UNIT - 4

OTHER TYPES OF ENERGY SOURCES

 SYLLABUS
Ocean energy sources – Principle of ocean
thermal energy conversion – Tidal energy
conversion – Wave energy conversion –
Geothermal sources.
 Ocean energy sources
From the oceans we can harvest: thermal energy, from the
temperature difference of the warm surface waters and the cool
deeper waters, as well as potential and kinetic energy, usually
lumped as mechanical energy, from the tides, waves and currents.
Oceans mechanical energy is very different from the oceans
thermal energy. Tides are driven primarily by the gravitational
pull of the moon, waves are driven primarily by the winds and
ocean currents are even more complex driven by solar heating
and wind in the waters near the equator, also by tides, salinity and
density of the water. For these reasons tides, waves and currents
are intermittent sources of energy, while ocean thermal energy is
quite constant. The electricity conversion of all three usually
involves mechanical devices.
 ENERGY SOURCES

Waves: Wave energy can be harnessed and converted into electrical energy at
onshore or offshore sites through a number of technological mechanisms. Onshore
or coastal sites extract power from breaking waves. Deep-water sites have three to
eight times as much wave power as coastal sites and are more efficient in electrical
energy conversion; however, the transmission and maintenance costs increase the
further the installation is offshore.
Tides: The daily variation in tides can be converted into electrical energy in coastal
areas. There must be a difference of at least 5 metres between the high tides and low
tides to harness energy from them. The significantly higher density of seawater
allows ocean currents to carry much more energy than air, making tidal technology
more productive than wind power plants, even when ocean currents are slower than
wind speeds. Turbines, which resemble wind turbines, can be placed offshore once
water depths are 20–30 metres. Other options to harness tidal energy are more
environmentally invasive, such as dams and tidal fences, both of which can interfere
with sea life and silt flows.
Osmotic: When salt water from the ocean meets freshwater, there is a pressure
differential created because salt from the seawater wants to move into the
freshwater. As it does so, energy is released. Capturing and converting this
energy is the goal of osmotic ocean energy production.
Thermal: Some 70 per cent of the Earth is covered by oceans, making them
the world’s largest solar collector. Ocean thermal energy conversion (OTEC)
relies on temperature differences between sun-warmed water near the ocean’s
surface and colder waters in the deep ocean to produce steam to power a
turbine and then condense it back into liquid. A difference of 20 degrees is
needed, making OTEC power production most viable in tropical coastal zones.
 Advantages in Ocean Energy
• Relatively steady supply: Compared with solar and wind
energy, the ocean energy is a more reliable source of energy,
with support from technology advancements.
• Vast potential: Although the development of ocean energy
technologies is still in a nascent stage, a theoretical potential
for ocean energy (7,400 EJ per year) is huge enough to
accommodate the energy needs of current and future
generations.
• Job creation potential: Researchers for a European Ocean
Energy Association report estimated that 10–20 jobs per MW
of ocean energy could be created in coastal regions with good
ocean energy resources.
 Challenges in Ocean Energy
• High capital costs prove to be a major hurdle to development.
In addition to the development of under water transmission,
most coastal regions lack high-voltage transmission lines and
would need significant transmission upgrades to move power
to the load centres.
• Low-profile installations may present a hazard to shipping
navigation and fishing, creating conflict with other economic
uses of the water. Ocean front views may be disturbed by
onshore or near-shore installations (such as tidal dams),
leading to reduced tourism or real estate values along the coast
 Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion
(OTEC)
OTEC offers the advantage of a resource which is available almost equally during the day
and night with slightly variations on winter and summer. This renewable source can be combined
with other applications that are deriving from it like: mar culture, potable water production and
air conditioning refrigerant among others. OTEC power plants must be located on areas where the
ocean water temperature difference of at least 20º C can be accomplished. But other factors have
to taking into account before considered a particular location suitable for an OTEC development.
Some of these factors are :
• Distance from the thermal resource to the shore (grid interconnection)
• Depth of the cold water location and sea bottom,
• Type of OTEC facility (Shoreline or near-shoreline, platforms or free-floating),
• Oceans conditions (waves, currents),
• Sea bottom conditions (mooring, floating power conductors installations),
• Environmental Impacts
• Deep Ocean Water Applications (DOWA) potential,
• Government’s incentives, and others.
 OTEC working cycles
Open Cycle - In the open cycle warm seawater can be use as
the working fluid. When the surface seawater is flashed
evaporated it is pumped into a vacuum chamber to produce a
spray of the liquid. Making the pressure of the chamber less than
the saturation pressure of the spray of the water, it starts to boil.
The steam that is produce passes through the turbine to generate
electricity. The steam later condensates using the cold seawater
and is not returned to the evaporator. This condensation process
can be done using two methods: spray cold seawater over the
steam or in a surface condenser in which the steam and the cold
water do not enter in contact with each other, producing
desalinated water. If the condensation is done using the spray
method the mixed of steam and cold water is discharged back to
the ocean, see Figure.
 Closed Cycle - In the OTEC closed cycle two working fluids
work to complete the cycle. First, it is necessary to use warm
seawater to vaporize a second working fluid such as ammonia,
propane or a Freon-type refrigerant. This second working fluid
will flow through an evaporator (heat exchanger). The high
pressure steam that is produced moves a turbine that is connected
to a generator that produces electricity.
After the steam moves the turbine, it is condensate using the
cold seawater that is pumped from the depths and is pumped back
to the evaporator to start the cycle. The turbines that are use in the
closed cycle are usually smaller than the ones use in the open
cycle because the density and operating pressure of the second
working fluid are higher.
 Compare Open cycle and Closed cycle OTEC

Open cycle Closed Cycle

One working Fluid used (Sea water) Two working Fluid used (Sea water &
refrigerant)
Large size Turbine can be used Comparatively small size turbine can be used
produce electricity directly by pumping it in a Use a fluid with low boiling point, such as
low-pressure container. ammonia or other refrigerants, expanding in a
turbine so as to generate electricity.
 Tidal energy conversion
Tidal energy or tidal power is a form of
renewable energy obtained due to alternating sea levels. The
kinetic energy from the natural rise and fall of tides is harnessed
and converted into electricity. To generate electricity, the disparity
in water levels must be at least 5 meters.
Tides are caused by the combined gravitational forces of the
moon, sun, and earth. However, tides are influenced most by the
moon. The moon’s gravitational force is so strong that it tugs the
ocean into a bulge. The high and low tides create tidal currents,
which are essential in the generation of this kind of energy,
mostly prevalent in coastal areas.
Gravity of Sun, Moon and Earth
Tidal Energy Conversion
 Tidal energy generation plants are most commonly installed
along coastlines, although offshore plants are increasingly
becoming popular. Coastlines are preferred because they receive
2 high tides and 2 low tides every single day. To generate
electricity, the disparity in water levels must be at least 5 meters.
 Advantages in Tidal Energy
• Predictable energy output – tides are predictable and constant,
thanks to gravitational forces. Only needing to assess the low
or high tide, makes it easier for engineers to design efficient
systems.
• As technology advances for tidal, it will get increasingly
cheaper and efficient.
• Protects coastal flooding due to the stability of the rock armour
under different design conditions. Tidal lagoons can withstand
1 in 500 storm surges and waves a year.
• Equipment and facilities of tidal power can last a lot longer
and be more cost-competitive than other renewable
technologies. With an asset life of 120 years, developments are
made for future increases in sea-level.
 Challenges in Tidal Energy
• It is currently expensive to construct tidal power plants as they
require high capital investments.
• Environmental issues such as habitat change, particularly with
tidal barrages.
• Maintaining and repairing equipment can be a challenge.
• Limited energy demand. Powerful tides only happen normally 10
hours out of each day, this means the tidal energy storage capacity
must be developed.
• Difficult to provide tidal energy to coastal communities, as the
energy produced by the tides is often a long distance from where
the electricity will be used inland.
 Wave Energy
Wave energy (or wave power) is the transport and capture
of energy by ocean surface waves. The energy captured is then
used for all different kinds of useful work, including electricity
generation, water desalination, and pumping of water.
 Technology
• There are multiple different technologies used for Wave energy.
There are five main types of technology used including;
• Absorbers,
• Attenuators,
• Oscillation water columns,
• Overtopping,
• Inverted- Pendulum device,
• Oscillating Wave Surge Converter and
• Pressure Differential
 Abosorbers extract energy
• Abosorbers extract energy from the rise and fall of the waves
with a buoy. Once the energy is extracted it is then converted
to electrical energy with a linear or rotary generator.
 Attenuators capture energy
• Attenuators capture energy by being placed perpendicular to
the length of the wave, this causes the attenuator to
contentiously flex where segments are connected. This
connection is then connected to hydraulic pumps which
convert the energy.
Attenuators capture energy
 Oscillation Water Columns (OWC)
• Oscillation Water Columns (OWC) is a partially submerged
enclosed structure. the upper part of the structure, above the
water, is filled with air and incoming waves are funneled into
the bottom part of the structure. When these waves come
through the structure it causes the water column to rise and fall
with the wave which causes the air in the top structure to
pressurize and depressurize. this in turn pushes and pulls air
through a connected air turbine at the top of the structure,
converting the energy.
 Overtopping
• Overtopping has a wave lift over a barrier which fills a
reservoir with the water and is then drained through a hydro
turbine.
 Inverted- Pendulum device
• Inverted-Pendulum device uses the motion of waves to move a
hinged paddle back and forth. The motion of the paddle drives
hydraulic pumps which drives electrical generators
 Oscillating Wave Surge Converter
• These devices typically have one end fixed to a structure or the
seabed while the other end is free to move. Energy is collected
from the relative motion of the body, driven by the horizontal
motion of waves (surge), to the fixed point. Oscillating wave
surge converters often come in the form of floats, flaps, or
membranes. Rotary motion at a hinge may drive a generator to
produce electricity, or the moving body may be used to
pressurize a fluid
 Pressure Differential
• Pressure differential devices are located below the waves and
use the pressure difference between the crest and troughs of
waves. On one side, the higher pressure of the crest causes a
device to compress and on the other side, the lower pressure of
the trough causes the device to expand. Power is extracted as
air flows between the chambers
 Advantages of Wave Energy
• Renewable
• Environment Friendly
• Abundant and Widely Available
• Predictable
• Less Dependency on Foreign Oil Companies
• No Damage to Land
• Reliable
• Vast Amounts of Energy can be Produced.
• Size Advantage
• Minimum Visual Impact
• Efficient Energy Production
• Low Operational Cost and Fewer Maintenance Issues
 Disadvantages of Wave Energy
• Suitable to Certain Locations
• Effect on Marine Ecosystem
• Source of Disturbance for Private and Commercial Vessels
• Wavelength
• Weak Performance in Rough Weather
• Noise and Visual Pollution
• High Costs
• Hard To Scale
• Slow Technology Improvements
• Difficult To Transmit
• Few Implemented
 Geothermal Energy
• Geothermal energy is heat within the earth. The
word geothermal comes from the Greek words geo (earth) and
thermal (heat). Geothermal energy is a renewable energy source
because heat is continuously produced inside the earth. People
use geothermal heat for bathing, to heat buildings, and to
generate electricity.
 Geothermal Energy
• Geothermal energy is defined as heat from the Earth. It is a
clean, renewable resource that provides energy in the U.S. and
around the world in a variety of applications and resources.
Although areas with telltale signs like hot springs are more
obvious and are often the first places geothermal resources are
used, the heat of the earth is available everywhere, and we are
learning to use it in a broader diversity of circumstances. It is
considered a renewable resource because the heat emanating
from the interior of the Earth is essentially limitless. The heat
continuously flowing from the Earth ís interior, which travels
primarily by conduction, is estimated to be equivalent to 42
million megawatts (MW) of power, and is expected to remain so
for billions of years to come, ensuring an inexhaustible supply
of energy.
 WHERE IS GEOTHERMAL ENERGY FOUND ?

Most geothermal reservoirs are deep underground with no visible

clues showing above ground. Geothermal energy can sometimes
find its way to the surface in the form of:
– volcanoes and fumaroles (holes where volcanic gases are
released)
– hot springs
– geysers.
Earth Temperature
Global Geothermal Sites
Methods of Heat Extraction
 Dry Steam Schematic
Dry Steam Power Plant: Steam is produced directly from the geothermal reservoir to
run the turbines that power the generator, and no separation is necessary because
wells only produce steam. The image below is a more simplified version of the
process.
 Single Flash Steam Power Plants

• Steam with water extracted from ground

• Pressure of mixture drops at surface and more water
“flashes” to steam
• Steam separated from water
• Steam drives a turbine
• Turbine drives an electric generator
• Generate between 5 and 100 MW
• Use 6 to 9 tonnes of steam per hour
 Single Flash Steam Schematic

Boyle, Renewable Energy, 2nd edition, 2004

 Flash Steam Power Plant
This is the most common type of geothermal power plant. The illustration below shows the
principal elements of this type of plant. The steam once it has been separated from the water is
piped to the powerhouse where it is used to drive the steam turbine. The steam is condensed after
leaving the turbine, creating a partial vacuum and thereby maximising the power generated by the
turbine-generator. The steam is usually condensed either in a direct contact condenser, or a heat
exchanger type condenser. In a direct contact condenser the cooling water from the cooling tower
is sprayed onto and mixes with the steam. The condensed steam then forms part of the cooling
water circuit, and a substantial portion is subsequently evaporated and is dispersed into the
atmosphere through the cooling tower. Excess cooling water called blow down is often disposed of
in shallow injection wells. As an alternative to direct contact condensers shell and tube type
condensers are sometimes used, as is shown in the schematic below. In this type of plant, the
condensed steam does not come into contact with the cooling water, and is disposed of in injection
wells.

Typically, flash condensing geothermal power plants vary in size from 5 MWe to over 100 MWe.
Depending on the steam characteristics, gas content, pressures, and power plant design, between 6
and 9 tonne of steam each hour is required to produce each MW of electrical power. Small power
plants (less than 10 MW) are often called well head units as they only require the steam of one
well and are located adjacent to the well on the drilling pad in order to reduce pipeline costs. Often
such well head units do not have a condenser, and are called backpressure units. They are very
cheap and simple to install, but are inefficient (typically 10-20 tonne per hour of steam for every
MW of electricity) and can have higher environmental impacts.

http://www.worldbank.org/html/fpd/energy/geothermal/technology.htm
 Binary Cycle Power Plants

• Low temps – 100o and 150oC

• Use heat to vaporize organic liquid
– E.g., iso-butane, iso-pentane
• Use vapor to drive turbine
– Causes vapor to condense
– Recycle continuously
• Typically 7 to 12 % efficient
• 0.1 – 40 MW units common

http://www.worldenergy.org/wec-geis/publications/reports/ser/geo/geo.asp
 Binary Cycle Schematic

Boyle, Renewable Energy, 2nd edition, 2004

 Binary Cycle Power Plants
In reservoirs where temperatures are typically less than 220oC (430oF). but
greater than 100oC (212oF). binary cycle plants are often utilised.
The illustration below shows the principal elements of this type of plant. The
reservoir fluid (either steam or water or both) is passed through a heat
exchanger which heats a secondary working fluid which has a boiling point
lower than 100oC (212oF). This is typically an organic fluid such as
Isopentane, which is vaporised and is used to drive the turbine. The organic
fluid is then condensed in a similar manner to the steam in the flash power
plant described above, except that a shell and tube type condenser rather than
direct contact is used. The fluid in a binary plant is recycled back to the heat
exchanger and forms a closed loop. The cooled reservoir fluid is again
re-injected back into the reservoir. Binary cycle type plants are usually
between 7 and 12 % efficient depending on the temperature of the primary
(geothermal) fluid.
http://www.worldbank.org/html/fpd/energy/geothermal/technology.htm
If the geothermal resource has a temperature between 100o and 150oC,
electricity can still be generated using binary plant technology. The produced
fluid heats, through a heat exchanger, a secondary working fluid (isobutane,
isopentane or ammonia), which vaporises at a lower temperature than water.
The working fluid vapour turns the turbine and is condensed before being
reheated by the geothermal water, allowing it to be vaporised and used again in
a closed-loop circuit (Figure 12.3). The size of binary units range from 0.1 to
40 MWe. Commercially, however, small sizes (up to 3 MWe) prevail, often
used modularly, reaching a total of several tens of MWe installed in a single
location. The spent geothermal fluid of all types of power plants is generally
injected back into the edge of the reservoir for disposal and to help maintain
pressure. In the case of direct heat utilisation, the geothermal water produced
from wells (which generally do not exceed 2 000 metres) is fed to a heat
exchanger before being reinjected into the ground by wells, or discharged at
the surface. Water heated in the heat exchanger is then circulated within
insulated pipes that reach the end-users. The network can be quite sizeable in
district heating systems. For other uses (greenhouses, fish farming, product
drying, industrial applications) the producing wells are next to the plants
serviced.
http://www.worldenergy.org/wec-geis/publications/reports/ser/geo/geo.asp
 Double Flash Power Plants
• Similar to single flash operation
• Unflashed liquid flows to low-pressure tank – flashes to steam
• Steam drives a second-stage turbine
– Also uses exhaust from first turbine
• Increases output 20-25% for 5% increase in plant costs
Double Flash Schematic
 Combined Cycle Plants

• Combination of conventional steam turbine technology and

binary cycle technology
– Steam drives primary turbine
– Remaining heat used to create organic vapor
– Organic vapor drives a second turbine
• Plant sizes ranging between 10 to 100+ MW
• Significantly greater efficiencies
– Higher overall utilization
– Extract more power (heat) from geothermal resource
 Combined Cycle (Flash and Binary)
Combined Cycle power plants are a combination of conventional steam turbine
technology and binary cycle technology. By combining both technologies,
higher overall utilisation efficiencies can be gained, as the conventional steam
turbine is more efficient at generation of power from high temperature steam,
and the binary cycle from the lower temperature separated water. In addition,
by replacing the condenser-cooling tower cooling system in a conventional
plant by a binary plant, the heat available from condensing the spent steam
after it has left the steam turbine can be utilised to produce more power.
A number of such plants have been built in the USA, Philippines and New
Zealand with plant sizes ranging between 10 and over 100 MWe. Efficiencies
of such plants in terms of the power generated for the total fluid flow (both
steam and water) produced by the wells is significantly higher than
conventional plants, mainly due to the extra power generated by utilising the
heat in the brine.
 Hot Dry Rock Technology
• Wells drilled 3-6 km into crust
– Hot crystalline rock formations
• Water pumped into formations
• Water flows through natural fissures picking up heat
• Hot water/steam returns to surface
• Steam used to generate power
 Hot Dry Rock Geothermal Energy
Technology
• The technology to mine the heat from the hot rock found almost everywhere at
some depth beneath the surface of the earth was conceived and developed at Los
Alamos between the years of 1970 and 1996. Conceptually, hot dry rock (HDR)
heat mining is quite simple. As shown in the drawing (above, left) water is
pumped into hot, crystalline rock via an injection well, becomes superheated as it
flows through open joints in the hot rock reservoir, and is returned through
production wells. At the surface, the useful heat is extracted by conventional
processes, and the same water is recirculated to mine more heat.
• The key element in successful heat mining is the development of an engineered
geothermal reservoir in a hot body, impermeable rock. The point in a hot rock
body at which an HDR reservoir is created is determined by the selection of the
location on the surface from which the injection well is drilled and the depth
within the wellbore at which the water is injected into the hot rock, while the
overall size of the reservoir is a direct function of the total amount of water
pumped into the rock during its development. Although these parameters can be
engineered, the shape, orientation, and internal structure of the reservoir, are
entirely functions of the local geologic conditions and are, at present, beyond
human control. For this reason, it is important to understand the local geology
before attempting to develop an HDR reservoir.
• As an HDR reservoir is being formed, rock blocks are moved very slightly by the
injected water. These small movements give rise to low frequency stress waves similar
to, but much smaller than, those caused by earthquakes. Microseismic technology has
been developed to identify these signals and locate their points of origin. The data from
many such signals provide a picture of the size, shape, and orientation of the reservoir.
With this information in hand, production wells can be drilled into the reservoir to most
efficiently tap the superheated water that has been injected.
• As demonstrated at the Los Alamos Fenton Hill site (above, right) HDR system is
operated by circulating water through the engineered reservoirs at a pressure somewhat
less than that used during its creation. Under these conditions the overall volume of the
engineered reservoir is relatively stable. In the closed-loop operation, the injection pump,
working like the human heart, provides the entire motive force for the circulation.
Nothing except a small amount of waste heat is released to the environment.
• The Fenton Hill test experiment has been completed and HDR technological advances
realized at Los Alamos have been incorporated into a broader program encompassing
hydrothermal environments. That program is under the leadership of Princeton
Economic Research, Inc. (PERI). PERI is working with the US geothermal industry to
apply technology developed as part of the Los Alamos HDR effort to problems facing
commercial geothermal production which is currently derived entirely from natural
hydrothermal resources. PERI is also formulating longer-term plans and designing
programs that should eventually lead commercial utilization of HDR resources.
• HDR field work is continuing at sites in northern France and on the island of Honshu in
Japan. A nascent HDR program is also getting underway in Australia. The experience
gained from HDR work at Los Alamos is being utilized in all of these international
projects. That experience also provided the basis for a wide range of related activities
now underway in EES-4.
Hot Dry Rock Technology

Fenton Hill plant

Thank You…