Ofc Unit 3 A

UNIT 3
PHOTO DETECTORS
An optical detector is a device that converts light signals into electrical signals, which can then
be amplified and processed. The photo detector is as essential an element of any fiber optic
system as the optical fiber or the light source. Photo detectors can dictate the performance of a
fiber optic communication link. Semiconductor photodiodes are the most commonly used
detectors in optical fiber systems since they provide good performance, being small in size, and
are of low cost.Semiconductor photodiodes are made of silicon, germanium, GaAs, InGaAs, etc
PIN PHOTO DETECTOR
In order to allow operation at longer wavelengths where the light penetrates more deeply into the
semiconductor material, a wider depletion region is necessary. To achieve this then-type material
is doped so lightly that it can be considered intrinsic, and to make a low resistance contact a
highly doped n-type (n+) layer is added. This creates a p–i–n (or PIN) structure, as may be seen
in Figure 1.where all the absorption takes place in the depletion region.
figure 1:- (a) structure of a front-illuminated silicon p–i–n photodiode. (b) structure
of a side-illuminated (parallel to junction) p–i–n photodiode
Figure1 shows the structures of two types of silicon p–i–n photodiode for operation in the shorter
wavelength band below 1.09 μm. The front-illuminated photodiode, when operating in the 0.8 to
0.9 μm band (Figure 1(a)), requires a depletion region of between 20 and 50 μm in order to attain
high quantum efficiency (typically 85%) together with fast response (less than 1 ns) and low
dark current (1 nA). Dark current arises from surface leakage currents as well as generation–
recombination currents in the depletion region in the absence of illumination. The side-
illuminated structure (Figure 1(b)), where light is injected parallel to the junction plane, exhibits
a large absorption width (_500 μm) and hence is particularly sensitive at wavelengths close to the
band gap limit (1.09 μm) where the absorption coefficient is relatively small.
PHOTO DECTECTOR NOISE

The overall sensitivity of a photodiode results from the random current and voltage fluctuations
which occur at the device output terminals in both the presence and absence of an incident
optical signal. For calculating noise in photo diodes we have to consider the sources of noise that
arise within photodiodes. The photodiode dark current generates in the output the level
photocurrent when there is no intended optical signal present. However, there may be some
photo generated current present due to background radiation entering the device. The inherent
dark current can be minimized through the use of high-quality, defect-free material which
reduces the number of carriers generated in the depletion region as well as those which diffuse
into this layer from the p- and n+-regions.
Moreover, the surface currents can be minimized by careful fabrication and surface
passivation such that the surface state and impurity ion concentrations are reduced. Nevertheless,
it is the case that the detector average current F always exhibits a random fluctuation about its
mean value as a result of the statistical nature of the quantum detection process . This fluctuation
is exhibited as shot noise where the mean square current variation is proportional to F and the
photodiode received bandwidth B. Thus the rms value of this shot noise current is:
( IS2)1/2 = (2eBF)1/2
AVALANCHE PHOTO DIODES

The second major type of optical communications detector is the avalanche photodiode (APD).
This has a more sophisticated structure than the p–i–n photodiode in order to create an extremely
high electric field region (approximately 3 × 105 V cm−1), as may be seen in Figure 2(a).
Therefore, as well as the depletion region where most of the photons are absorbed and the
primary carrier pairs generated, there is a high-field region in which holes and electrons can
acquire sufficient energy to excite new electron–hole pairs. This process is known as impact
ionization and is the phenomenon that leads to avalanche breakdown in ordinary reverse-biased
diodes.
It often requires high reverse bias voltages (50 to 400 V) in order that the new carriers created by
impact ionization can themselves produce additional carriers by the same mechanism as shown
in Figure 2(b). More recently, however, it should be noted that devices which will operate at
much lower bias voltages (15 to 25 V) have become available.
The response time for the device is limited by three factors. These are:
(a) the transit time of the carriers across the absorption region (i.e. the depletion width);
(b) the time taken by the carriers to perform the avalanche multiplication process; and
(c) theRC time constant incurred by the junction capacitance of the diode and its load.
figure 2. (a) avalanche photodiode showing high electric field (gain) region.
(b) carrier pair multiplication in the gain region of an avalanche photodiode
At low gain the transit time and RC effects dominate giving a definitive response time and hence
constant bandwidth for the device. However, at high gain the avalanche build up time dominates
and therefore the device bandwidth decreases proportionately with increasing gain. Such APD
operation is distinguished by a constant gain–bandwidth product. Often an asymmetric pulse
shape is obtained from the APD which results from a relatively fast rise time as the electrons are
collected and a fall time dictated by the transit time of the holes traveling at a slower speed.
Hence, although the use of suitable materials and structures may give rise times between 150 and
200 ps, fall times of 1 ns or more are quite common and limit the overall response of the device.
PHOTO DECTECTOR NOISE

The overall sensitivity of a photodiode results from the random current and voltage fluctuations
which occur at the device output terminals in both the presence and absence of anincident optical
signal. For calculating noise in photo diodes we have to consider the sources ofnoise that arise
within photodiodes. The photodiode dark current generates in the output the level photocurrent
when there is no intended optical signal present. However, there may be some photo generated
current present due to background radiation entering the device. The inherent dark current can be
minimized through the use of high-quality, defect-free material which reduces the number of
carriers generated in the depletion region as well as those which diffuse into this layer from the
p- and n+-regions.
Moreover, the surface currents can be minimized by careful fabrication and surface
passivation such that the surface state and impurity ion concentrations are reduced. Nevertheless,
it is the case that the detector average current F always exhibits a random fluctuation about its
mean value as a result of the statistical nature of the quantum detection process . This fluctuation
is exhibited as shot noise where the mean square current variation is proportional to F and the
photodiode received bandwidth B. Thus the rms value of this shot noise current is:
( IS2)1/2 = (2eBF)1/2
SIGNAL DEGRADATION IN OPTICAL FIBER
ATTENUATION
The attenuation or transmission loss of optical fibers has proved to be one of the most important
factors in bringing about their wide acceptance in telecommunications. As channel attenuation
largely determined the maximum transmission distance prior to signal restoration, optical fiber
communications became especially attractive when the transmission losses of fibers were
reduced below those of the competing metallic conductors (less than 5 dB km−1).Signal
attenuation within optical fibers, as with metallic conductors, is usually expressed in the
logarithmic unit of the decibel. The decibel, which is used for comparing two power levels, may
be defined for a particular optical wavelength as the ratio of the input (transmitted) optical power
Pi into a fiber to the output (received) optical power Po from the fiber as:
Number of decibels (dB) = 10 log10 Pi/Po
A number of mechanisms are responsible for the signal attenuation within optical fibers. These
mechanisms are influenced by the material composition, the preparation and purification
technique, and the waveguide structure. They may be categorized within several major areas
which include material absorption, material scattering (linear and nonlinear scattering), curve
and microbending losses, mode coupling radiation losses and losses due to leaky modes.

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UNIT 3

PIN PHOTO DETECTOR

PHOTO DECTECTOR NOISE

AVALANCHE PHOTO DIODES

PHOTO DECTECTOR NOISE

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