| Basic Structure of Computers ® The Basic Computers Structures are divided into the following: Funetional Units Basic Operational Concepts Bus Structures 4. Software 5. Performance 3 ‘The basic or simple di gram ofa computer system is shown below Main Memory System Adress DDatainstruction Central Processing Unit (CPU) Operator, | \ wears || Attnete || (intron (pepa || | topic une {comme (Les LZ contrat unit kes Se) Input/Output System Functional Units A computer consist of three main parts 1. A processor (CPU) I. Armain-memory system TL, An WO system ‘The CPU consists of a control unit, registers, the arithmetic and logic unit, the instruction execution unit, and the interconnections among these components ‘The information handled by computer ae: @ Instruction 2 Gov bets e transfer nformation within a computer as well as .en the computer and its I/O devices 3 Specify the arithmetic and logic operations to be performed * Data Numbers and encoded characters that are used as operands by the instructions aoft3-———- v v Program A list of instructions that performs a task is called a program The program usually is stored in a memory called program memory The computer is completely controlled by the stored program, except for possible external interruption by an operator or by I/O devices connected to the machine Information handled by a computer must be encoded in a suitable format. Most present-day hardware employs digital circuits that have only two stable states, 0 (OFF) and 1 (ON) Memory Unit Memory @ The storage area in which programs are kept when they are running and that contains the data needed by the running programs Types of memory @ Volatile memory: storage that retains data only if itis receiving power, such as dynamic random access memory (DRAM) ‘@ Nonvolatile memory: a form of memory that retains data even in the absence of a power source and that is used to store programs between runs, such as flash memory Usually, a computer has two classes of storage @ Primary memory and secondary memory Primary memory Also called main memory. Volatile memory used te hold programs while they are running; typically consists of DRAM in today’s computers, 2013y Secondary memory © Nonvolatile memory used to store programs and data between runs; typically consists of magnetic disks in today's computers The memory consists of storage cells, each capable of storing one bit of information 4 Thestorage cells are processed in groups of fixed size called words 4 Toprovide easy access to any word in the memory, a distinct address is associated with each word location The number of bits in each word is often referred to as the word length of the computer © Typical word length from 16 to 64 bits The capacity of the memory is one factor that characterizes the size of a computer Instruction and data can be written into the memory or read out under the control of the processor Itisessential to be able to access any word location in the memory as quickly as possible @ Memory in which any location can be reached in a short and fixed amount of time after specifying its address called random- access memory (RAM) The time required to access one word is called the memory access time © This time is fixed, independent of the location cof the word being accessed The memory of a computer is normally implemented as a memory hierarchy of three or four levels © The small, fast, RAM units are called caches The largest and slowest unit is refered to asthe main memory 303Y v v i Arithmetic and Logic Unit Most computer operations are performed in the arithmetic and logic unit (ALU) of the processor For example, consider two numbers stored in the memory are to be added 4 They are brought into the processor, and the actual addition is cartied out by the ALU. Then sum may be stored in the memory or retained in the processor for immediate use Typical arithmetic and logic operation # Addition, subtraction, multiplication, division, comparison, complement, etc When operands are brought into the processor, they are stored in high-speed storage elements called registers. @ Each register can store one word of data Control Unit The control unit is the nerve center that sends control signals to other units and senses their states Thus the control unit serves as a coordinator of the memory, arithmetic and logic, and input/output units The operation of a computer can be summarized as follows: The computer accepts information in the form of programs and data through an input unit and stores it in the memory Information stored in the memory is fetched, under program control, into an ALU, where it is processed Processed information leaves the computer through an output unit ° ° ° Allactivities inside the machine are directed by the control unit sof| Computer Components: Top-Level View Input/Output Control Processor ALU Ros general pupose registers Basic Operational Concepts Inpu/Output Control Processor R, general purpose registers sofPte > Normal execution of programs may be preempted if some device requires urgent servicing To deal with the situation immediately, the normal execution of the current program must be interrupted Procedure of interrupt operation ° The device raises an interrupt signal « The processor provides the requested service by executing an appropriate interrupt-service routine The state of the processor is first saved before servicing the interrupt ‘© Normally, the contents ofthe PC, the general registers, and some ‘control information are stored in memory When the interrupt-service routine is completed, the state ofthe processor is restored so that the interrupted program may continue Classes of Interrupts » Program 4 Generated by some condition that occurs as @ result of an instruction execution such as arithmetic overflow, division by zero, attempt to execute an illegal machine instruction, or reference outside a usr’s allowed memory space > Timer @ Generated by a timer within the processor. This allows the perating system to perform certain functions ona regular basis » YO Generated by an I/O controller, to signal normal completion of an operation or to signal a variety of error conditions > Hardware failure 4 Generated by a failure suchas power failure or memory parity error 60f13Bus Structures » Agroup of lines that serves a connecting path for several devices is called a bus 4 Inaddition tothe lines that carry the data, the bus must have lines for address and control purposes & The simplest way to interconnect functional units is to use a single bus, as shown below Drawbacks of the Single Bus Structure v The devices connected to a bus vary widely in their speed of operation Some devices are relatively slow, such as printer and keyboard © Some devices are considerably fast, such as optical disks 4 Memory and processor units operate ae the fastest parts of a computer Efficient transfer mechanism thus is needed to cope with this problem 4 Acommon approach is to include buffer registers with the devices to hold the information during transfers 4 Ananother approach is to use two-bus structure and an additional transfer mechanism 12 high-performance bus a low-performance, anda bridge for transferring the data between the two buses. ARMA Bus belongs to this structure Tof 13SN SS Software > Inorder for a user to enter and run an application Program, the computer must already contain some system software in its memory System software is a collection of programs that are executed as needed to perform functions such as Receiving and interpreting user commands ‘Running standard application programs such as word processors, or games Managing the storage and retrieval of files in secondary storage devices 4 Running standard application programs such as word processors, ete © Controlling I/O units to receive input information and produce ‘output results Translating programs from source form prepared by the user into object form consisting of machine instructions © Linking and nmnning user-written application programs with existing standard library routines, such as numerical computation packages: > System software is thus responsible for the coordination of all activities in a computing system Operating System v Operating system (0S) © Thisisa large program, or actually a collection of routines, that is used to control the sharing of and interaction among various computer units as they perform application programs > The OS routines perform the tasks required to assign computer resource to individual application programs © These tasks include assigning memory and magnetic disk space to program and data files, moving data between memory and disk units, and handling I/O operations > Inthe following, a system with one processor, one disk, and one printer is given to explain the basics of OS ‘@ Assume that part of the program’s task involves reading a data file from the disk into the memory, performing some computation on the data, and printing the results BoUser Program and OS Routine Sharing \c 08 rue rites oad ap fom dikto memory was nl eral crcl Printer | | end pessesexecutonconal tobe apicaton repr Disk oa ) aa Ee Program Lt 4 a 4h ty Time Multiprogramming or Multitasking Printer isk |" os routines ( Program | | a ee cary Time eonswv v a x Performance The speed with which a computer executes programs is affected by the design of its hardware and its machine language instructions Because programs are usually written in a high-level language, performance is also affected by the compiler that translates programs into machine languages For best performance, the following factors must be considered ¢ Compiler Instruction set © Hardware design Processor circuits are controlled by a timing signal called aclock @ The clock defines regular time intervals, called clock cycles To execute a machine instruction, the processor divides the action to be performed into a sequence of basic steps, such that each step can be completed in one clock cycle Let the length P of one clock cycle, its inverse is the clock rate, R=1/P Basic performance equation T=(NxG)/R, where Tis the processor time required to execute a program, Ni the number of instruction executions, and isthe average number of basi steps needed to execute one machine instruction 100f 13System Balance is Essential > Note that system balance is absolutely essential for improving performance i » fone replaces a machine's processor with a model having twice the performance, this will not double the Overall system performance unless corres ponding, improvements are made to other parts of the system CPU-bound task. Input —* Processing —* Output WO-bouns tas! {source:B, Parhami, UCSB. Performance Improvement > Pipelining and superscalar operation 4 Fipelining: by overlapping the execution of sucessive instructions 4 Superscalar: different instructions are concurrent executed with rultipl instruction pipelines. This means that multiple functional units are needed > Clock rate improvement © Improving the inegrated-icuit technology makes logic circuits faster, which reduces the time needed to complete a basic step ‘6 Reducing amount of processing donein one basic tep also makes it possible to reduce the clock period, P, However, ifthe actions thet have to be performed by an instruction remain the same, the rnumber of basic steps needed may increase > Reduce the number of basic steps to execute ‘Reduced instruction set computers (RISC) and complex instruction set computers (CISC) a1oft3 oll_|_Comparing the AMD i t Comparing he AMD Das-Coe and ne Dal Core Processor stems ESSE — SEES in comparing design aly ween compules, say Tess oflen the practice to relate the peformares of two + X and Y. When computer X is faster than computer Y, this means that the response time or Therefore, Execution time of ¥ Execution time of ¥ AMD Dual-Core and Intel Dual-Core Processor Systems Execution times ——— if SPEC CPU2006 Execution Time in sevonds f Benchmarks “AM Turion Dual Core | Intel Pentium Dual Core |1__[00.peribeneh a a a ie [2 [aot ad H 403.gee eae | 429.mef B92 S.gobmi 813 mcs | 456shmmer 1235 462 fibquantaum 464. h26areE i lomnetpp 4PB.astar -483.xalancbmake 7a 955. a [~[Totat Execution Time senea 10924 sgeecea The performance results of HP Pavilion dv3, AMD Turion It P520 Dual-Core Processor ane Te prfomans mre panu Dud-cre Proce gteted fom SPP CINT2006, da aac above able and heal excite or he processor a 2S follows: ‘Total Execution time of AMD Processor =11647 seconds ‘Total Execution time of Intel Processor = 10928 seonds Given, Execution time of AMD Processor (E*) Execution time of Intel Processor (Ey) “To caeulae the percentage ofthe processor execution ti “Faceution time of AMD Processor (EX) _ Execution me of Intel Processor (Ey) 100 These eS ata Process a reser = Exel rcs +2 400 Ex(AMD Processor) ~ Ex (Incl Processor) }= n+ Ey(intel Processor) Ex(AMD Processor) ~ Ex (Intel Processor) | 100 Fy intel Processor) ai pe HAT 10924 , 100 41 =~ q0924 TC ne 734100 _ 72300 = “qopa8 ~ 10924 n= 66185% 120f13