NEW Syllabus Notes of SSAC 111 Agri

K. K.
WAGH COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE, NASHIK
Karmaveer Kakasaheb Wagh Education Society’s

K. K. WAGH COLLEGE OF AGRICULTRURE,
Saraswatinagar Nagar, Panchavati, Nasik-422003
Theory Notes of Ist Semester

Course Title:-
Fundamentals of Soil Sciences
Course No:- SSAC-111
Department
Soil Science and Agricultural Chemistry
Prepared by: Prof. S. B. Aware 1

K. K. WAGH COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE, NASHIK
Index
Course : SSAC 111 Credit: 3(2+1) Semester-I
Course title: Fundamentals of Soil Science
Teaching schedule
Theory
Lecture Topic Weightage
(%)
1&2 History and development of soil science, its scope and importance. 5
Soil as natural body, pedological and edapholgical concept of soil.
3&4 Soil genesis: Soil forming rocks and minerals. 6
5&6 Weathering of Rocks and Minerals. 6
7&8 Processes and factors of soils formation. 5
9 Soil profile, components of soil. 5
10 & 11 Soil physical properties: Soil texture, structure, density and 5
porosity.
12 Soil colour, consistency and plasticity. 3

13 ,14 Elementary knowledge of soil survey, soil taxonomy, 5
classification, Land capability classification.
15 Soils of India and Maharashtra. 3
16 , 17& Soil water : Soil water classification, soil water retention , soil 6
18 water potential, soil moisture constants’, Hydraulic conductivity,
permeability, percolation, movement and availability in soil.
19 Soil air : composition, gaseous exchange and effect on plant 6
growth.
20 Soil temperature: source, amount and flow of heat in soil and 6
effect on plant growth.
21 &22 Soil reaction: pH, soil acidity and alkalinity, buffering capacity, 6
effect of soil pH on nutrient availability.
23 & 24 Soil colloids: soil colloidal properties, inorganic and organic 4
colloids.
25 , 26 & Silicate clay: constituents and properties, sources of charge, ion 6
27 exchange, cation and anion exchange capacity, base saturation.

28,29 & Soil organic matter: sources, composition, properties, factors 6

30 affecting SOM, its importance and influence on soil properties.
31 Humic substances-nature and properties 5
32 ,33 Soil organisms : macro and micro organism, their beneficial and 6
&34 harmful effects on soil and plant. soil biological properties
(SMBC, soil respiration, DHA etc.)
35 & 36 Soil pollution – sources of soil pollution*, behavior of pesticides 6
and inorganic contaminants, prevention and mitigation of soil
pollution.
Total 100
Suggested Reading
1) ISSS. 2009. Fundamentals of Soil Science. 2nd Ed. Indian Society of Soil Science, New
Delhi- 110 012. pp. 728.
2) Das D. K. 2011. Introductory Soil Science, 3rd revised and Enlarged Ed, Kalyani
Publisher, Ludhiana. pp. 645.
3) Brady, N. C. 2016. The Nature and Properties of Soils. 15th edition Publisher: Pearson
Education, ISBN: 978-0133254488
4) Daji J A; Daji J A; Kadam J R; Patil N D.1996. Textbook of Soil Science Bombay
Media Promoters and publishers Pvt. Ltd.
5) Biswas, T.D.; Mukherjee, S.K.. 1995. Text Book of Soil Science 2nd sEd. Tata McGraw
Hill Publisher, Delhi pp 433.

Scope of Soil Science
Soil Science has six well defined and developed disciplines. Scope of
soil Science is reflected through these disciplines.
Soil Science : The science dealing with soil as a natural resource on the
surface of the earth, including Pedology (soil genesis, classification and
mapping) and the physical, chemical and biological and fertility properties
of soil and these properties in relation to their management for crop
production.
1. Soil fertility: Nutrient supplying properties of soil

2. Soil chemistry: Chemical constituents, chemical properties and the
chemical reactions
3. Soil physics: Involves the study of physical properties
4. Soil microbiology: deals with micro organisms, its population,
classification, its role in transformations
5. Soil conservation: Dealing with protection of soil against physical
loss by erosion or against chemical deterioration i.e. excessive loss of
nutrients either natural or artificial means.
6. Pedology: Dealing with the genesis, survey and classification
Soil : it can be defined as natural dynamic body develop as a result of

different pedogenic process which takes place during and after weathering of
rocks and in which all forms of life are able to grow (macro and micro
organism)
Weathering :Transformation of solid rocks into parent material or regolith

due to physical and chemical change.
Regolith : Unconsolidated parent material which lies on hard mass.
Different Approaches
1) Pedalogical approach (origin of soil Survey, classification).
2) Edaphological approach (utility of soil)
1. Pedalogical approach : In this approach soil has been consider as
natural body . in pedological approach origin of soil (genesis),survey,
classification of soil ,examination of soil in the field etc.
2. Edaphological approach : In this approach soil has been consider as

medium for plant growth based on its fertility and productivity .
Soil Fertility: it is ability of soil to supply all essential nutrients (17

essential nutrient ) in balance proportion and available form
Macro- ( C ,H ,O, N, P, K , S ,Ca, Mg)
Micro- (Fe , Mn , Zn , Cu ,Mo, B ,Cl).
Soil productivity: it is capacity of soil to produce maximum nutrients

virtually on permanent basis .
Note : All productive soils are fertile soil but all fertile soils may productive
or may not be productive based on proper management practices .
COMPOSITION OF EARTH’S CRUST-
• Rock is composed of elements, which in turn are made upto atoms.

• Out of 106 elements known 8 are sufficiently abundant as to
constituent about 99% by weight on the Earth’s crust (upto 16 km).
O = 47% (46.6%)
Si = 27.7%
Al = 8.1%
Fe = 5%
Ca = 3.6%
Na = 2.8%
K = 2.6%
Mg = 1.5%

Weathering of Rocks and Minerals
Rocks and minerals are formed under a very high temperature and pressure,
exposed to atmospheric conditions of low pressure and low temperature and
they become unstable and weather.
Rock ->Weathering ->Regolith ->Soil forming factors and processes ->True

soil
Two processes involved in the formation of soil are:
1. Formation of regolith by breaking down (weathering) of the bed rock.

2. The addition of organic matter through the decomposition of plant and
animal tissues, and reorganization of these components by soil
forming processes to form soil.
Weathering: A process of disintegration and decomposition of rocks and

minerals which are brought about by physical agents and chemical
processes, leading to the formation of Regolith (unconsolidated residues of
the weathering rock on the earth’s surface or above the solid rocks).
(OR)
The process by which the earth’s crust or lithosphere is broken down by the
activities of the atmosphere, with the aid of the hydrosphere and biosphere
(OR)
The process of transformation of solid rocks into parent material or Regolith
Parent material: It is the regolith or at least its upper portion. May be

defined as the unconsolidated and more or less chemically weathered
mineral materials from which soil are developed
Two basic processes of Weathering:
1. Physical (or) mechanical - Disintegration

2. Chemical – Decomposition
3. Biological (Disint + Decomp)
Depending up on the agents taking part in weathering processes, it is

classified into three types.
Different agents of weathering
Physical/ Mechanical Chemical (decomposition) Biological (disint +

(disintegration) decomp)
1. Nature of rock 1.Hydration 1.Man & animals
2.Change in temperature 2.Hydrolysis 2. higher plants &
their roots
3.Action of H2O 3.Solution 3.Micro organisms
4.Carbonation
- action of freezing 5.Oxidation
- alter. Wet & drying 6.Reduction
- action of glaciers
4.Action of wind
5. Atmosp. electric
pheno
Physical weathering:
Breaking of rocks and minerals into smaller fragment due to physical
forces without any chemical change also called as disintegration of rocks.
Factors affecting:
1. Nature of rock- Rock is aggregate of one or more than one mineral.

Different material have different heat conductance, thus , this temperature
differential causes variation in temperature between surface of rocks and
inner side of rocks which develop temperature between outer surface of
rocks & inner surface of rock which leads to peeling of thin layer from outer
surface of rock, this phenomenon is called exfoliation.
2. Action of Temperature - During day time due to sun’s heat rocks get
heated, which leads to expansion of rocks when temperature falls during
night, decrease in temperature causes contraction of rock. Thus alternate
expansion and contraction due to heating & cooling resp. Leads to
development of cracks in rock.
3. Alternate wetting and Drying: Some natural substances increase

considerably in volume on wetting and shrink on drying. (e.g.) smectite,
montmorillonite

1. During dry summer/ dry weather – these clays shrink considerably

forming deep cracks or wide cracks.
2. On subsequent wetting, it swells.
3. This alternate swelling and shrinking/ wetting or drying of clay
enriched rocks make them loose and eventually breaks
4.Water - water has great capacity of transporting weathered material from

one place to another place , it has also cutting \ grinding action which is
based on quality of suspended material carried by running water and
intensity of flow .
5. Freezing action of water - In cool regin water enter into cracks developed
due to disintegration of rocks and get freezed which leads to increase in
volume of water at least 1/10 times which exert tremendous pressure and
widening of cracks takes place .
6.Glacier- In cool mountainous region when there is snow fall it gets
accumulated and leads to formation of ice blocks. Such ice blocks moving
under the influence of gravity called as glacier. Which has great destructive
action on rocks in its path.
7.Wind - Especially in desert region wind which is blowing at a very high
speed and carrying weathered material it, acts as a agent of physical
weathering. Sometime due to sand storm in desert region a huge quality of
sand particle carried out by wind at distant place and redeposited which may
cause fertile land into infertile due to sand cover .
8.Electrical Phenomenon - helps in widening of cracks developed due to
disintegration of rocks .
Chemical Weathering
In which rock is decompose due to different chemical
reactions. Speed of chemical reaction increases due to dissolve CO2 and
increase in temperature . It is the most important process for soil
formation.
Chemical weathering takes place mainly at the surface of rocks and

minerals with disappearance of certain minerals and the formation of
secondary products (new materials). This is called chemical transformation.
Factors affecting:

1.Solution : Rock is composed of different material . Some material is easy

soluble in water ,this material is easily removed due to it’s solubility and
rocks get decomposed. (e.g) halites, NaCl
H2O + NaCl------ Na+ , Cl- + H2O

Ions surrounded by water
2. Hydration: Chemical combination of water molecules with a particular

substance or mineral leading to a change in structure.
a) 2Fe2O3 + 3HOH ----- 2Fe2O3 .3H2O

(Hematite) (Red) (Limonite) (Yellow)
b) Al2O3 + 3HOH ------ Al2O3 .3H2O

(Bauxite) (Hyd. aluminium Oxide)
c) CaSO4 + 2H2O ------ CaSO4 .2H2O

(Anhydrite) (Gypsum)
d) 3(MgO.FeO.SiO2) + 2H2O ---- 3MgO.2SiO2.2H2O + SiO2 + 3H2O

(Olivine) (Serpentine)
Due to hydration, mineral become soft which increase speed

decomposition of mineral It leads expansion of volume.
3. Hydrolysis: Dissociation of water molecules into hydrogen(H+) and

hydroxyl (OH-) ions .if H+ ions increases water will have acidic reaction
which help in decomposition of rocks due to its acidity .minerals containing
Al and Si are more susceptible for hydrolysis.
KAlSi3O8+H2O----- HAlSi3O+KOH
(Orthoclase) (Acid silt clay)
HAlSi3O8 + 8HOH ------ Al2O3.3H2O + 6H2SiO3

(Recombination) (Hyd. Alum. oxide) (Silicic acid)

In Al Silicates , hydroxides are formed . these can be easily removed

through percolation , they may further react with other minerals which may
lead to formation of clay.
5. Oxidation: The process of addition and combination of oxygen to

minerals. The absorption is usually from O2 dissolved in soil water and that
present in atmosphere. The oxidation is more active in the presence of
moisture and results in hydrated oxides.(e.g) minerals containing Fe and Mg.
4FeO(Ferrous oxide) + O2 -> 2Fe2O3 (Ferric oxide)
4Fe3O4 (Magnetite) + O2 -> 6Fe2O3 (Hematite)
2Fe2O3 (Hematite) + 3H2O -> 2Fe2O3 .3H2O (Limonite)
6. Reduction: The process of removal of oxygen and is the reverse of

oxidation and is equally important in changing soil colour to grey, blue or
green as ferric iron is converted to ferrous iron compounds. Under the
conditions of excess water or water logged condition (less or no oxygen),
reduction takes place.
2Fe2O3 (Hematite) - O2 -> 4FeO (Ferrous oxide) - reduced form

In conclusion, during chemical weathering igneous and metamorphic
rocks can be regarded as involving destruction of primary minerals and the
production of secondary minerals.
6.Carbonation: The process of formation of carbonic acid due to

dissolvation of CO2 into water is called carbonation .
The material which is not easily soluble in water can be easily
dissolved due to formation of carbonic acid specially rocks containing
carbohydrate.
CO2 + H2O--------- H2CO3

Carbonic acid
CaCO3 + H2CO3 -------- Ca(HCO3)2

Not easily soluble in H2O Calcium bicarbonate (Easily soluble in water)
Biological Weathering

The weathering in which disintegration and

decomposition of rocks take place due to biological agent (macro and micro
organism + plants)
1. Man (Human being) –Cutting of rock for building construction dams,

railway tracks, etc. Bring out disintegration of rocks at greater intensity .
2. Rats, Rabbits, termites, ants, earth worms provide passage for entry of
water .
3.Higher plants –Roots of higher plants enter through cracks and exert
tremendous pressure which leads to widening of cracks and crevice
(disintegration).
• Deep rooted plants provide passage for water entry due to growing of
their roots deeper and deeper into soil .
• Water loving plants like mosses , lichens, grass, ferns continuously
keep rocks moist which bring further decomposition of rocks .
4. Micro organism –Micro organism bring decomposition of organic matter

during decomposition strong acids are produced . These acids are mainly
responsible for further decomposition.

Soil forming factors

Soil forming factors –
The variations are brought during soil profile formation by
different environmental factors are called as soil forming factors
The evolution of true soil from regolith takes place by the combined action
of soil forming factors and processes.
1. The first step is accomplished by weathering (disintegration &
decomposition)
2. The second step is associated with the action of Soil Forming
Factors
Dokuchaiev (1889) established that the soils develop as a result of the action
of soil forming factors
S = f ( P, Cl, O )
Further, Jenny (1941) formulated the following equation
S = f (Cl, O, R, P, T, …)
Where,
S- Any property of soil
f- Function
Cl – Environmental climate
O – Organisms and vegetation (biosphere)
R – Relief or topography
P – Parent material
T - Time
JOFFE (1949) grouped into two –

✓ Passive i) Parent material, ii) Relief, iii) Time
✓ Active iv) Climate, v) Vegetation & organism
Passive Soil forming factors
Passive – serves as a mass and active soil forming factors will act on this
mass and soil is formed
1. Climate – a. Temperature
b. Precipitation

Soil forming under High rainfall and low temperature (Acidic soils)
• High rainfall favours max leaching losses which is responsible for
washing of salts in downward direction ( max leaching losses)
• Low temperature restricts upward movement of salts through
evaporation (min. Upward movement of salts)
• Under such conditions irrerespective of parent material ( it maybe
alkaline , acidic or neutral)
Soil forming under High temperature and low rainfall (Basic soils)
• High temperature favours max. Upward movement of salt through
evaporation (accumulation of salts in surface horizon)
• Due to low rainfall downward movement of salts is restricted thus,
under such conditions irrespective of parent material basic or
alkaline soils are formed.
Climatic conditions
Ectodynomorphic soils
When climatic conditions playing role in soil formation and effect of
parent material has been subdivided by climatic conditions and soils are
formed are called as ectodynamorphic soils
e.g. basalt – high temperature convert into lateritic soil
High rainfall laterization
basalt lateritic lateritic soil
Endodynamomorphic soils
When parent material is playing dominant role and effect of climatic
conditions has been marked and soil is formed is called as
endodynamomorphic soils
e.g. organic soils – peat soil, muck , mor soil
2. Organisms
Human beings, vegetations, micro organisms. They bring brief
variation in soil profile. They do following actions –
1. Accumulation of organic matter
2. Profile manuring

3. Nutrient recycling
4. Structural stability
Organisms include human beings, vegetation, micro organisms all these

bring variation in soil profile based on 4 aspects as follow
1. Accumulation of organic matter , forestland but forest land contain
organic horizon (o)
2. Profile manuring – it is churning of soil constituents from lower
region or vice-versa
3. Nutrient recycling – well decomposed organic matter will serve as a
good source of essential nutrients . availability of nutrients to plant
is based on% organic matter present in the soil
4. Structure stability –it is based on % water stable aggregate present in
the soil structure
Passive soil forming factors -

1) Parent material – it acts as a passive soil forming factor and sere as a
source of mass . depending upon type of parent material , soil , temperature ,
water holding capacity , cation exchange capacity (CEC) , nutrients , etc
e.g if granite is parent material soil will have coarse texture , low cec , low
water holding capacity , low nutrients
2) Relief or topography (r) - it is nothing but slope of land and depending

upon slop of land intensity of water movement varies it will have maximum
intensity onslopy land and causes maximum leaching looses .soil erosion ,
on flat land intensity of water flow in horizontal direction ids reduced
thereby causing comparatively less soil erosion as compared to slopy land ,
thus , slopy land will have minimum depth of soil
Properties of submerged or water logged soil are totally different than
flat and slopy lands
3) Time (t)
Time determines degree of maturity of soil
Weathering stages in soil formation

Sr. No Stages Characteristic
1 Initial Un weathered parent material
Weathering started but much of the original
2 Juvenile
material still un weathered

Easily weather able minerals fairly decomposed; clay

3 Virile content increased, slowly weather able minerals still
appreciable
Decomposition reaches at a final stage; only
4 Senile
most resistant minerals survive
Soil development completed under prevailing
5 Final
environments
Young soil – it is reddish in colour and having weak profile development
Mature soil - horizon differentiation is clear and distinct and soi having
good depth
Soil forming Processes
Fundamental Soil forming Processes

1. Humification: Humification is the process of transformation of raw
organic matter into humus. It is extremely a complex process involving
various organisms.
First, simple compounds such as sugars and starches are attacked
followed by proteins and cellulose and finally very resistant compounds,
such as tannins, are decomposed and the dark colored substance, known as
humus, is formed.
2. Eluviation (washing out): It is the mobilization and translocation of

certain constituent’s viz. Clay, Fe2O3, Al2O3, SiO2, humus, CaCO3, other
salts etc. from one point of soil body to another. It is the process of removal
of constituents in suspension or solution by the percolating water from the
upper to lower layers. The horizon formed by the process of eluviation is
termed as eluvial horizon (A2 or E horizon).
3. Illuviation(washing in): The process of deposition of soil materials

(removed from the eluvial horizon) in the lower layer (or horizon of gains
having the property of stabilizing translocated clay materials) is termed as
Illuviation. The horizons formed by this process are termed as illuvial
horizons (B-horizons, especially Bt).
4. Horizonation: It is the process of differentiation of soil in different

horizons along the depth of the soil body.

Specific Soil Forming Processes

The basic pedologic processes provide a framework for later operation
of more specific processes
1. Calcification: It is the process of precipitation and accumulation of

calcium carbonate (CaCO3) takes place which leads to development
of a calcic horizon and ultimately formation of calcareous soil is
called calcification.
2. Decalcification: It is the reverse of calcification that is the process of
removal of CaCO3 or calcium ions from the soil by leaching
3. Laterization (Desilication): It is a process in which removal of silica
and accumulation of Al & Fe oxides (sequioxides) takes place which
leads to development of a are called laterite or latosols (Oxisols).
4. Podzolization (silication): It is a process in which removal of Al &
Fe oxides (sequioxides) and accumulation of silica takes place which
leads to development of podzolic soil.
5. Salinization: It is the process of accumulation of salts, such as
sulphates and chlorides of calcium, magnesium, sodium and
potassium, in soils in the form of a salty (salic) horizon. It is quite
common in arid and semi arid regions.
6. Desalinization: It is the removal by leaching of excess soluble salts
from horizons or soil profile (that contained enough soluble salts to
impair the plant growth) by ponding water and improving the drainage
conditions by installing artificial drainage network.
7. Solonization or Alkalization: The process involves the accumulation
of sodium ions on the exchange complex of the clay, resulting in the
formation of sodic soils (Solonetz).
8. Solodization or dealkalization: The process refers to the removal of
Na+ from the exchange sites. This process involves dispersion of clay.
Dispersion occurs when Na+ ions become hydrated.
9. Pedoturbation: Another process that may be operative in soils is
pedoturbation. It is the process of mixing of the soil. Mixing to a
certain extent takes place in all soils. The most common types of
pedoturbation are:
• Faunal pedoturbation: It is the mixing of soil by animals such as
ants, earthworms, moles, rodents, and man himself
• Floral pedoturbation : It is the mixing of soil by plants as in tree
tipping that forms pits and mounds

• Argillic pedoturbation: It is the mixing of materials in the

solum by the churning process caused by swell shrink clays as
observed in deep Black Cotton Soils
10. Gleization: The Gleization is a process of soil formation resulting in
the development of a glei (or gley horizon) in the lower part of the soil
profile above the parent material due to poor drainage conditions Such
soils are called hydromorphic soils.
Components of Soil (Volume basis)
Mineral matter-
• The size and composition of mineral matter in soils are variable to
nature of parent rock .
• Dominant minerals are quartz and feldsphars.
• Rock fragments are broken by disintegration(physically through
weathering and soil is formed.
• Material are usually coarse and mineral are extremely variable in size
smaller rock fragments are colloidal clay particles cannot be seen
without help of electron microscope.
• In general, primary minerals viz, quartz, biotite, muscovite etc,
dominated the coarser fractions of soil and secondary minerals viz.

silicate clays and hydrous oxide clays Fe and Al are present in very
finer fraction, clays in soil
Organic matter
• Soil organic matter exists as partly decayed and partically synthesised
plant and animal residues .
• Organic residues are broken down as a result of microbial activity in
soil due to constant change it must be replenished to maintain soil
productivity .
• Organic matter is a store house of nutrients in soil .
• Organic matter improves water holding capacity , aeration, status of
soil , desirable surface soil structure , promotes a greater proportion of
large pore sizes .
• Organic matter act as chelate .
Chelate- any organic compound that can bound to a metal by
more than one bond and form a ring or cyclic structure by that
bonding which makes nutrient available .
• Organic matter is a major source of N, 50-60% P and 80% S. It also
supplies different stress element like boron and molybdenum .
Soil water
• Significant role in plant growth relationship water vis held within the
soil pores with the varying degrees of forces depending on amount of
water present. with the increasing amount of water in soil the forces of
retension of water by the soil will be low and vice-versa .so
movement of retension of water is the soil in primarily influenced by
the characteristics of soil, viz texture, structure, nature of inorganic
and organic colloids , types and amount of exchangeable cations ,size
and total amount of pore spaces.
• Soil water also presents along with dissolved salts and makes up the
soil solution (water + dissolved salts )act as important medium for
supplying different essential nutrients to growing plants through
exchange phenomenons between soil solid surfaces snd soil solution.
Soil air
• Air spaces or pore spaces __ soil volume which is not occupied by
soil solids ,either mineral or organic .
• Under field conditions pore space is occupied by air and water. The
more the water , the less the air and vice-versa .

• During rainy season water replaces air from the soil pore spaces but as
soon as water disappeared by downward movement, surface
evaporation and transpiration etc, air gradually replaces the water as it
is lost from the pore space.
• Soil air contains various gases like CO2, small amount of O2 and N
etc.
• Soil air influence the growth of the plants as well as the activity of
different beneficial micro-organism present in soil.
Difference between Surface and Sub surface soil

Surface soil Sub- surface soil
1.completely weathered 1 .partially weathered
2. dominated by finer particles like 2. dominated by coarse fragments of

silicate clays. minerals. Eg, Quartz
3.surface soil is porous and friable . 3. more massive and compact.
4.aeration is good. 4. very poor aeration.
5. the no. and activity of soil micro- 5.microbial population and their
organisms is very high . activity is very low .
6. organic matter content is higher 6. Organic matter content is very low.
7. due to high organic matter colour 7.due to low organic matter light
of surface soil is deep brown or yellowish colour depending upon the
dark . nature and kinds of unweathered
materials.
8. fertile soil, most of the essential 8. less fertile ,very few essential plant
plant nutrients are present. nutrients are present.
9. no hard pan. 9. hard pan.
10. it has good physical 10. It has poor physical condition.

managment

Physical Properties of Soil
Physical properties (mechanical behaviour) of a soil greatly influence its use

and behaviour towards plant growth. The plant support, root penetration,
drainage, aeration, retention of moisture, and plant nutrients are linked with
the physical condition of the soil. Physical properties also influence the
chemical and biological behaviour of soil. The physical properties of a soil
depend on the amount, size, shape, arrangement and mineral composition of
its particles. These properties also depend on organic matter content and
pore spaces
Important physical properties of soils
1. Soil texture
2. Soil structure
3. Surface area
4. Soil density,
5. Soil porosity
6. Soil colour
7. Soil consistency
8. Soil compaction
9. Soil crusting
10. Soil colour
11. Plasticity
Soil texture
Definition: It is the degree of fitness or coarseness resulting from relative

proportion of percent sand, silt and clay particle of soil.
Primary particle of soil: sand , silt and clay
Soil separates :
Properties Sand Silt Clay

Size Large Medium Fine
Visibility Seen by Not seen by Can be seen only
naked eyes naked eyes under microscope
Aeration More Medium Less
Size of pores Large Moderate Small

Porocity Low Medium Maximum

Water holding capacity Low Medium Maximum
CEC Low Medium High
AEC High Medium Low
Plasticity High Medium Low
Soil consistency High Medium Low
Adhesion and cohesion High Medium Low
Tillage Easy Medium Difficult
Fertility Low Moderate High
Chemical nature Inert Medium Active
Minerals associated Feldspar, Mica, Semectite group
quartz hornblende
Basic textural classes:

To covey the textural makeup of soil (mechanical composition)
1) Sandy soil : Soil containing 90% or more than 905 sand. ( silt + clay )
These soils are low fertility soil, welled drained, low water holding capacity
and low CEC.
2) loamy soil : 50 % - 60 % silt, clay 30 – 35 % and rest is sand. These soil
are fertile soil without any difficulty for cultural operations.
3) clayey soil : Clay is more than 45 % and rest is ( silt + sand ). These soil
is more fertile , high water holding capacity and CEC but possing problems
of water logged condition.
Partical size analysis :

Mechanical analysis :
The determination of relative distribution of the ultimate or
individual soil particles below 2 mm diameter is called as Particle size
analysis or Mechanical analysis
Two steps are involved

i) Separation of all the particles from each other ie. Complete dispersion into
ultimate particles ii) Measuring the amount of each group Separation
Aggregating agents Dispersion method

Sr. No.
1 Lime and Oxides of Fe & Al Dissolving in HCl
2 Organic matter Oxidises with H2O2
3 High conc. of electrolytes Precipitate and decant or filter with

( soluble salts) suction

4 Surface tension Elimination of air by stirring with
water or boiling
After removing the cementing agents, disperse by adding NaOH
Measurement
Once the soil particles are dispersed into ultimate particles, measurement can
be done
i) Coarser fractions - sieving - sieves used in the mechanical analysis

corresponds to the desired particle size separation for 2 mm, 1 mm and 0.5
mm – sieves with circular holes, for smaller sizes, wire mesh screens are
used (screening)
ii) Finer fractions - by settling in a medium the settling or the velocity of

the fall of particles is influenced by viscosity of the medium. Difference in
density between the medium and falling particles, size and shape of object
Methods of Textural determination

Numerous methods for lab and field use have been developed
i)Elutriation method - Water & Air
ii) International Pipette method
iii)Decantation/beaker method
iv)Test tube shaking method
v)Feel method - Applicable to the field - quick method - by feeling the soil
between thumb and fingers
Soil textural diagram ( ISSS ) : considering the amount of sand, silt and
clay soil textural class can be determined with the help of textural triangle.

Particle analysis by using law – Stokes law, by G. G stokes (1851)

Law suggested that the relation between the radius of a particle and
its rate of fall in liquid. He started that the resistance offered by the liquid to
fall of the particle varied with the radius of the sphere and not with the
surface.
According to formula, the velocity of fall of a particle with the same
density is directly proportional to the square of the radius and inversely
proportional to viscosity of the medium.
V=
Where, V = velocity of fall (cm/sec)

g = acceleration due to gravity (cm/sec2)
dp = density of particle (g/cc)
d = density of liquid (g/cc)
r = radius of particle (cm)
n = absolute viscosity of liquid (poise)
Assumptions of stokes law:

1) Particle must be spherical, smooth and rigid.
2) Particle must be uniform density.
3) Particle must be sufficient large (>0.001 mm) as compared to molecules
of fluid so as to be unaffected by thermal (Brownian) motion of the fluid
molecules.
4) The particle should not interface with one another and should settle
independently. (unhinded fall)
5) The suspension must be still without any turbulence.
Limitations of stokes law:

1) some colloidal particle are plate shaped and fall slower than spherical
particle of same mass.
2) soil particle are not of the same density. Most silicates have density
values of 2.6 – 2.7 gm/cc , iron oxide – 5.0gm/cc or more.
3) The larger limit of particle exhibiting Brownian movement is
approximately 0.0002 mm. So soil particle smaller than this exhibit
Brownian movement.
4) Many fast falling particles may drag finer particles down along with them.
5) Particle >0.08 mm diameter settle quickly and cause turbulence.
Stones and gravels may influence the use and management of land
because of tillage difficulties but these larger particles make little or no
contribution to soil properties such as WHC and capacity to store plant
nutrients and their supply.
Gravels: 2 - 4 mm
Pebbles: 4 - 64 mm
Cobbles: 64 - 256 mm
Boulders: > 256 mm
The components of fine earth: Sand, Silt and Clay (Soil separates. The size
limits of these fractions have been established by various organizations.
There are a number of systems of naming soil separates.
1. The American system developed by USDA

2. The English system or British system ( BSI )
3. The International system (ISSS)
4. European system
i) USDA
Soil separates Diameter in mm

Clay < 0.002
Silt 0.002 - 0.05
Very Fine Sand 0.05 - 0.10
Fine Sand 0.10 - 0.25
Medium Sand 0.25 - 0.50
Coarse Sand 0.50 - 1
Very Coarse Sand 1 - 2 mm
ii) BSI

Clay < 0.002
Fine Silt 0.002 - 0.01
Medium Silt 0.01 - 0.04
Coarse Silt 0.04 - 0.06
Fine Sand 0.06 - 0.20
Medium Sand 0.20 - 1

Coarse Sand 1 - 2 mm
iii) ISSS

Clay < 0.002
Silt 0.002 - 0.02
Fine Sand 0.02 - 0.2
Coarse Sand 0.2 - 2
iv) European System
Diameter (mm)
Soil separates
Fine clay < 0.0002 mm
Medium clay 0.0002 – 0.0006
Coarse clay 0.0006 – 0.002
Fine silt 0.002 - 0.006
Medium silt 0.006 - 0.02
Coarse silt 0.02 - 0.06
Fine sand 0.06 - 0.20
Medium sand 0.20 - 0.60
Coarse sand 0. 60 - 2.00
Sand:
1. Usually consists of quartz but may also contain fragments of feldspar,
mica and occasionally heavy minerals viz., zircon, Tourmaline and
hornblende.
2. Has uniform dimensions
3. Can be represented as spherical
4. Not necessarily smooth and has jagged surface
Silt:
1. Particle size intermediate between sand and clay
2. Since the size is smaller, the surface area is more
3. Coated with clay
4. Has the physico- chemical properties as that of clay to a limited extent
5. Sand and Silt forms the SKELETON

Clay:
1. Particle size less than 0.002 mm
2. Plate like or needle like in shape
3. Belong to alumino silicate group of minerals
4. Some times considerable concentration of fine particles which does
not belong to alumino silicates. (e.g.) iron oxide and CaCO3
5. These are secondary minerals derived from primary minerals in the
rock
6. Flesh of the soil
Importance of Soil Texture
Presence of each type of soil particles makes its contribution to the nature
and properties of soil as a whole
• Texture has good effect on management and productivity of soil.

Sandy soils are of open character usually loose and friable.
• Such type of the texture is easy to handle in tillage operations.
• Sand facilitates drainage and aeration. It allows rapid evaporation and
percolation.
• Sandy soils have very little water holding capacity. Such soils can not
stand drought and unsuitable for dry farming.
• Sandy soils are poor store house of plant nutrients
• Contain low organic matter
• Leaching of applied nutrients is very high.
• In sandy soil, few crops can be grown such as potato, groundnut and
cucumbers.
• Clay particles play a very important role in soil fertility.
• Clayey soils are difficult to till and require much skill in handling.
When moist clayey soils are exceedingly sticky and when dry,
become very hard and difficult to break.
• They have fine pores, and are poor in drainage and aeration.
• They have a high water holding capacity and poor percolation, which
usually results in water logging.
• They are generally very fertile soils, in respect of plant nutrient
content. Rice, jute, sugarcane can be grown very successfully in these
soils.
• Loam and Silt loam soils are highly desirable for cultivation
• Generally, the best agriculture soils are those contain 10 – 20 per cent
clay, 5 – 10 per cent organic matter and the rest equally shared by silt
and sand.
SOIL STRUCTURE :-
•
DEFINITION- It is arrangement and organization of primary and secondary
soil particles into soil mass under natural conditions.
PEDS- Natural aggregates are called peds.

CLOD- Coherent mass of soil broken into any shape by artificial means
such as by tillage.
FRAGMENT- It is a broken ped.
CONCRETION- Coherent mass formed within the soil by the precipitation
of certain chemicals dissolved in percolating waters.
CEMENTING AGENTS- Al, Fe hydroxide, O.M, CaCo3 or clay.

Secondary/ Compounds/ Peds/ Aggregates.
• When primary particles of soil ( sand, silt and clay)
combined together due to binding or cementing action of Al, Fe
hydroxide, O.M, CaCo3 or Colloidal clay.
MECHANISM OF SOIL AGGREGATES FORMATION-
1. Flocculation- The phenomenon in which formation of flocs (loose soil

aggregates) takes place due to reduction in Zeta potential is called as
flocculation.
Flocculation is the first step in soil aggregate formation.
Deflocculation- Breaking of loose soil aggregates.
2) O.M ( Organic Matter)-
Organic matter acts as a cementing or binding agent which helps in
formation of soil aggregates which ultimately imparts loose or porous
structure to soil due to such type % pore space is increased.
3) Colloidal Clay-
Since colloidal clay posses adhesive and cohesive forces which helps
information of soil aggregates.
4) Al, Fe Hydroxide-
Acts as cementing and binding agents.
5) Growing Plants-
Roots of growing plants exerts pressure on soil particles very close
and helps in aggregate formation.
6) Microbial Activity-

• Decomposition of organic matter due to microbial activity produce

sticky substances like mucilage which acts as a binding agents and
helps in aggregate formation.
TYPES OF SOIL STRUCTURE:-
1) PLATE LIKE
When development of horizontal axis of aggregates take
place dominantly plate like structure are formed.
(a) PLATY- In plate like structure horizontal thick layers are developed.
(b) LAMINAR- In plate like structure very thin horizontal layers are
developed.
2) PRISM LIKE- When horizontal axis of aggregate is developed strongly,

prism like structure are formed.
(a)PRISMATIC- When prism like structure having flat tops.
Prism like structures are dominant in alkali soil specially in Natric
Horizon.
(b)COLUMNAR- Prism like structure having rounded tops.
3) BLOCKY- When aggregates does not have development of horizontal as

well as vertical axis but there axis are reduced almost in equal size to form a
block. Such structurs are called as block like structure.
(a) SUB ANGULAR- In this structure almost equal size axis form a block
like structure with very smooth or blunt edges.

(b) ANGULAR- It is almost block like except having pointed edges.
4) SPEROIDAL
(a)GRANULAR (NON POROUS)
(b)CRUMB (POROUS)
IMPORTANCE OF SOIL STRUCTURE:-

1) Soil is most important physical property in relation to plant growth
because it influence amount and nature of porosity.
2) They are mechanically stable.
3) It influence (a) Soil Fertility
(b) Soil Temperature
(c) Soil Aeration
(d) Soil Moisture
(e) Soil Water Movement
CLASSES OF SOIL STRUCTURE:-

Based on Individual Peds:-
(1) Very fine or very thin.
(2) Fine or thin.
(3) Medium.
(4) Coarse or thick.
(5) Very coarse or very thick.
GRADES OF SOIL STRUCTURE:-

Goods indicates degree of distinctness and durability of the individual peds
(1) Structureless- No visible peds aggregates.
(a) Massive- Appearance is coherent, compact, dry.
(b) Singl grain- Non-coherent, loose sand.
(2) Weak- Indistinct peds, poorly formed.

(3) Moderate- Well developed peds, fairly durable and distinct.

(4) Strong- Very well formed, quite durable and distinct.
NAMING A SOIL STRUCTURE- Grade, class and type.

e.g:- Strong coarse angular blocky
Density of Soil: Bulk Density and Particle Density
Density represents weight (mass) per unit volume of a substance.
Density = Mass / Volume
Soil density is expressed in two well accepted concepts as particle

density and bulk density. In the metric system, particle density can be
expressed in terms of mega grams per cubic meter (Mg/m3). Thus if 1 m3 of
soil solids weighs 2.6 Mg, the particle density is 2.6 Mg / m3 (since 1 Mg =1
million grams and 1 m3 =1 million cubic centimeters) thus particle density
can also be expressed as 2.6 g / cm3.
Bulk Density:
It is the mass per unit volume of dry soil.
Normal Soil BD ranges from 1.0 -1.60Mgm-3.(1.33)

Loose and porous soil have low BD as compared to compacted soils.
Finer the texture of soil, lesser is the bulk density.
Sand dominated soil = 1.7 Mgm-3.
Organic peat soil = 0.5 Mgm-3.
Compacted sub soil = 2.0 Mgm-3.
Partical Density:
It is the mass per unit volume of soil solids.
P.D ~ sp Gravity of soil substance.

Chemical composition and crystal structure of mineral determine P.D.
P.D is not affected by pore space, not related to size and arrangement of
particals (Soil structure).
P.D (mineral soil) – 2.60-2.75 Mqm-3.
P.D of very high organic matter – 0.9-1.3 Mqm-3.
P.D is the almost permanent character.
Clay – 2.2 – 2.6 Mqm-3.
Porosity:
Porosity refers to the percentage of soil volume occupied by pore space.
Soil pores :
a) Macro pores – Large size pores (>0.06mm) size exist between sand sized
qranules.
b) Micro/ capillary pores: Small size pores(<0.06mm) clays and clayey soil
have greater number of capillary pores.
Factors affecting bulk density
1. Pore space: Since bulk density relates to the combined volume of the
solids and pore spaces, soils with high proportion of pore space to solids
have lower bulk densities than those that are more compact and have less
pore space. Consequently, any factor that influences soil pore space will
affect bulk density.
2. Texture: Fine textured surface soils such as silt loams, clays and clay
loams generally have lower bulk densities than sandy soils. This is because
the fine textured soils tend to organize in porous grains especially because of
adequate organic matter content. This results in high pore space and low
bulk density. However, in sandy soils, organic matter content is generally
low, the solid particles lie close together and the bulk density is commonly
higher than in fine textured soils.
3. Organic matter content: More the organic matter content in soil results in
high pore space there by shows lower bulk density of soil and vice-versa.
Soil colour, Plasticity, Soil compaction, Soil Consistancy, Soil Crusting
Soil colour -
Manual soil color chart –196 colours are arranged
Hue-dominant special colour (y + r)
Value-apparent lightness/darkness as compare to absolute white

Chroma-purity of color
Hue
Black or brown- mainly due to presense of organic matter

Well decomposed organic matter will impact black or brown colour to soil
Red or yellow-fe unhydrate , hydrate fe –yellow colour to soil
White- due to presence of silica and lime
Blue or greennish – due to watter logged condition
Mottling- oxidation and reduction simultaneously brings variation in colour
Plasticity-
Property of moist soil to be moulded in designed shape .clayey soil will
have more plasticity as compared to sily and sandy soil.
Structurless soil- no aggregate formation of clay, sand, silt particles takes

place when sand, silt and clay particles remain as single individual grains
(texeral separate)eg-sandy soil.
Granulated soil –Maximum no. of aggregates are formed.

Due to formation of soil aggregates soil structure is well aerated or
porus or crumb.
Eg- organic soil or clayey soil.
Soil compaction:
Compaction encompasses compression plus increase in density of
soil. It is the dynamic behavior of soil.
The degree of compaction depends upon the nature of soil amount of
energy applied water content and extent of manipulation of soil.
Soil Consistancy:
It is defined as manifestation of the physical forces of cohesion and
adhesion acting with in the soil at various moisture constants.
Manifestation includes = Behavior towards gravity, pressur, thrust and pull.
Consistancy is expressed based on moisture level like wet, moist and dry.
Wet Soil: Soil saturated with water.

Moist Soil: At a moisture content approximately mid waybetween air dry

and field capacity.
Dry Soil: Rigidity, brittleness, tendancy to crush a powder.
Soil Crusting:
Soil crusting is the phenomenon associated with deterioration of soil
structure, where the natural aqqnegates break and disperse due to impact of
rain drops, followed by rapid drying due to radient energy of the sun.
SOIL WATER
Classification of soil water
Soil water has been classified from a physical and biological point of view
as Physical classification of soil water, and biological classification of soil
water.
Physical classification
• Gravitational water
• Capillary water
• Hygroscopic water
Biological Classification
• Available water
• Unavailable water
• Super available or superfluous water
PHYSICAL CLASSIFICATION OF SOIL WATER
1. Gravitational water: Gravitational water occupies the larger soil pores

(macro pores) and moves down readily under the force of gravity. Water in
excess of the field capacity is termed gravitational water. Gravitational water
is of no use to plants because it occupies the larger pores. It reduces aeration
in the soil. Thus, its removal from soil is a requisite for optimum plant
growth. Soil moisture tension at gravitational state is zero or less than 1/3

atmosphere.
Factors affecting gravitational water
i. Texture: Plays a great role in controlling the rate of movement of

gravitational water. The flow of water is proportional to the size of particles.
The bigger the particle, the more rapid is the flow or movement. Because of
the larger size of pore, water percolates more easily and rapidly in sandy
soils than in clay soils.
ii. Structure: It also affects gravitational water. In platy structure movement

of gravitational water is slow and water stagnates in the soil. Granular and
crumby structure helps to improve gravitational water movement. In clay
soils having single grain structure, the gravitational water, percolates more
slowly. If clay soils form aggregates (granular structure), the movement of
gravitational water improves.
2. Capillary water: Capillary water is held in the capillary pores (micro

pores). Capillary water is retained on the soil particles by surface forces. It is
held so strongly that gravity cannot remove it from the soil particles. The
molecules of capillary water are free and mobile and are present in a liquid
state. Due to this reason, it evaporates easily at ordinary temperature though
it is held firmly by the soil particle; plant roots are able to absorb it.
Capillary water is, therefore, known as available water. The capillary water
is held between 1/3 and 31 atmosphere pressure.
Factors affecting capillary water: The amount of capillary water that a soil
is able to hold varies considerably. The following factors are responsible for
variation in the amount of capillary water.
i. Surface tension: An increase in surface tension increases the amount of

capillary water.
ii. Soil texture: The finer the texture of a soil, greater is the amount of
capillary water holds. This is mainly due to the greater surface area and a
greater number of micro pores.
iii. Soil structure: Platy structure contains more water than granular
structure.

iv. Organic matter: The presence of organic matter helps to increase the
capillary capacity of a soil. Organic matter itself has a great capillary
capacity. Undecomposed organic matter is generally porous having a large
surface area, which helps to hold more capillary water. The humus that is
formed on decomposition has a great capacity for absorbing and holding
water. Hence the presence of organic matter in soil increases the amount of
capillary water in soil.
3. Hygroscopic water: The water that held tightly on the surface of soil
colloidal particle is known as hygroscopic water. It is essentially non-liquid
and moves primarily in the vapour form.
Hygroscopic water held so tenaciously (31 to 10000 atmospheres) by soil

particles that plants can not absorb it. Some microorganism may utilize
hygroscopic water. As hygroscopic water is held tenaciously by surface
forces its removal from the soil requires a certain amount of energy. Unlike
capillary water which evaporates easily at atmospheric temperature,
hygroscopic water cannot be separated from the soil unless it is heated.
Factors affecting hygroscopic water: Hygroscopic water is held on the

surface of colloidal particles by the dipole orientation of water molecules.
The amount of hygroscopic water varies inversely with the size of soil
particles. The smaller the particle, the greater is the amount of hygroscopic
water it adsorbs. Fine textured soils like clay contain more hygroscopic
water than coarse textured soils.
The amount of clay and also its nature influences the amount of hygroscopic
water. Clay minerals of the montmoril1onite type with their large surface
area adsorb more water than those of the kaolinite type, while illite minerals
are intermediate.
BIOLOGICAL CLASSIFICATION OF SOIL WATER
There is a definite relationship between moisture retention and its utilization

by plants. This classification based on the availability of water to the plant.
Soil moisture can be divided into three parts.
i. Available water: The water which lies between wilting coefficient and
field capacity. It is obtained by subtracting wilting coefficient from moisture
equivalent.

ii. Unavailable water: This includes the whole of the hygroscopic water
plus a part of the capillary water below the wilting point.
iii. Super available or superfluous water: The water beyond the field
capacity stage is said to be super available. It includes gravitational water
plus a part of the capillary water removed from larger interstices. This water
is unavailable for the use of plants. The presence of super-available water in
a soil for any extended period is harmful to plant growth because of the lack
of air.
RETENTION OF SOIL WATER
1. Adhesive and cohesive forces

Colloidal particle carries adhesive and cohesive force .
Adhesion =attraction between dissimilar molecule .
Cohesion =attraction between similar molecule .which helps in retention of
soil water into soil.
2. Surface Tension
Due to capillarity :
At surface,attraction among water molecule is much higher than the air and
water molecule which result in net downward movement just like stretched
elastic is called surface tension it help in retention of soil water .
3. Dipole nature of water molecule :Water molecule carring both the

charges i.e +ve and –ve simultaneously .Positive end of water molecule get
absorb on the surface of colloidal clay pointing negative end outside which
bring orientation of water molecule due to electrostatic force .As layer
becomes thicker and thicker orientation become weaker and at one point it
stops then liquid water appers.
SOIL WATER POTENTIAL

It is the difference between energy state of free pure water and soil
water is called as soil water potential .
Free energy of soil solids for water is affected by
1. Metric potential (solid –liquid)
It is attraction of soil particle for water molecule. It always negative
2. Osmotic potential :( liquid solutes –liquid)
It is attraction between liquid solutes and water molecules .it is always
negative.
3. Gravitational potential:
It is mainly due to gravitational force .It is always positive.
4. Total Potential:
Sum of all above
Pt = Pm +Po+ Pg
Total water potential (Pt} is the sum of the contributions of
gravitational potential (Pg), matric potential (Pm) and the Osmotic potential
or solute potential (Po).
SOIL MOISTURE CONSTANTS
The soil moisture content at equilibrium point (hygroscopic

coefficient and maximum capillary capacity )is called as soil moisture
constant .
1) Field Capacity :
When downward movement of water in saturated soil has been completed
creates after 24 hours water retain at this point is called as field capacity and
suction of pressure is less than 1/3 atm or less than 2.54 PF
2) Percent moisture equivalent point:

Percentage moisture content in the soil when it has been subjected to the
centrifugal force of 1000times that of gravity of for thirty minutes.
It is just similar to field capacity
3) Wilting coefficient:
Percent moisture present at wilting point is called as wilting coefficient,
that at 15 atm pressure.
Wilting point: the percent moisture present in the soil at which plant show
wilting symptoms even through it is exposed to saturated atmospheric
conditions. It will not recover unless and until additional water is added into
soil; this point is called as wilting point.
4) Hygroscopic coefficient:
The hygroscopic coefficient is the maximum amount of hygroscopic
water absorbed by 100 g of dry soil under standard conditions of
humidity (50% relative humidity) and temperature (15°C). This
tension is equal to a force of 31 atmospheres. Water at this tension is
not available to plant but may be available to certain bacteria.

5) Water available capacity:Percent water held between wilting point(15

atm pressure) and field capacity (1/3 atm. pressure)
6) Maximum water holding capacity (MWHC):It is capacity of soil to

hold maximum amount of water when both the pores are completely filled
with water.It is rough estimate of % pore space or porosity.
7. Stick point:1/3 or 2.54pf
The moisture present in the soil at which it no longer sticks to foreign

objects. It is possible at field capacity.
Soil moisture constants and range of tension and PF
Range of tension in Equivalent PF

Sr. No. Moisture class atmosphere range
Chemically
1 combined Very High -
Held at saturation point in the
2 Water vapour soil air -
3 Hygroscopic 31 to 10,000 4.50 to 7.00
Hygroscopic
4 coefficient 31 4.50
5 Wilting point 15 4.20

6 Capillary 1/3 to 31 2.54 to 4.50
Moisture
7 equivalent 1/3 to 1 2.70 to 3.00
8 Field capacity 1/3 2.54
Measurement of soil water:
Two general types of measurements relating to soil water are ordinarily

used
i) By some methods the moisture content is measured directly or indirectly

ii) Techniques are used to determine the soil moisture potential (tension or
suction)
Measuring soil moisture content in laboratory

1. Gravimetric method: This consists of obtaining a moist sample, drying it
in an oven at 105°C until it losses no more weight and then determining the
percentage of moisture. The gravimetric method is time consuming and
involves laborious processes of sampling, weighing and drying in laboratory.
Gravimetric method = loss in weight x 100

wt. of moist soil
2. Electrical conductivity method: This method is based upon the

changes in electrical conductivity with changes in soil moisture.
Gypsum blocks inside of with two electrodes at a definite distance are
apart used in this method. These blocks require previous calibration
for uniformity. The blocks are buried in the soil at desired depths and
the conductivity across the electrodes measured with a modified
Wheatstone bridge. These electrical measurements are affected by salt
concentration in the soil solution and are not very helpful in soils with
high salt contents.
Measuring soil moisture potential in situ (field)
3. Suction method or equilibrium tension method: Field tensiometers

measure the tension with which water is held in the soils. They are used
in determining the need for irrigation. The tensiometer is a porous cup
attached to a glass tube, which is connected to a mercury monometer.
The tube and cup are filled with water and cup inserted in the soil. The
water flows through the porous cup into the soil until equilibrium is
established. These tension readings in monometer, expressed in terms of
cm or atmosphere, measures the tension or suction of the soil.
If the soil is dry, water moves through the porous cup, setting up a
negative tension (or greater is the suction). The tensiometers are more
useful in sandy soils than in fine textured soils. Once the air gets
entrapped in the tensiometer, the reliability of readings is questionable.

Importance of soil water:

1. Water itself act as a principal constituent for plant growth.
2. It acts as a solvent.
3. It acts a carrier for carrying essential plant nutrients.
4. It regulates soil temperature.
5. It also control soil forming processes.
6. It is essential for microbial activity.
7. It determines crop productivity.
Movement of soil water:

I. Saturated flow
II. Unsaturated flow
III. Vapour flow
1. Saturated flow:
When capillary and non-capillary pores are completely filled with
water and standing water can be observed in the field is called as saturated
soil, water logged soil or submerged soil. Water movement takes place under
such condition is called as saturated flow. In saturated flow water moves
freely under the influence of gravity (percolation). Specially from non-
capillary pores and very little or negligible horizontal movement of water is
observed.
Negative water potential is much lesser than it is observed in case of
saturated flow.
Example- in sandy soil very rapid downward movement is observed than

that of clayey soil.
Water movement through saturated or unsaturated flow is directly linked
with hydraulic head, hydraulic gradient and Darcy’s Law.
Hydraulic head –
It is energy stored in hydraulic system expressed as height of water
column which rises above fix datum .
Hydraulic gradient – It is change in hydraulic head per unit given time in

the direction of flow.

Hydraulic conductivity – The rate at which liquid or flux moves through

soil per unit time.
DARCY’S LAW:
The vertical water flow rate through soil is given by Darcy’s law. The law
states that the rate of flow of liquid or flux through a porous medium is
proportional to the hydraulic gradient in the direction of floe of the liquid.
(dw) At
QW = - k--------------
Ds
Where,
QW = Quantity of water in (cm3)
k = rate constant (cm/s)
dw = Water height (head), cm
A = Soil area (cm2)
t = Time
ds = Soil depth (cm)
2. Unsaturated flow:
When capillary and non-capillary pores are partially filled with water
and air, such soil condition is called as unsaturated soil (moist soil), water
movement taking place under such condition is called as unsaturated flow in
which horizontal movement is dominant than vertical movement under such
conditions water potential is much more negative that saturated flow.
3. Evapour movement:
Conservation of soil water into vapour form which may take place within
the soil or from soil surface to atmosphere.
Entry of Water into Soil
1. Infiltration: Infiltration refers to the downward entry or movement of

water into the soil surface. It is a surface characteristic and hence primarily
influenced by the condition of the surface soil. Soil surface with vegetative
cover has more infiltration rate than bare soil. Warm soils absorb more water
than colder ones. Coarse surface texture, granular structure and high organic
matter content in surface soil, all help to increase infiltration. Infiltration rate
is comparatively lower in wet soils than dry soils.

Factors affecting infiltration
1. Clay minerals
2. Soil Texture
3. Soil structure
4. Moisture content
5. Vegetative cover
6. Topography
2. Percolation: The movement of water through a column of soil is called

percolation. It is important for two reasons.i) This is the only source of
recharge of ground water which can be used through wells for irrigation
ii) Percolating waters carry plant nutrients down and often out of reach of
plant roots (leaching)
Percolation is dependent of rainfall. In dry region it is negligible and

under high rainfall it is high. Sandy soils have greater percolation than
clayey soil. Vegetation and high water table reduce the percolation loss
3. Permeability: It indicates the relative ease of movement of water with in

the soil. The characteristics that determine how fast air and water move
through the soil are known as permeability. The term hydraulic conductivity
is also used which refers to the readiness with which a soil transmits fluids
through it.
Factors Affecting Soil Water
1. Texture: Finer the texture, more is the pore space and also surface area,
greater is the retention of water.
2. Structure: Well-aggregated porous structure favors better porosity, which

in turn enhance water retention.
3. Organic matter: Higher the organic matter more is the water retention in
the soil.
4. Density of soil: Higher the density of soil, lower is the moisture content.
5. Temperature: Cooler the temperature, higher is the moisture retention.
6. Salt content: More the salt content in the soil less is the water available to
the plant.
7. Depth of soil: More the depth of soil more is the water available to the
plant.
8. Type of clay: The 2:1 type of day increases the water retention in the soil
Soil Air
Continuation of atmospheric air (air present in soil)
Soil aeration:
Constant exchange of gases from soil to atmosphere or vice versa
results in renewal of component of gases of soil air is called as soil aeration.
Composition of atmospheric air & soil air:
Soil air Atmospheric air
N(%) 79.2 79.9
O(%) 20.60 20.97
Co2(%) 0.3 0.03
Movement of soil air:

1. Mass flow
2. Diffusion
Mass flow- When water is added to field either through irrigation or

precipitation which replaces soil air in large mass is called as mass flow.
Diffusion- Movement or solute or gases from higher concentration to lower

concentration.
Different gases have different partial pressure depending upon partial
pressures of gas movement of gas takes place from soil to atmosphere or
vice versa.
Example- co2 in soil air has very high partial pressure that co2 in
atmosphere thus co2 moves from soil air to atmosphere.
Factors affecting soil aeration :

1. Soil Texture
2. Soil Structure
3. Addition of organic matter
4. Soil moisture is inversally proportional to soil aeration.

Importance of soil aeration :

1. It influences plant growth .
2. It is required for microbial activity .
3. Under anaerobic condition toxic substances/gases , for example, methane,
hydrogen sulphide are produced
4. Due to improper aeration it causes fruit diseases.
5. Nutrient absorption is also affected due to low quantity of oxygen present
in the soil.
Factors Affecting the Composition of Soil Air:
1. Nature and condition of soil: The quantity of oxygen in soil air is less
than that in atmospheric air. The amount of oxygen also depends upon the
soil depth. The oxygen content of the air in lower layer is usually less than
that of the surface soil. This is possibly due to more readily diffusion of the
oxygen from the atmosphere into the surface soil than in the subsoil. Light
texture soil or sandy soil contains much higher percentage than heavy soil.
The concentration of CO2 is usually greater in subsoil probably due to more
sluggish aeration in lower layer than in the surface soil.
2. Type of crop: Plant roots require oxygen, which they take from the soil
air and deplete the concentration of oxygen in the soil air. Soils on which
crops are grown contain more CO2 than fallow lands. The amount of CO2 is
usually much greater near the roots of plants than further away. It may be
due to respiration by roots.
3. Microbial activity: The microorganisms in soil require oxygen for

respiration and they take it from the soil air and thus deplete its
concentration in the soil air. Decomposition of organic matter produces CO2
because of increased microbial activity. Hence, soils rich in organic matter
contain higher percentage of CO2.
4. Seasonal variation: The quantity of oxygen is usually higher in dry

season than during the monsoon. Because soils are normally drier during the
summer months, opportunity for gaseous exchange is greater during this
period. This results in relatively high O2 and low CO2 levels. Temperature
also influences the CO2 content in the soil air. High temperature during
summer season encourages microorganism activity which results in higher
production of CO2.

Soil Temperature
Sources - Major source - solar energy (Radiant energy)
Molten magma through conduction of heat, from lower surface to upper
surface.
Negligible quantity by exothermic reactions, biochemical reactions.
Hot precipitation
Factors affecting solar energy –

Color – Dark color soil more heat
Light color less heat due to reflection.
Moisture α 1/temp.
Slope
MOVEMENT OF SOIL TEMPERATURE –
1.Through conduction –
1 Soil temp. moves from one point to another point through
conduction.
2. Diurnal variation
Day heat ↓ ↑ Night heat

↓ ↑
3. Seasonal variation
Factors affecting soil temperature –
1 Mineralogical composition of soil – (Texture)

Sandy soil get heated more rapidly than clayey soils get heated more
rapidly than clayey soils because specific heat of mineral matter is must less
than
(0.11 Calories/g) that of organic matter (0.40 calories/g).
Specific heat –
The heat which is required to raise temp. of 1g substance by 1 ̊c
Specific heat of water =1.0 calorie/g
Dry soil – 0.22 to 0.27 calorie/g
Moist soil – 0.3 to 0.4 calorie/g
2. Soil structure –
Continuation of pores.

3. Addition of organic matter –

Decrease the temp. because specific heat is much higher
than mineral soil.
4. Moisture content –
moisture α 1/Temp.
CONTROL OF SOIL TEMPRATURE –

1. By altering soil color.
2. By vegetative cover.
3. Mulch.
4. Moisture present in soil.
5. Irrigation.
Importance of soil temperature-

1. It influence seed germination.
2.It influences microbial activity.
3.Indirectly it controls soils formation (weathering of rocks)
4.It controls soil structure by controlling different pedogenic processes.
5. It influences plant diseases speacially dieback of citrus.

SOIL COLLOIDS
Soil colloids are particles having size less than < 0.001mm in diameter
possess properties of colloidal substances like gel, starch, etc. are called as
soil colloids.
PROPERTIES OF SOIL COLLOIDS -
1. Size- They are very very minute in size and can only be seen under
electron microscope.
2. Surface area-
i. Surface area ∝ 1/size of particles
3. Charges – Negatively charged.
a. Ionizable H+ ions from OH group.

i. Al - OH --- Al-O-
b. Isomorphous substitutions- It is substitutions of high valent
cation by low valent cation or vice versa. Eg. Si++ is replaced
by Al+3
4. Adsorption of cations –
Clay micelle- It is crystal unit of colloidal complex which acts
as a large anion (carrying –ve charge) is called as clay micelle.
Soil colloids just behaves like clay micelle and adsorbs number of
cations like H+,Na+ ,Ca+2 ,Mg+2 ,K+,Fe+2,Mn+2 ,etc.
5. Adsorption of water molecule-Dipole nature of water.
6. Swelling and shrinkage-Swells & Shrinks producing cracks.
7. Dispersion or deflocculating - It is reverse phenomenon of

deflocculating i.e. breaking of flocs or loose soil aggregates.
8. Brownian movement-
When colloidal particles are suspended in water they are in
constant state of motion when observed under electron microscope.
Zigzag motion can be seen which is discovered by scientist. Brownian
that is why it is called as Brownian movement.
9. Adhesion – Attraction between dissimilar molecule.
10.Cohesion – Attraction between similar molecule.
11.Non permeability-
Colloidal particles are very finest in size even though there
molecules are of larger size than solute molecules thus only solute molecules
can be passed (Dialysis).
CLASSIFICATION OF SOIL COLLOIDS

1 .Layer silicate clays ( clay minerals) –
Particles having size less than 0.001 mm and having layer lattice
structure are called as clay minerals. All clay minerals are called as clay
minerals.
Clay minerals looks like leaf so also called as Phyllosilicates. They are
called as Al-silicate minerals.
Basic Structural Units Of Clay Minerals –

(A) Silica tetrahedral unit –
In silica tetrahedral unit silicon is equidistant from oxygen atoms.
- It is four sided configuration
(B) Al/Mg octahedral units –

- In this Al or Mg is equidistant from O or OH ions.
- It has eight sided configuration.
- When 2/3 portion is occupied by Al unit is Al2(OH)6 – Gibbsite
(Dioctahedral unit)

Eg. Brucite – When less than porous is occupied by Mg instead of

AlMg3(oh)6 (Trioctahedral unit), Halloysite – Si4Al4O10(OH)8.2H2O
TYPES OF LAYER SILICATE CLAYS (CLAY MINERALS)
1. 1:1 type (fixed type) (Kaoline 1:1 type)

Eg. Kaolinite – dominant clay mineral less dominant are halloysite,
nantronite, saponite, nacrite
Kaolinite – It is 1:1 type clay mineral (fixed type)

Si4Al4O10(OH)8 – formula
- One silica tetrahedral sheet topped by one Al octahedral sheet
which forms layer lattice structure of kaolinite which is fixed type
because oxygen or hydroxyl ions are linked with Si/ Al by oxygen
bonding and one structural unit is attached to one by hydrogen
bonding.
- It is dominant in lateritic soil (Alfisols or red soil).
STRUCTURE –
2. Smectite 2:1 Type (Expanding type) –

Dominant – Montmorillonite
Less dominant – Vermiculite
When one Al octahedral sheet is Sandwiched between two Si
tetrahedral sheets.
1. Expanding type- Semectite group and vermiculite, Montmorillonite

2. Non Expanding type- mica group Illite
Expanding type
- It is dominant in vertisols (black cotton soil or medium black soil)
- In this structure linkage is very weak that’s why structure is
expanding type and which which has internal as well as other
surface area. Montmorillonite [Si8Al4O20(OH)4]
Non Expanding type

- Dominant clay mineral is muscovite mica and biotite mica Si3Al4O20(OH)4
- Illite structure is also 2:1 type even though it is not expanding type because
k will act as a bridge binding agent.

4. 2:1:1 or 2:2 type (Chlorite) This Fe-Mg silicates and al is also present.
It fixed layer lattice structure.
5. Mixed or inter stratified clay minerals –

In this group clay minerals from 2 dominant groups are mixed
together and their identify as individual group is not recognized
independently are called as mixed or interstratified clay minerals.
e.g chlorite or vermiculite.
6. Al-Fe Sequioxides –
- They have more than 90% phosphate fixing property.
- Under heavy rainfall condition Si is leached down leaving Fe-Al
hydroxides (sequioxides).
- They have very high phosphorous fixing capacity.
7Allophane
Are the other important amorphous clay minerals. Derived from
volcanic ash. Eg. Zeolite and TiO2 (Rutile)
8 Organic Colloids
Most of the colloidal properties of soil organic matter are due to
humus.
Humus- it is browm to dark in colour (well decomposed organic matter)
serve as an reserviour of essential plant nutrients reactive groups are
Distinguishing Properties of Important Clay Minerals.
Sr.No. Property Kaolinite Montmorillonite Illite

1 Type 1:1 2:1 expanding 2:1
nonexpanding
2 Size (µm) 0.5 -5.0 0.01 to 1.0 0.2 to 2.0
3 Shape Hexagonal Flakes Flakes
crystals

4 Surface
area
Internal - 550-650 -
(m2/g)
External 10-30 70-120 70-100
(m2/g)
6 Inter layer 0.7 (7.2Ao) 1.0- 2.0 (9.6 to 1.0 (10Ao)
spacing 18.0Ao)
(nm)
7 Isomorph - No-(pH Octahedral sheet Tetrahedral
ous dependant (0.6) sheet
substitutio charge) (1.0)
n
8. CEC(cmo 2 to 5 80 to 120 15-40
l(p+)kg-1
9. Inter layer Hydrogen 0- 0 bonding 0-0 bonding
bonding bonding
10. Cohesion, Low High Medium
plasticity
swelling
and
shrinkage

Soil Reaction (soil pH)

pH –> Negative logarithm of H+ ions activity.
OR
+
Ph = - log10 H activity
OR
pH is reciprocal of H+ ion activity.
[ OH-] > [ H+] alkaline/ basicity

[ OH-] = [ H+] neutral
Scientist Sorenson who has introduce the idea of pH value to express

acidity of alkalinity of soil pH scale varies between 0 – 14
0= Maximum degree of acidity.

14= Maximum degree of basicity.
[H+] ions are responsible degree of acidity while degree of basicity is

based on [OH-] ions.
Buffer capacity : It is the capacity of soil which prevents sudden changes
in soil.
Buffer solution: The solution which resist the change in its pH value called
as buffer solution.
FACTORS CONTROLING SOIL REACTION

1. Nature of soil colloids:
If absorbed cations dissociates more H+ ions than OH- ions and OH-
ions equal to H+ ions than soil reaction will be acidic, alkaline and neutral.
If clay micelle is dominated Ca++ cations it gives neutral soil reaction and
decide that good and friable structure.
2. Soil solution nature
In capillary water when no. of salts and gases are dissolve it is called
as soil solution.
Composition
Nurtient Symbol Ionic form
Potassium K K+
Sodium Na Na+
Calcium Ca Ca++
Magnesium Mg Mg++
Aluminium Al Al+++
Iron Fe Fe++, Fe+++

Manganese Mn Mn+++, Mn++++
Zinc Zn Zn++
Copper Cu Cu+
Nitrogen N NH4+,NO3
Sulphur S SO4--, SO3-
Boron B BO3--, HB4O7
Molybdenum Mo HMoO4-
Phosphorous P H2PO4 , HPO42- , PO43-
Concentration of soil solution α soil Ph
3.Management practices
Tends to increase soil acidity because is disturbed due to different
cultural operations which favors leaching loss of bases.
4.Climate
High rainfall, low temperature = acidic soil
High temperature , low rainfall = basic soil
5. Addition of organic matter decrease soil pH
6.vegetation tends to increase soil acidity
Types of acidity:
There are three types of soil acidity.

1) Active acidity: It is the acidity of soil due to H+ ion present in the soil
solution.
General when soil pH and measured by glass electrode pH meter. It
measures active acidity of soil (H+ ions presents in soil solution ) thats why
pH is negative logarithm of H+ activity and not concentration.
2) Exchangeable or reserved acidity: It is the acidity of soil due to H+ ion

present on exchangeable site ( exchangeable H+ ions ). It is mainly due to
air alluinium hydroxide.
3) Potential or residual acidity: this acidity is mainly due to non-

exchangeable form of H+ ions that is aluminium hydroxide and H+ ion atom
which are in non-exchangeable form to neutralize such acidity a huge
quantity of lime is required ( 10,000 times than reserved acidity and 1 lakh
time than active acidity )
IMPORTANCE OF SOIL REACTIONS

1) it influence plant growth.
2) It influence microbial activity.
3) It indirectly controls soil.
4) It controls nutrient availability to plants.
5) It indirectly control soil stricture and crumb formation.
6) It influence plant disease. ( under highly acidic condition )
CLASSIFICATION OF SOIL BASED ON pH VALUES

< 0.4 – EXTREMLY ACIDIC
4.0 – 5.0 STRONGLY ACIDIC
5.0 – 6.0 MODERATELY ACIDIC
6.0 – 6.5 SLIGHTLY ACIDIC
6.5 – 7.5 NEUTRAL
7.5 – 8.0 SLIGHTLY ALKALINE
8 – 9 MODERATELY ALKALINE
9 – 10 STRONGLY ALKALINE
>10 EXTREMELY ALKALINE
Factors Controlling Soil Reactions
Soil reaction varies due to following factors
1. Nature of soil colloids: The colloidal particles of the soil influence

soil reaction to a very greatest extent. When hydrogen (H+) ion forms
the predominant adsorbed cations on clay colloids, the soil reaction
becomes acid.

2. Soil solution: The soil solution carries a number of salts dissolved in

capillary water.
3. Climate: Rainfall plays important role in determining the reaction of

soil. In general, soils formed in regions of high rainfall are acidic (low
pH value), while those formed in regions of low rainfall are alkaline
(high pH value).
4. Soil management: Cultural operations in general tend to increase

soil acidity. They make an acid soil more acidic, and an alkaline soil
less alkaline. As a result of constant cultivation, basic elements are lost
from the soil through leaching and crop removal. This leads to change
the soil reaction to the acid side.
5. Parent materials: Soils developed from parent material of basic

rocks generally have higher pH than those formed from acid rocks (e.g.
granite). The influence of parent material is not very important as it is
completely masked by the climatic conditions under which the soil is
developed.
6. Precipitation: As water from rainfall passes through the soil, basic

nutrients such as calcium (Ca) and magnesium (Mg) are leached. They
are replaced by acidic elements including Al, H and manganese (Mn).
Therefore, soils formed under high rainfall conditions are more acid
than those formed under arid conditions.
7. Decomposition of organic matter: Soil organic matter is

continuously being decomposed by micro-organisms into organic acids,
carbon dioxide (CO2) and water, forming carbonic acid. Carbonic acid,
in turn, reacts with the Ca and Mg carbonates in the soil to form more
soluble bicarbonates, which are leached away, leaving the soil more
acid.
8. Native vegetation: Soils often become more acid when crops are
harvested because of removal of bases. Type of crop determines the
relative amounts of removal. For example, legumes generally contain
higher levels of bases than do grasses. Calcium and Mg contents also
vary according to the portion(S) of the plant harvested. Many legumes

release H ions into their rhizosphere when actively fixing atmospheric

N2. The acidity generated can vary from 0.2 to 0.7 pH units per mole of
fixed N.
9. Soil depth: Except in low rainfall areas, acidity generally increases

with depth, so the loss of topsoil by erosion can lead to a more acid pH
in the plough layer. The reason is that more subsoil is included in the
plow layer as topsoil is lost. There are areas, however, where subsoil
pH is higher than that of the topsoil.
10. Nitrogen fertilization: Nitrogen from fertilizer, organic matter, and

manure and legume N fixation produces acidity. Nitrogen fertilization
speeds up the rate at which acidity develops. At lower N rates,
acidification rate is slow, but is accelerated as N fertilizer rates
increase.
11. Flooding: The overall effect of submergence is an increase of pH in

acid soils and a decrease in basic soils. Regardless of their original pH
values, most soils reach pH of 6.5 to 7.2 within one month after
flooding and remain at the level until dried. Consequently, liming is of
little value in flooded rice production. Further, it can induce
deficiencies of micronutrients such as zinc (Zn).
Influence of Soil Reaction on Availability of Nutrients
1. Nitrogen: Plant absorbs most of their nitrogen in the form of nitrate

of which availability depends on the activity of nitrifying bacteria. The
microorganisms responsible for nitrification are most active when the
pH is between 6.5 and 7.5. They are adversely affected if the pH falls
below 5.5 and rises above 9.0. Nitrogen fixing bacteria (like
Azotobacter) also fail to function below pH 6.0. The decomposition of
organic matter which is the primary source of nitrogen is also slowed
down under acidic condition.
2. Phosphorus: Its availability is at its highest when the reaction is

between 6.5 and 7.5. When the reaction is above or below this range,
availability is reduced. In the strongly acidic soil (pH 5.0 or less), iron,
aluminum, manganese and other bases are present in a soluble state and

in more quantity. The phosphates of these elements are formed and

become unavailable.
3. Potassium: The availability of potassium does not influence by soil

reaction to any great extent. In acid soil potassium is lost through
leaching. The unavailability of K is due to the conversion of
exchangeable to non-exchangeable potassium in alkaline soil.
Particularly if the alkalinity is due to CaCO3 (brought about by over
liming in acid soil), the solubility of soil potassium is depressed.
4. Calcium and Magnesium: Acid soils (base unsaturated) are poor in

/ available calcium and magnesium. In alkaline soil (pH not exceeding
8.5) the availability of Ca and Mg nutrients are always high. When the
pH is above 8.5, the availability of these nutrients again decreases.
5 Iron, aluminum and manganese: When the pH is low the solubility of
"iron, aluminum and manganese compounds are increased. and hence
they are readily available in acid soils. At the pH range 5.5 to 7.0, iron
and manganese are present in the soluble ferrous (Fe++) and manganous
(Mn++) forms. At pH below 5.5 the solubility of these compounds
considerably increased with the result that they have a toxic influence
on plant growth. Under neutral and alkaline conditions, iron and
manganese are usually present in ferric (Fe3+ ) and manganese (Mn++++)
states. Hence in soils with pH 7.5 and above, they become unavailable
and sometimes produce deficiency diseases like chlorosis in plants.
6. Sulphur: The availability of sulphur is not affected by soil reaction

as sulphur compounds are soluble. in low pH range. However, it is
more soluble in acid soil and lost in leaching. Acid conditions, which
retard the decomposition of organic matter, therefore, retard the release
of available sulphur. The availability of sulphur present in organic
matter depends upon the decomposition of organic matter.
7. Micronutrients: In general, the availability of boron, copper and

zinc is reduced in alkaline soils and that of molybdenum in acid soils.
The availability of these nutrients progressively decreases as the soil
pH increases. Their availability also decreases under highly acid
condition when the pH is below 5.0. Zinc availability in alkaline soils
from insoluble zinc salts (calcium zincates) is reduced. Zinc and copper

are adsorbed on the clay colloids and not easily displaced and hence not
available for plant growth. The availability of molybdenum is reduced
under acid soils. It is more available in neutral and alkaline soils.
ION EXCHANGE
Ion exchange is defined exchange of ions(cation and anion)takes place

between colloidal complex and electrolytic solution or surrounding liquid is
call as ion exchange.
Colloidal complex – when inorganic and organic colloidal combines

together is called colloidal comlex.
Cation exchange-
Surface reaction-
✓ Ion(cations and anions )taking part in exchange are called as

replacable or exchangeable ions.
✓ It is reversible reaction and occurring at faster rate due to involvement
of ions instead of molecules.
Electro kinetic theory of ion exchange-
Ion exchange is based on electrokinetic theory.

According to this theory since clay micelle is negatively charged it
attracts cation and absorbtion of cation takes place,these cation further
attracts anion and cation further

Adsorption is defined as a phenomenon by which an increase in

concentration.
Desorption is a phenomenon by which the replacement or release of an

adsorbed ion species occurs.
Cation Exchange
The process of replacement of cations adsorbed on exchange complex
by other cations is called cation exchange.
UNIT- cmol-kg
1 Cations in the soil solution and those on the exchange complexes of soil
(clay crystal and humus)
2 Cations released by plant roots and those on the exchange complexes of
soil.
3 Cation on the surface of either two clay crystals, two organic colloids; or
a clay and humus particle.
All the cations are not adsorbed with equal tenacity, and the exchange
complex does not possess same strength of negative charge at all points. The
cation with less size and higher charge per unit size are held more strongly
than other cations.
Power or replacement of cation; H+=Al3+>Ca2+>Mg2+ > K+= NH 4+ >Na+
Cation Exchange capacity of soils (Thomas Way, 1850)
The sum total of the exchangeable cations that a soil can absorbis
known as “Cation Exchange Capacity” of that soil. It is the amount of

exchangeable cations per unit weight of dry soil. It is measured in mill

equivalents of cations per 100 grams of soil (Recently cmol (p+) k g-1)
Base Saturation : The percentage of total CEC satisfied with basic cations is
termed base saturation.
%Base Saturation = Total Exchangable Bases X 100
CEC
>80% - Highly fertile soils
50 - 80% - Medium fertile
<50% - Low fertile
Factors affecting CEC
1 More fine the soil more is the CEC
2 More humus content more is the CEC
3 2:1 clay minerals have more CEC than 1:1 type minerals
4 In alkaline PH range, CEC would be more
5 Liming & Fertilization increases the CEC
Importance of CEC
✓ The most important reaction in nature after photosynthesis.

✓ It is an important reaction in correcting soil acidity and basicity
✓ It alters soil physical properties
✓ Through cation exchange mechanism (large cation exchanger), the
percolating waters will be purified or altered (Ground water pollution
is checked)
✓ Plants absorb exchangeable cations by interchange or contact between
the root hairs and colloidal complex
✓ The amounts of cations in the soil solution are intimately related to the
exchangeable cations.
✓ Offers buffering capacity to soils.

Charges Two types of charge arises on inorganic colloids
✓ permanent charge or constant charge, (Isomorphous substitution)

✓ temporary charge or variable charge. (pH dependant)
ANION EXCHANGE
Anion exchange occurs on positively charged sites exist on the edges

of layer silicate minerals (1:1 type in particular) and surfaces of oxides (with
low specific surface area), mainly under acidic conditions.
The total amount of exchangeable anions held by a unit mass of soil,

is termed as its anion exchange capacity.
Anion exchange capacities are generally low and increases as the pH

decreases or acidity increases.
As the ratio of CEC/AEC of a layer silicate mineral increase, the adsorption

of anions decreases. (Monmorillonite 6.7, Illite 2.3 and Keolinite 0.5).
Acid soils in tropical and sub tropical regions containing hydrous oxides of
Al and Fe exhibit much higher AEC than alkaline and calcareous young
soils of arid and semi - arid regions.
Preference of anions for the positive sites
SiO4 -> PO3->> SO2-> NO3-= Cl= Al –OH + H2PO4
Like cation exchange, anion exchange largely determines the ability

of soil s to provide nutrient anions to plants properly.

Soil Organic Matter
Soil organic matter- The matter which contains carbon as a chief constituent
Soil organic matter (SOM) comprises an accumulation of
i) Partially disintegrated and decomposed plant and animal residues

ii) Other organic compounds synthesized by the soil microbes upon decay.
SOURCES OF SOM
The primary sources are plant tissues

✓ The tops and roots of trees
✓ Shrubs, grasses, remains of harvested crops
The secondary sources

✓ Soil organisms Animals are sources of Organic Matter.
✓ Waste products of animals
✓ Remains of animals after completion of life cycle.
Composition of fresh plant Organic Matter

Factors Affecting Soil Organic Matter
1. Climate: Temperature and rainfall exert a dominant influence on the

amounts of N and OM found in soils.
2. Temperature: The OM and N content of comparable soils tend to
increase if one moves from warmer to cooler areas. The
decomposition of OM is accelerated in warm climates as compared to
cooler climates. For each 10 C decline in mean annual temperature,
the total OM and N increases by two to three times.
3. Rainfall: There is an increase in OM with an increase in rainfall.
Under comparable conditions, the N and OM increase as the effective
moisture becomes greater.
4. Natural Vegetation: The total OM is higher in soils developed under
grasslands than those under forests.
5. Texture: Fine textured soils are generally higher in OM than coarse
textured soils.
6. Drainage: Poorly drained soils because of their high moisture content
and relatively poor aeration are much higher in OM and N than well
drained soils.
7. Cropping and Tillage: The cropped lands have much low N and OM
than comparable virgin soils. Modern conservation tillage practices
helps to maintain high OM levels as compared to conventional tillage.
8. Rotations, residues and plant nutrients: Crop rotations of cereals
with legumes results in higher soil OM. Higher OM levels, preferably
where a crop rotation is followed.

Role of organic matter
✓ Organic Matter creates a granular condition of soil which maintains

favorable condition of aeration and permeability.
✓ Water holding capacity of soil is increased and surface runoff, erosion
etc., are reduced as there is good infiltration due to the addition of
OM.
✓ Surface mulching with coarse OM lowers wind erosion and lowers
soil temperatures in the summer and keeps the soil warmer in winter.
✓ OM serves as a source of energy for the microbes and as a reservoir of
nutrients that are essential for plant growth and also hormones,
antibiotics.
✓ Fresh OM supplies food for earthworms, ants and rodents and makes
soil P readily available in acid soils.
✓ Organic acids released from decomposing OM help to reduce
alkalinity in soils; organic acids along with released CO2 dissolve
minerals and make them more available.
✓ Humus (a highly decomposed OM) provides a storehouse for the
exchangeable and available cations.
✓ It acts as a buffering agent which checks rapid chemical changes in
pH and soil reaction.
Humus
Humus is a complex and rather resistant mixture of brown or dark

brown amorphous and colloidal organic substance that results from
microbial decomposition and synthesis and has chemical and physical
properties of great significance to soils and plants.
Humus Formation / Genesis
The humus compounds have resulted from two general types of biochemical
reactions: Decomposition and Synthesis.

1. Decomposition:
a) Chemicals in the plant residues are broken down by soil microbes

including lignin.
b) Other simpler organic compounds that result from the breakdown take
part immediately in the second of the humus-forming processes,
biochemical synthesis.
c) These simpler chemicals are metabolized into new compounds in the

body tissue of soil microbes.
d) The new compounds are subject to further modification and synthesis as

the microbial tissue is subsequently attacked by other soil microbes.
2. Synthesis: Involve such breakdown products of lignin as the phenols

and quinones.
a) These monomers undergo polymerization by which polyphenols and

polyquinones are formed.
b) These high molecular weight compounds interact with N-containing

amino compounds and forms a significant component of resistant humus.
c) Colloidal clays encourage formation of these polymers.
d) Generally two groups of compounds that collectively make up humus, the

humic group and the nonhumic group.
Properties of Humus
1. The tiny colloidal particles are composed of C, H, and O2. The colloidal
particles are negatively charged (-OH, -COOH or phenolic groups), has very

high surface area, higher CEC (150 – 300 cmol/kg), 4 - 5 times higher WHC
than that of silicate clays.
2. Humus has a very favorable effect on aggregate formation and stability.
3. Impart black colour to soils.
4. Cation exchange reactions are similar to those occurring with silicate

clays.
Clay – Humus Complex.
Fractionation of Humus or Soil organic matter
Humic group: The humic substances makes up about 60 -80% of soil

organic matter and comprised of the most complex materials (Aromatic, ring
type structures that include polyphenols and polyquinones) with no sharply
defined physical and chemical properties. They are resistant to microbi al
attack. They are amorphous, dark in color and have high to very high
molecular weights from a few hundred to several thousand.
On the basis of resistance to degradation and of solubility in aids and alkalis,

humic substances are classified in to three chemical groupings.
1 Fulvic acid: - lowest molecular weight, lightest in color, soluble in both

acid and alkali and most susceptible to microbial attack.
2 Humic acid:-Medium in molecular weight and color, soluble in alkali

but insoluble in acid and intermediate in resistance to degradation.
3 Humin:-Highest in molecular weight, darkest in color, insoluble in both

acid and alkali and most resistant to microbial attack.
Non- Humic Group: Comprises 20-30% of the organic matter in soils.

These are less complex and less resistant to microbial attack. They are
comprised of specific organic compounds with definite physical and
chemical properties.
These include
• polysaccharides ( polymers that have sugar like structures with
general formula of Cn(H 2 O)n,
• sugar amines,
• nucleic acids,
• phospholipids,
• vitamins & sulfolipids.
Polysaccharides in particular are helpful in cementing soil aggregates

together.
IMPORTANCE OF SOIL ORGANIC MATTER / HUMUS
Influence of Humus / Organic matter on soil physical, biological an d

chemical properties.
✓ Imparts dark color to soils

✓ Supplies polysaccharides for binding soil particles for formation of
aggregates (genesis of good soil structure)
✓ Increases infiltration rate of water and provides better drainage
✓ Increases water holding capacity
✓ Reduces plasticity, cohesion, stickiness etc in clay soils
✓ Reduces bulk density, there by influence porosity favorably
✓ Through granulation, reduces wind erosion losses
✓ Provides mulching (raw organic matter) and lowers soil temperature
during summer.
✓ Acts as an insulator and retards heat movement between atmosphere
and soil
✓ Reduces alkalinity in soils by releasing organic acids and CO2
✓ With high adsorption capacity, it accounts for 30 -90% of the
adsorbing power of mineral soils (Carboxylic group –54% ; phenolic
& enolic groups –36%; imide group – 10%)
✓ Acts as a buffering agent and reduces the likelihood damage from
acids and alkalis.
✓ With its solubilising effect, increases the availability of nutrients
✓ Acts as a store house for nutrients. Organic mat ter is the source of 90
- 95% of nitrogen in unfertilized soils. Also supplies available ‘P’, ‘S’
and micro nutrients like Fe, Mn, Cu and Zn etc.,
✓ Adsorbs temporarily the heavy metal pollutants and cleans the
contaminated waters.
✓ Serves as a source of energy for macro and micro organisms in soils
and helps in
✓ performing various beneficial functions in soils (N -fixation,
mineralisation etc.)
✓ Acts as a chelate and increases the availability of micro nutrients
Carbon : Nitrogen Ratio
Both mineralization and immobilization are accomplished by microbes

under the influence of temperature, moisture and pH etc.,
These processes are more influenced by C/N, C/P and C/S ratios of
decomposing plant residues.
An average proportion of C/N/P/S in soil humus is appropriately

140:10:1.3:1.3. The
ratios recorded for C and P are somewhat more variable than for C and N, or
C and S.
C:N ratios of some organic materials
✓ Microbes - 4-9:1
✓ Microbial tissues - 6-12:1
✓ FYM- 20-30:1
✓ Aerable Soil / Humus- 10 – 12:1
✓ Legume residues and green manures- 13 – 25:1
✓ Saw dust- 400:1
✓ Forest Wastes - 150 - 500
Significance of C : N ratio:
• C : N ratio determines the microbial activity and their proliferation

• C:N ratio of organic residues determines the rate of decomposition of
organic residues.
• C : N ratio determines the net availability of nutrients to plants
• The supply of nitrogen, phosphorus and sulphur are largely
determined by C:N ratio of organic residues.

SOIL BIOLOGY
The study of living organisms in soil is called Soil biology.
Classification of soil organisms:

Autotrophs : An organism capable of utilizing Co2or carbonates as the sole

source of carbon and obtaining energy for life processes from the oxidation
of inorganic compounds
Heterotrophs : An organism cap able of deriving energy for life processes

only from the decomposition of organic compounds and incapable of using
inorganic compounds
Bacteria :
• Bacteria are single cell organisms.
• They are known for rapid proliferation.
• They adjust quickly to changes in environment.
• Size will seldom exceed 4 -5 µm (length).
• Shape may be round, rod like or spiral. In the soil, the rod shaped ones
seem to predominate
Fungi : Like bacteria and actinomycetes, fungi contain no chlorophyll .

• They are longer than bacteria and heterotrophic in nature (Saprophytic
in nature).
• Fungi are broadly grouped in to yeasts, molds and mushrooms, out of
which molds and mushrooms are important in soils.
• Important molds in soils are Penicillium, Mucor, Fusa rium and
Aspergillus. Prefer acid medium(4.5- 6.5). Some fungi can tolerate
even pH 9.0. Mushroom fungi are found in forests and grasslands.
• Mushroom fungi are not widely distributed like molds, but are of
much significance especially in breaking down of woody tissue.
• A mutually beneficial (symbiotic) association between numerous
fungi and the roots of higher plants is called ‘Mycorrhizae” (fungus
root), is useful in adsorption of nutrients.
Actinomycetes : Thread / Filamentous bacteria. Next to bacteria i n

abundance. A common genus is streptomyces.
Algae : Chlorophyll containing organism. Aerobic. Photoautotrophic Ex:-

Blue green algae (Anabaena, Nostoc, Oscillatoria, Tolypothrix etc)

Benefits of soil organisms

✓ Organic matter decomposition O.M ? humus
✓ Inorganic Transformations
✓ Nitrogen fixation
✓ Solubilisation of insoluble phosphorous compounds
✓ Solubilisation of insoluble Sulphur compounds ( S oxidizing and
reducing organisms)
✓ Formation and development of soil
✓ Production of soil enzymes, growth promoting substances and
antibiotics
✓ Detoxification of soil pollutants
✓ Protect plant roots from invasion by soil parasites and pathogens
MINERALIZATION : Mineralization is the conversion of an element from

an organic form to an inorganic as a result of microbial decomposition.
IMMOBILIZATION: The conversion of the element from the inorganic to

the organic form in microbial tissues or in plant tissues, thus rendering the
element not readily available to other organisms or to plants, is called
immobilization.
NITROGEN FIXATION- Biological nitrogen fixation is the bio -chemical

process by which elemental nitrogen is combined in to organic forms.
DENITRIFICATION : In flooded so ils the oxygen supply to soil is virtually

cut -off because very less diffusion rate. Under such conditions, the
facultative anaerobes.
PHOSPHOROUS SOLUBILISATION : The phosphorous element which is

released during mineralization is likely to be converted t o an insoluble
inorganic compound.
Harmful Activities of Soil Organisms
✓ Rodents, snails, slugs, termites, insect larvae and nematodes cause

great damage to plants.
✓ Mainly fungi, but bacteria and actinomycetes ,also, are responsible for
many soil borne diseases of crop plants.
✓ Offer lot of competition to higher plants in utilizing the soil available
nutrients, particularly in the presence of carbon sources in the soil.

✓ Under conditions of poor drainage, depletes the available oxygen and

hampers the normal growth of plants.
✓ Under anaerobic conditions, bacteria transform some of the nutrients
to unavailable form (k & Zn et c.) and some nutrients to be available
in toxic levels (Fe & Mn etc.)
ELEMENTARY KNOWLEDGE OF SOIL SURVEY, SOIL

TAXONOMY, CLASSIFICATION, LAND CAPABILITY
CLASSIFICATION
SOIL SURVEY



SOIL CLASSIFICATION
Classification is the grouping of objects in some orderly and logical manner

into compartments.
Or
Classification of soils is the grouping of soils in orderly manner into

different classes.
Early systems of classification
1. Economic classification: This system is adopted by the revenue

department for grouping soils according to their productivity for the
purpose of taxation.
2. Physical classification: It is based on the physical properties like soil
texture. The soils are termed as sand y, loamy, clay etc. Based on soil
structure, soils are classified as single grained soils, aggregated soils etc.
3. Chemical classification: It is based on the chemical properties of the
soils. Calcareous soils, gypsiferous soils, alkaline soils, acidic soils etc.
4. Geological classification: Two broad groups are recognized.
I) Residual/sedentary soils – soils developed in -situ from the underlying

rocks. ii)Transported soils –soils developed form transported &
deposited sediments.
5. Physiographic classification: In this system, the characteristics of the

landscape were considered. The soils are termed as levee soils, terrace soils,
mountain soils, hilly soils, upland soils, lowland soils etc.
6. Recent system of classification-V V Dokuchaev (1846 –1903)- based

on zonality concept
a. Zonal – normal soils (climate and vegetation)

eg. Cherozems, chestnut
b. Intrazonal – transitional soils (local conditions)
eg. alkali, saline
c. Azonal – Abnormal soils (time as limiting factor)
eg. Alluvial, regosols .

7.COFFY’S system of classification

Soil as a natural independent body
✓ Arid soils
✓ Black coloured prairie soils
✓ Light coloured timbered soils
✓ Black swampy soils
✓ Organic soils
8.Marbut genetic system of classification Dokuchaev was modified by

marbut
Zonal soils
✓ Pedalfers (Fe and Al)
✓ Pedocals ( Ca )
9 Recent system of classification based on zonality concept was further

classified by Balwin, kellog and thorp
10 New comprehensive system of classification SOIL TAXONOMY
Salient features of soil taxonomy:
· It is based on measurable soil properties

· It considers all such properties which affect soil genesis
· The nomenclature is most logical & helps in relating the place of taxon
· It is truly multi -categorical system with 6 categories
· It is an orderly scheme without prejudice and facilitate easy remembering
of objects.
Advantages of soil taxonomy over other systems:

· It permits the classification of soils rather than soil forming processes
· It focuses on soils rather than related sciences such as geology and
climatology
· It permits the classification of soils of unknown genesis
· It permits the greater uniformity of classification
· The soil with a different genesis but having identical properties are
classified within the same unit
· There is no particular order for strictly hydromorphic and halomorphic
soils as in the other systems.

SOIL TAXONOMY
Soil properties on the basis of soil genesis,physical, chemical and

biological properties like texture, diagnostic horizons have been considered
DIAGNOSTIC HORIZONS
Diagnostic surface horizons (epipedons) (9)

Diagnostic sub -surface horizons (endopedons) (19)
Higher category
1 Order
2 sub order
3 great groups
Lower category
1. sub groups
2. family
3. series
Higher category
Order-
✓ Highest category in the system.

✓ 12 Order
✓ Baesd on different pedogenic processes
Sub order-
✓ sub division of order

✓ properties signifies genetic homogeneity are considered for
formulating orders like wetness, stonyness
Great groups
✓ sub division of sub order

✓ Diagnostic horizons are the basis for formulating great groups

Lower category
Sub groups
sub division of great groups and central concept of great groups which
form sub groups other sub groups are formulated based on integrated
properties of soil.
Family
sub division of sub groups and it is based on physical and chemical

properties of soil which determines (root penetration)
Series
sub division of family most specific and practical category of the

system which represent polypedons.
ORDERS


Soils of India
Longitude Extent: 329mha or 329X104 sq.km (3.29 msq.km)
Major soils of India

1. Red Soil
2. Lateritic Soil
3. Black Soil
4. Alluvial Soil
5. Desert Soil
6. Saline And Alkali Soils
7. Peat Or Marshy Soils
8. Brown Hill Soils
9. Tarai Soil
10.Sub – Montane Soils
11.Mountain Meadows Soils
1.Red soil : (Alfisols, Inceptisols and Entisols) (72Mha. )

Red in color, red color is imparted due to presence of Fe oxides, soil
reaction is neutral (pH 6.5 to 7.5). Fertility status is low. Texture ranges in
between Sandy clay loam to clay loam, well percolative soils, low base
saturation.
Regions : Tamil Nadu, MP, Bihar, Karnataka, few parts of Maharashtra.
2) Lateritic soil: (Oxisols) (25 Mha)

Heavy rainfall conditions, slightly acidic to moderately acid (pH 5 to
6). Laterization response. Red to brown in color, sand clay loam to sandy
loam in texture, well percolative. High phosphate fixation capacity (95%).
Low fertility, low base saturation. Kaolinite (1:1) type clay mineral is
dominant.
3)Black soil :(Vertisols) (74Mha).

Formed under semi arid climatic conditions, locally know as regurs
or black cotton soils. Medium black soils, deep black soil etc) soil reaction
is moderately to strongly acidic. Soil texture is clay loam to clayey fertility
is medium. High base saturation. Dominant clay mineral is montmorillonite
expanding type water holding capacity is high (central, Western and
southern states)

4) Alluvial soil :(Entisols) (75Mha)

These soils are formed on the banks of Rivers and most fertile also called as
garden soil and most good for cultivation with minimum limitations. Soil
reaction is slightly to moderately acidic.
(Punjab, Hariyana, UK, Bihar,WB, Assam)
5) Desert soil : (Aridisols) (29Mha)

These soils are formed under arid conditions where annual rainfall
range is 100-500mm and mostly formed due to physical weathering of
(disintegration) rocks, high soluble salts, medium to high base saturation,
low fertility.
(Rajasthan, parts of Punjab, Kutch)
6) Saline And Alkali Soils (7 Mha)

Saline Alkali
PH < 8.5 > 8.5
EC > 4.0 dSm-1 < 4.0 dSm-1
ESP <15 >15
Especially in coastal regions and basin shape topography, drainage
provides submerged or water logged conditions which favours formation of
saline and alkali soil.
7)Peat Or Marshy Soils :

This soils are forms due to ill drainage which create water stagnation
for a major portion of year which brought blue colouration to same of the
profiles due to anaerobic condition. This soil contain high percent of organic
matter.
8)Tarai Soil :
Foot hills soil form due to weathering takes place the top of mountain
and these weathered material is transported under the influence of gravity c
are formed. These soils will have high moisture regime and remains moist
throughout the year. This may be due to soil have very high water table.
9) Brown Hill Soils

Formed in mountainous region specially under heavy rainfall region,
brown in colour having low fertility .
10) Sub – Montane Soils

Formed in coniferous forest in Himalayan region. Low in fertility.
11. Mountain Meadows Soils

Soil formed under elevations in Himalayan region having very
shallow depth and poor in fertility.
Soils of Maharashtra –
1. Coastal Konkan Region – Thane, Mumbai , Rajgad , Ratnagiri ,
Sindhudurg 720 Km Coastal Region.
2. Western Ghats – Solapur , Sangli , Satara, Sorghum , Pearlmillet ,

Sugarcane.
3. North Deccan Plateau

o Upper Maharashtra deccan plateau
o Lower Maharashtra deccan plateau
o Lower Maharashtra deccan plateau (metamorphic)

Study of soil forming rocks and minerals
Rocks
Rock may be defined as aggregate of one or more then one mineral.
Earth crust - Igneous rocks 95% and Sedimentary rocks 5%
Formation of Rocks: -The various processes that lead to the formation of

rocks are:
1 Cooling and consolidation of Magma: - Rocks are formed by cooling

and consolidation of molten magma with in or on the surface of the
earth e.g. igneous or primary rocks .
2 Transportation and Cementation of Fragmentary Material:-
Disintegration and decomposition lead to the breaking down of pre-
existing rocks. The resulting fragmentary material is either compacted
in situ or transported in solution by the natural agencies of wind,
water and ice to low lying areas like oceans. Consolidation of these
materials after their deposition results in the formation of rocks called
sedimentary or secondary rocks.
3 Alteration of Pre-existing rocks: -The primary and secondary rocks
when subjected to earth’s movement and to high temperature and
pressure are partially or wholly reconstituted or altered to new rocks
called metamorphic
TYPES OF ROCK
1. Igneous rocks- Rocks are formed by cooling and consolidation of

molten magma with in or on the surface of the earth
o Extrusive or Volcanic rocks

o Intrusive or Plutonic rocks.
Volcanic rocks/Plutonic Rocks

1. Formed on the surface of earth
2. Cooling of magma is quick
3. Fine size crystals are formed
5. Ex:-Basalt, Andesite
6. These are called extrusive rocks.

Intrusive or Plutonic rocks.

1. Formed with in earth’s crust
2. Cooling of magma is slow and the time taken for crystallization is quite
Long Coarse crystals are formed
3. eg. Granite & syenite
4. These are called intrusive rocks
Igneous rocks are further classified based on the relative amounts of acid
and basic components. An acid component is silica acid or silica.
Based on silica acid or silica.
Acid rocks - >65% silica Ex:- Granite, Pitchstone
Sub acid rocks - 60 - 65% silica Ex:- Syenite, Trachyte
Sub basic rocks - 55 - 60% silica Ex:- Deorite, Andesite
Basic rocks - 45 - 55% silica Ex:- Gabbro, Basalt
Ultra basic rocks - < 45% silica.
2. Sedimentary rocks: - The sedimentary rocks are formed from

sediments, derived from the breaking down of pre - existing rocks.
The sediments are transported to new places and deposited in new
arrangements and cemented to form secondary rocks. These rocks are
also called as stratified rocks or aqueous rocks.
Classification of sedimentary rocks.
Based on origin, sedimentary rocks are classified into different groups
1. Residual :- When the products of weathering settle at that place

where they have been formed, they form in to hard mass Ex: -Bauxite
2. Mechanical or Detrietal: - Weathered fragments are transported ,
deposited in beds of varying thickness and cemented. Ex: Sand Stone,
Shale, Conglomerate
3. Inorganic or Chemically Formed :- These are formed by
evaporation or precipitation of material in sea or lake water
4. Formed through evaporation : -Halite (Rock salt) , Gypsum
5. Formed through precipitation and flocculation: -Lime stone,
Dolomite
6. Organic Sedimentary rocks or bio-chemically formed rocks. These
are formed by the accumulation and parti al decomposition of organic
remains under anaerobic conditions. When the plants decompose
under restricted air supply in lower layers of earth, a greater portion of

their carbon content is retained and the material is slowly converted

in to coal. Ex: -Peat, Lignite
3. Metamorphic Rocks : The word ‘metamorphic’ means “change in

form” Metamorphosis is used as a general term for all those changes
that alter more or less completely the original characters of rock.
FORMATION: Igneous and sedimentary rocks subjected to

tremendous pressures and high temperatures succumb to metamorphism.
The changes in the deeply buried rocks are brought about by the combined
action of chemically active fluids, internal heat and pressure. The structure
and mineralogical composition of metamorphic rocks depend on the
composition of original rock and the kind of metamorphism.
Changes brought about by chemically activated waters -
Hydrometamorphic rock (Water) Ex: Granite or Basalt to Laterite.
Thermometamorphic rock (Heat) Ex: Limestone to crystalline marble
Dynamometamorphic rock (Pressure) Ex: Granite - Granite - gneiss (Partial

foliation), Gneiss -Schist (Complete foliation) ; Shale---Slate
MINERALS
Mineral is a naturally occurring, homogenous element or inorganic
compound that has a definite chemical composition and a characteristic
geometric form.
Two or more elements combined Gypsum : CaSO4. 2H2O, Olivine – (Mg,
Fe) 2SiO4, Feldspar – KAlSi3 O8
CLASSIFICATION OF MINERALS
1. Based on mode of origin
✓ Primary Minerals The primary minerals are those which are formed
owing to thecrystallization of the molten magma. Eg. Olivine,
Pyroxenes,Quartz, Feldspars Biotite, Muscovite
✓ Secondary Minerals Minerals formed due to weathering action of
primary minerals. Eg. Secondary clays
2. Based on Chemical composition

✓ Native elements- Gold, Silver

✓ Oxides and hydroxides- Haematite, Gibbsite
✓ Halides- Rock salt
✓ Sulphides- Pyrites
✓ Carbonates- Calcite
✓ Sulphates- Gypsum
✓ Silicates- Orthoclase
1. Based on the Quantity
✓ Essential Minerals- The minerals which form the chief constituents
of rock and which are regarded as the characteristic components of th
at rock are known as “Essential Minerals” eg. Quartz, Feldspars and
Micas
✓ Accessory Minerals These minerals occur only in small quantities
and whose presence or absence is of no consequence as far as the
character of the rock is concerned, are called as accessory minerals eg.
Tourmaline, Pyrite, Magnetite.
4 Based on Specific Gravity

✓ Light Minerals- The minerals which have spe cific gravity below
2.95g/cc eg. Quartz (2.60), Feldspar (2.65), Muscovite (2.50 - 2.75)
✓ Heavy Minerals - Having specific gravity above 2.95g/cc

e.g. Haematite (5.30), Pyrite (5.0), Limonite (3.8)


O Horizons: (Organic): It comprises of organic horizons that form above

the mineral soil. They result from litter derived from dead plants and
animals. ‘O’ horizons usually occur in forested areas
A Horizon: It is the top most mineral horizon. It contains a strong mixture

of decomposed (humified) organic matter, which tends to impart a darker
color than that of the lower horizons.
E Horizon: It is an eluviated horizon. Clay and sesquioxides are invariably

leached out, leaving a concentration of resistant minerals such as quartz. An
‘E’ horizon is generally lighter in color than the ‘A’ horizon
“B” Horizon : (Illuvial) The sub -surface ‘B’ horizons include layers in
which illuviation of materials has taken place from above and even from
below. In humid regions, the B horizons are the layers of maximum
accumulation of materials such as sesquioxides and silicate clays. In arid and
semi- arid regions CaCO3, CaSO4 and other salts may accumulate in the B
horizon.
‘C’ Horizon: It is the unconsolidated material underlying the ‘Solum’ (A

& B). It may or may not be the same as the parent material from which the
solum formed. The ‘C’ horizon is outside the zones of major biological
activities and is generally little affected by the processes that formed the
horizons above it.
‘R’ Layer : Underlying consolidated rock, with little evidence of

weathering.
Sub – Ordinate Distinctions with in Master Horizons:

p: plough layer disturbance
h : illuvial accumulation of organic matter
n : accumulation of sodium
t : accumulation of silicate clays
s : illuvial accumulation of organic matter and sesquioxides
y : accumulation of Gypsum
z : accumulation of soluble salts

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K. K.

WAGH COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE, NASHIK

Karmaveer Kakasaheb Wagh Education Society’s

Theory Notes of Ist Semester

Fundamentals of Soil Sciences

Course No:- SSAC-111

Prepared by: Prof. S. B. Aware 1

12 Soil colour, consistency and plasticity. 3

Prepared by: Prof. S. B. Aware 2

28,29 & Soil organic matter: sources, composition, properties, factors 6

Prepared by: Prof. S. B. Aware 3

Scope of Soil Science

1. Soil fertility: Nutrient supplying properties of soil

Soil : it can be defined as natural dynamic body develop as a result of

Weathering :Transformation of solid rocks into parent material or regolith

Regolith : Unconsolidated parent material which lies on hard mass.

2. Edaphological approach : In this approach soil has been consider as

Soil Fertility: it is ability of soil to supply all essential nutrients (17

Soil productivity: it is capacity of soil to produce maximum nutrients

COMPOSITION OF EARTH’S CRUST-

• Rock is composed of elements, which in turn are made upto atoms.

Prepared by: Prof. S. B. Aware 5

Weathering of Rocks and Minerals

Rock ->Weathering ->Regolith ->Soil forming factors and processes ->True

Two processes involved in the formation of soil are:

1. Formation of regolith by breaking down (weathering) of the bed rock.

Weathering: A process of disintegration and decomposition of rocks and

The process of transformation of solid rocks into parent material or Regolith

Parent material: It is the regolith or at least its upper portion. May be

Two basic processes of Weathering:

1. Physical (or) mechanical - Disintegration

Depending up on the agents taking part in weathering processes, it is

Different agents of weathering

Physical/ Mechanical Chemical (decomposition) Biological (disint +

1. Nature of rock- Rock is aggregate of one or more than one mineral.

3. Alternate wetting and Drying: Some natural substances increase

Prepared by: Prof. S. B. Aware 7

1. During dry summer/ dry weather – these clays shrink considerably

4.Water - water has great capacity of transporting weathered material from

Chemical weathering takes place mainly at the surface of rocks and

Prepared by: Prof. S. B. Aware 8

1.Solution : Rock is composed of different material . Some material is easy

H2O + NaCl------ Na+ , Cl- + H2O

2. Hydration: Chemical combination of water molecules with a particular

a) 2Fe2O3 + 3HOH ----- 2Fe2O3 .3H2O

b) Al2O3 + 3HOH ------ Al2O3 .3H2O

c) CaSO4 + 2H2O ------ CaSO4 .2H2O

d) 3(MgO.FeO.SiO2) + 2H2O ---- 3MgO.2SiO2.2H2O + SiO2 + 3H2O

Due to hydration, mineral become soft which increase speed

3. Hydrolysis: Dissociation of water molecules into hydrogen(H+) and

HAlSi3O8 + 8HOH ------ Al2O3.3H2O + 6H2SiO3

Prepared by: Prof. S. B. Aware 9

In Al Silicates , hydroxides are formed . these can be easily removed

5. Oxidation: The process of addition and combination of oxygen to

4FeO(Ferrous oxide) + O2 -> 2Fe2O3 (Ferric oxide)

4Fe3O4 (Magnetite) + O2 -> 6Fe2O3 (Hematite)

2Fe2O3 (Hematite) + 3H2O -> 2Fe2O3 .3H2O (Limonite)

6. Reduction: The process of removal of oxygen and is the reverse of

2Fe2O3 (Hematite) - O2 -> 4FeO (Ferrous oxide) - reduced form