPI
 4 0 1 0 0 4,5 0 1 0 - C
B X X EPI
 8 1 0 0 0 4,12 - 1 0 0 D
C X X
 5 0 1 0 1 8,12 1 - 0 0 E
D X X
 12 1 1 0 0 12,14 1 1 - 0 F
E X X EPI
A 11 1 0 1 1
F X X EPI
 14 1 1 1 0

Product of Prime Implicants: Optimal Representation:

f(x1,x2,x3,x4)=(x1+x2+x3+x4) f(x1,x2,x3,x4)=(x1+x2+x3+x4)(x1+x3+x4)
(x1+x3+x4)(x1+x2+x3)(x2+x3+x4) (x1+x3+x4)(x1+x2+x4)
(x1+x3+x4)(x1+x2+x4) (x1+x2+x3) or (x2+x3+x4)
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Optimization of SOP Representation By Quine-

McCluskey Method with Don’t Care Conditions
 Example: f(x1,x2,x3)=m(0,1,5)+dm(2,6)
x1 x 2 x 3 x1 x2 x3
0 1 5
 0 0 0 0 0,10 0 - A
A X X
 1 0 0 1 0,20 - 0 B
B X
 2 0 1 0 1,5- 0 1 C
C X X EPI
 5 1 0 1 2,6- 1 0 D
 61 1 0

Sum of Prime Implicants: Optimal Representation:

f(x1,x2,x3)=x1x2+x1x3+x2x3+x2 f(x1,x2,x3)=x2x3+x1x2 OR x1x3

x3

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Example: F(x,y,z)=m(1,2,3,5,7)
x’y 1. sütun 2. sütun 3. sütun
y z
xyz xyz xyz
x 00 01 11 10
001 0 - 1 B - - 1
0 0 1 1 1
010 -01
011 A 01-
1 0 1 1 0
101 - 1 1
111 1 - 1
z
P=AB
F=x’y+z
A=B=1
A=x’y
B=z
F=A+B=x’y+z
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Example:A 7-segment display decoder takes a 4-bit

data input D3:0 and produces seven outputs to control
light-emitting diodes to display a digit from 0 to 9. The
seven outputs are often called segments a through g, or
Sa–Sg, as defined in Figure. The digits are shown in Figure
below. Write a truth table for the outputs, and use K-maps
to find Boolean equations for outputs Sa and Sb. Assume
that illegal input values (10–15) produce a blank readout.

https://everycircuit.com/circuit/6711990626287616/binary-to-7-segment-display-
decoder
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