Differentiation Rules 3

3.1 Derivatives of Polynomials and Exponential Functions

 Derivatives of Polynomials and Exponential Functions
In this section we learn how to differentiate constant functions, power functions,
polynomials, and exponential functions.

Let’s start with the simplest

of all functions, the constant
function f(x) = c.

The graph of this function is

the horizontal line y = c,
which has slope 0, so we
must have f '(x) = 0.
(See Figure 1.) Figure 1
The graph of f(x) = c is the
line y = c, so f (x) = 0.

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 Derivatives of Polynomials and Exponential Functions
A formal proof, from the definition of a derivative, is also easy:

In Leibniz notation, we write this rule as follows.

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 Derivatives of Polynomials and Exponential Functions
In Leibniz's notation, such an infinitesimal change in x is denoted by dx, and the
derivative of y with respect to x is written

dy
dx
The above expression is read as:
•"the derivative of y with respect to x",
•"d y by d x", or
•"d y over d x".
•The oral form "d y d x" is often used conversationally, although it may lead to
confusion.

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Power Functions

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 Power Functions
We next look at the functions f(x) = xn, where n is a positive integer.

If n = 1, the graph of f(x) = x is the line y = x, which has slope 1. (See Figure 2.)

Figure 2

The graph of f(x) = x is the line y = x, so f '(x) = 1.

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 Power Functions
So

(You can also verify Equation 1 from the definition of a derivative.)

We have already investigated the cases n = 2 and n = 3. We found that

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Power Functions
For n = 4 we find the derivative of f(x) = x4 as follows:

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 Power Functions
Thus

Comparing the equations in (1), (2), and (3), we see a pattern emerging.

It seems to be a reasonable guess that, when n is a positive integer, (d/dx)(xn) =

nxn–1. This turns out to be true.

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Example 1 – Using the Power Rule
(a) If f(x) = x6, then f(x) = 6x5.

(b) If y = x1000, then y= 1000x999.

(c) If y = t 4, then = 4t 3.

(d) = 3r 2

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 Power Functions

The Power Rule enables us to find tangent lines without having to resort to the
definition of a derivative. It also enables us to find normal lines.

The normal line to a curve C at a point P is the line through P that is

perpendicular to the tangent line at P.

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 Power Functions

[Example 2] Differentiate the following functions.

1
(1) f ( x) = 2 (2) f ( x) = 3 x 2
x
2 2 −13
f ' ( x) = − 3 f ' ( x) = x
x 3

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New Derivatives from Old

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 New Derivatives from Old
When new functions are formed from old functions by addition, subtraction, or
multiplication by a constant, their derivatives can be calculated in terms of
derivatives of the old functions.

In particular, the following formula says that the derivative of a constant times a
function is the constant times the derivative of the function.

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Example 4 – Using the Constant Multiple Rule

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 New Derivatives from Old
The next rule tells us that the derivative of a sum of functions is the sum of the
derivatives.

The Sum Rule can be extended to the sum of any number of functions. For
instance, using this theorem twice, we get
(f + g + h) = [(f + g) + h)] = (f + g) + h = f + g + h

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 New Derivatives from Old
By writing f – g as f + (–1)g and applying the Sum Rule and the Constant Multiple
Rule, we get the following formula.

The Constant Multiple Rule, the Sum Rule, and the Difference Rule can be
combined with the Power Rule to differentiate any polynomial, as the following
examples demonstrate.

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Exponential Functions

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 Exponential Functions
Let’s try to compute the derivative of the exponential function f(x) = ax using the
definition of a derivative:

The factor ax doesn’t depend on h, so we can take it in front of the limit:

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 Exponential Functions
Notice that the limit is the value of the derivative of f at 0, that is,

Therefore, we have shown that if the exponential function f(x) = ax is

differentiable at 0, then it is differentiable everywhere and

f(x) = f(0)ax

This equation says that the rate of change of any exponential function is
proportional to the function itself.
(The slope is proportional to the height.)

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 Exponential Functions
Numerical evidence for the
existence of f(0) is given in
the table at the right for the
cases a = 2 and a = 3.
(Values are stated correct
to four decimal places.)
It appears that the limits
exist and

for a = 2,

for a = 3,

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 Exponential Functions
In fact, it can be proved that these limits exist and, correct to six decimal places,
the values are

Thus, from Equation 4, we have

Of all possible choices for the base a in Equation 4, the simplest differentiation
formula occurs when f(0) = 1.

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 Exponential Functions
In view of the estimates of f(0) for a = 2 and a = 3, it seems reasonable that
there is a number a between 2 and 3 for which f(0) = 1.

It is traditional to denote this value by the letter e. Thus we have the following
definition.

e  2.71828

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 Exponential Functions
Geometrically, this means that of all the possible exponential functions y = ax, the
function f(x) = ex is the one whose tangent line at (0, 1) has a slope f(0) that is
exactly 1.
(See Figures 6 and 7.)

Figure 6 Figure 7

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 Exponential Functions
If we put a = e and, therefore, f(0) = 1 in Equation 4, it becomes the following
important differentiation formula.

Thus the exponential function f(x) = ex has the property that it is its own
derivative.
The geometrical significance of this fact is that the slope of a tangent line to the
curve y = ex is equal to the y-coordinate of the point (see Figure 7).

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Example 8
If f(x) = ex – x, find f and f. Compare the graphs of f and f.

Solution:
Using the Difference Rule, we have

We defined the second derivative as the derivative of f, so

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Example 8 – Solution cont’d

The function f and its derivative f are graphed in Figure 8.

Figure 8

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Example 8 – Solution cont’d

Notice that f has a horizontal tangent when x = 0; this

corresponds to the fact that f(0) = 0. Notice also that, for
x > 0, f(x) is positive and f is increasing.

When x < 0, f(x) is negative and f is decreasing.

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3.2 The Product and Quotient Rules
The Product Rule

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 The Product Rule
By analogy with the Sum and Difference Rules, one might be tempted to guess,
that the derivative of a product is the product of the derivatives.

We can see, however, that this guess is wrong by looking at a particular example.

Let f(x) = x and g(x) = x2. Then the Power Rule gives
f(x) = 1 and g(x) = 2x.

But (fg)(x) = x3, so (fg)(x) = 3x2. Thus (fg) fg.

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 The Product Rule
The correct formula was discovered by Leibniz and is called the Product Rule.
Before stating the Product Rule, let’s see how we might discover it.
We start by assuming that u = f (x) and v = g(x) are both positive differentiable
functions. Then we can interpret the product uv as an area of a rectangle (see
Figure 1).

Figure 1 The geometry of the Product Rule

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 The Product Rule
If x changes by an amount x, then the corresponding changes in u and v are

u = f(x + x) – f(x) v = g(x + x) – g(x)

and the new value of the product, (u + u)(v + v), can be interpreted as the area
of the large rectangle in Figure 1 (provided that u and v happen to be positive).

The change in the area of the rectangle is

(uv) = (u + u)(v + v) – uv = uv + vu + uv

= the sum of the three shaded areas

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 The Product Rule
If we divide by x, we get

If we now let x → 0, we get the derivative of uv:

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 The Product Rule

(Notice that u → 0 as x → 0 since f is differentiable and therefore continuous.)

Although we started by assuming (for the geometric interpretation) that all the
quantities are positive, we notice that Equation 1 is always true. (The algebra is
valid whether u, v, u, v and are positive or negative.)

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 The Product Rule
So we have proved Equation 2, known as the Product Rule, for all differentiable
functions u and v.

In words, the Product Rule says that the derivative of a product of two functions
is the first function times the derivative of the second function plus the second
function times the derivative of the first function.

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 Example 1 – Using the Product Rule
(a) If f(x) = xex, find f(x).
(b) Find the nth derivative, f (n)(x).

Solution:
(a) By the Product Rule, we have

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 Example 1 – Solution cont’d

(b) Using the Product Rule a second time, we get

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 Example 1 – Solution cont’d

Further applications of the Product Rule give

f(x) = (x + 3)ex f (4)(x) = (x + 4)ex

In fact, each successive differentiation adds another term ex, so

f (n)(x) = (x + n)ex

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The Quotient Rule

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 The Quotient Rule
We find a rule for differentiating the quotient of two differentiable functions u = f(x)
and v = g(x) in much the same way that we found the Product Rule.

If x, u, and v change by amounts x, u, and v, then the corresponding change
in the quotient uv is

so

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 The Quotient Rule
As x → 0, v → 0 also, because v = g(x) is differentiable and therefore
continuous.

Thus, using the Limit Laws, we get

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 The Quotient Rule

In words, the Quotient Rule says that the derivative of a quotient is the
denominator times the derivative of the numerator minus the numerator times the
derivative of the denominator, all divided by the square of the denominator.

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 Example 5 – Using the Quotient Rule
Let
Then

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The Quotient Rule

Table of Differentiation Formulas

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3.3 Derivatives of Trigonometric Functions
 Derivatives of Trigonometric Functions
In particular, it is important to remember that when we talk about the function f
defined for all real numbers x by

f(x) = sin x

it is understood that sin x means the sine of the angle whose radian measure is x.
A similar convention holds for the other trigonometric functions cos, tan, csc, sec,
and cot.

All of the trigonometric functions are continuous at every number in their domains.

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 Derivatives of Trigonometric Functions
If we sketch the graph of the function f(x) = sin x and use the interpretation of f(x)
as the slope of the tangent to the sine curve in order to sketch the graph of f,
then it looks as if the graph of f may be the same as the cosine curve.
(See Figure 1).

Figure 1
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 Derivatives of Trigonometric Functions
Let’s try to confirm our guess that if f(x) = sin x, then f(x) = cos x.
From the definition of a derivative, we have

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 Derivatives of Trigonometric Functions

Two of these four limits are easy to evaluate. Since we regard x as a constant
when computing a limit as h → 0, we have

and

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 Derivatives of Trigonometric Functions
The limit of (sin h)/h is not so obvious. We made the guess, on the basis of
numerical and graphical evidence, that

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 Derivatives of Trigonometric Functions
We now use a geometric argument to prove Equation 2. Assume first that  lies
between 0 and /2. Figure 2(a) shows a sector of a circle with center O, central
angle , and radius 1.

BC is drawn perpendicular to OA.

By the definition of radian measure,
we have arc AB = .
Also |BC| = |OB| sin  = sin .

Figure 2(a)

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 Derivatives of Trigonometric Functions
From the diagram we see that

|BC| < |AB| < arc AB

Therefore sin  <  so <1

Let the tangent lines at A and B

intersect at E. You can see from
Figure 2(b) that the circumference
of a circle is smaller than the
length of a circumscribed polygon,
and so arc AB < |AE| + |EB|.
Figure 2(b)
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 Derivatives of Trigonometric Functions
Thus
 = arc AB < |AE| + |EB|
< |AE| + |ED|
= |AD| = |OA| tan 
= tan 

Therefore we have

so

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 Derivatives of Trigonometric Functions
We know that lim →0 1 = 1 and lim →0 cos  = 1, so by the Squeeze Theorem,
we have

But the function (sin )/ is an even function, so its right and left limits must be
equal. Hence, we have

so we have proved Equation 2.

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 Derivatives of Trigonometric Functions
We can deduce the value of the remaining limit in (1) as follows:

(by Equation 2)

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 Derivatives of Trigonometric Functions

If we now put the limits (2) and (3) in (1), we get

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 Derivatives of Trigonometric Functions
So we have proved the formula for the derivative of the sine function:

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 Example 1
Differentiate y = x2 sin x.

Solution:
Using the Product Rule and Formula 4, we have

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 Derivatives of Trigonometric Functions
Using the same methods as in the proof of Formula 4, one can prove that

The tangent function can also be differentiated by using the definition of a

derivative, but it is easier to use the Quotient Rule together with Formulas 4 and
5:

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Derivatives of Trigonometric Functions

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 Derivatives of Trigonometric Functions

The derivatives of the remaining trigonometric functions, csc, sec, and cot, can
also be found easily using the Quotient Rule.

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 Derivatives of Trigonometric Functions
We collect all the differentiation formulas for trigonometric functions in the
following table. Remember that they are valid only when x is measured in radians.

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 Derivatives of Trigonometric Functions
Trigonometric functions are often used in modeling real-world phenomena.
In particular, vibrations, waves, elastic motions, and other quantities that vary in a
periodic manner can be described using trigonometric functions. In the following
example we discuss an instance of simple harmonic motion.

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 Example 3 – Analyzing the Motion of a Spring
An object at the end of a vertical spring is stretched 4 cm beyond its rest position
and released at time t = 0. (See Figure 5 and note that the downward direction is
positive.)
Its position at time t is

s = f(t) = 4 cos t

Find the velocity and acceleration

at time t and use them to analyze
the motion of the object.
Figure 5

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 Example 3 – Solution
The velocity and acceleration are

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 Example 3 – Solution cont’d

The object oscillates from the lowest point (s = 4 cm) to the highest point (s = –4
cm). The period of the oscillation is 2, the period of cos t.

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 Example 3 – Solution cont’d

The speed is |v| = 4 |sin t|, which is greatest when |sin t| = 1,

that is, when cos t = 0.

So the object moves fastest as it passes through its equilibrium position (s = 0).
Its speed is 0 when sin t = 0, that is, at the high and low points.

The acceleration a = –4 cos t = 0 when s = 0.

It has greatest magnitude at the high and low
points.

See the graphs in Figure 6.

Figure 6

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