In the previous part we saw that Mendel principles were built on presence of 2 alleles,

one of them is completely dominant over the other, controlling each character. These two
alleles segregate during gamete formation and are rejoined at random, one from each
parent, during fertilization. In addition, alleles of different characters assort
independently. However, these conditions are not always present that leads to
modifications and extensions from Mendelian ratios. This lack of adherence to Mendel’s
rules doesn’t mean that Mendel was wrong; rather, it demonstrates that Mendel’s
principles are not, by themselves, sufficient to explain the inheritance of all genetic
characteristics. Our modern understanding of allelic relations and factors affecting their
expression and inheritance has been greatly enriched by the discovery of a number of
modifications and extensions of Mendel’s basic principles, which are the focus of the
following part.

A- Neither Allele Is Dominant

1) Incomplete, or Partial, Dominance

The character is controlled by a couple of alleles, neither of which is dominant over the
other. Heterozygote exhibits an intermediate phenotype between those of homozygotes.
For example, if a snapdragon plant with red flowers is crossed with a white-flowered
plant, the offspring have pink flowers. Because some (little) red pigment is produced in
the F1 intermediate-colored plant, neither the red nor white flower color is dominant. If
the phenotype is under the control of a single gene and two alleles, where neither is
dominant, the results of the F1 (pink) × F1 (pink) cross can be predicted. The resulting
F2 generation shown in the following Figure confirms the hypothesis that only one pair
of alleles determines these phenotypes.
Because neither allele is recessive, we can not use upper- and lowercase letters as
symbols. Instead, R1 and R2, W1 and W 2 or CW and CR, where C indicates “color” and
the W and R superscripts indicate white and red, respectively.

The most accurate way is to consider gene expression in a quantitative way. The allele
CR encodes enzyme that participates in a reaction leading to the synthesis of a red
pigment. CW encodes enzyme that cannot catalyze the reaction leading to pigment. The

23
end result is that the heterozygote produces only about half the pigment of the red-
flowered plant and the phenotype is pink.

Genotype Phenotype

CWCW White

CWCR Pink

CRCR Red

24
P
CW CW CRCR

CW CR

F1 100% Pink flower

11
CWCR
Self-crossing

CW CR
F2
CW CW CW CR
11 CW

CW CR CR CR
CR

(1 Red : 2 Pink : 1 White)

25
2) Codominance

Alleles of a single gene are responsible for producing two distinct, detectable gene
products. It is the joint expression of both alleles in heterozygotes. The Influence of
both alleles in a heterozygote is clearly evident. It is a situation different from incomplete
dominance or dominance/recessiveness.

The MN blood group in humans illustrates this phenomenon. A glycoprotein molecule

found on the surface of red blood cells that acts as a native antigen, providing
biochemical and immunological identity to individuals. In the human population, two
forms of this glycoprotein exist, designated M and N; an individual may exhibit either
one or both of them. Two alleles designated LM and LN. Because humans are diploid,
three combinations are possible, each resulting in a distinct blood type:

Genotype Phenotype

LM LM M

LM LN MN

LN LN N

As predicted, a mating between two heterozygous MN parents may produce children of

all three blood types, as follows:

26
P M N
LNLN
LM LM

LM LN

100% MN
MN
F1
LM LN
11 Crossing of
2 heterozygotes (LM LN)

LM LN

L M LM LM LN
F2 L M
M MN
11 L M LN LNLN
LN
MN N

(1 M : 2 MN : 1 N)

In partial (incomplete) and codominance, phenotypic ratio equals the genotypic one (1 : 2
: 1) as heterozygous has a phenotype that can be distinct from homozygous.

27
B- Multiple alleles

It means presence of more than 2 alleles for a gene in population. However, every
diploid individual has 2 alleles for such gene. Thus, among members of a species,
numerous alternative allelic combinations of the same gene can exist. The simplest case
of multiple alleles occurs when three alternative alleles of one gene exist. This situation
is illustrated in the inheritance of the ABO blood groups in humans. The ABO system,
like the MN blood types, is characterized by the presence of antigens (A & B) on the
surface of red blood cells. The A and B antigens are distinct from the M & N antigens
and are under the control of a different gene. As in the MN system, one combination of
alleles in the ABO system exhibits a codominant mode of inheritance. Each individual
has one of four phenotypes. Each individual has either the A antigen (A phenotype), the
B antigen (B phenotype), the A and B antigens (AB phenotype), or neither antigen (O
phenotype).

Although different designations can be used, we will use the symbols IA, IB, and i to
distinguish these three alleles. The I designation stands for isoagglutinogen, another term
for antigen. If we assume that the IA and IB alleles are responsible for the production of
their respective A and B antigens and that i is an allele that does not produce any
detectable A or B antigens, we can list the various genotypic possibilities and assign the
appropriate phenotype to each:

Genotype Antigen Phenotype

IAIA A A

IAi A A

IBIB B B

IBi B B

IAIB AB AB

ii - O

In these assignments, the IA and IB alleles are dominant to the i allele, but codominant to
each other.
28
 O
P A

IA IA ii

IA i

F1 A 100% A
11
IAi Crossing of
2 heterozygotes (IAi)

IA i

F2 I A IA IA i
IA
11 A A
IA i ii
i
A O

(3 A : 1 O)

29
 A B
P
IA IA IB IB

IA IB

F1 AB 100% AB
11
I A IB
Crossing of
2 carrying (IAIB) genotype

IA IB

F2 I A IA IA IB
IA
11 A AB
IA IB IB IB
IB
AB B

(1 A : 2 AB : 1 B)

30
Q: What are the expected blood groups for children whose parents have:

 AB and O blood groups.

 AB and A blood groups.

C- Lethal Alleles
Presence of certain alleles may cause death of their carriers. If 2 copies of a lethal allele
are required for death, the allele is called recessive lethal allele. If death occurs before
birth some genotypes may not appear among the progeny. Consequently, Mendelian
ratios will be modified.

In rats, a mutation produced an allele (AY) that causes death in case of homozygotes. The
mutation was associated with appearance of yellow coat instead of agouti coat. The allele
is recessive for lethality where 2 copies are required for death while it is dominant for
color where only one copy of it is enough to produce yellow color. Matting of 2 yellow
rats gives yellow and agouti in 2:1 ratio. The modification of Mendelian ratio is
attributed to death of rats carrying ( AYAY ) genotype that constitutes 1/3 of expected
yellow rats during embryonic stages.

AY A
Y

AY A
Y Y Y
Y
AA
Die during
AA
AYA
Y
A embryonic
stages

AYA AA
A

(2 yellow : 1 agouti)

31
AY is recessive lethal allele were it is lethal in homozygotes only though it encodes
dominant trait (yellow) of color. It is clear that all yellow rats are heterozygotes (Why?).
Also, AY has no effect on agouti X agouti and agouti X yellow (Why?).

If only one copy of lethal alleles is enough for death, the allele is thus called dominant
leathal allele. Both of homozygotes and heterozygotes die. Truly dominant lethal alleles
cannot be transmitted unless they are expressed after the onset of reproduction, as in
Huntington disease in humans,

Huntington disease is due to a dominant autosomal allele H, where the onset of the
disease in heterozygotes (Hh) is delayed, usually well into adulthood. Affected
individuals then undergo gradual nervous and motor degeneration until they die. This
lethal disorder is particularly tragic because it has such a late onset, typically at about age
40. By that time, the affected individual may have produced a family, and each of their
children has a 50 percent probability of inheriting the lethal allele, transmitting the allele
to his or her offspring, and eventually developing the disorder.

Dominant lethal alleles are rarely observed. For these alleles to exist in a population, the
affected individuals must reproduce before the lethal allele is expressed, as can occur in
Huntington disease. If all affected individuals die before reaching reproductive age, the
mutant gene will not be passed to future generations, and the mutation will disappear
from the population unless it arises again as a result of a new mutation.

D) A Single gene has multiple phenotypic effects (pleiotropy).

Every allele is responsible for traits of different characters. It results in a case where
traits of different characters seem to assort together i.e. do not show independent
assortment. An excellent example of pleiotropy is Marfan syndrome, a human malady
resulting from an autosomal dominant mutation in the gene encoding the connective
tissue protein fibrillin. Because this protein is widespread in many tissues in the body,
one would expect multiple effects of such a defect. In fact, fibrillin is important to the
structural integrity of the lens of the eye, to the lining of vessels such as the aorta, and to
32
bones, among other tissues. As a result, the phenotype associated with Marfan syndrome
includes lens dislocation, increased risk of aortic aneurysm, and lengthened long bones
in limbs. Thus, lens dislocation, increased risk of aortic aneurysm and lengthened long
bones in limbs will be transmitted together (not independently). This disorder is of
historical interest in that speculation abounds that Abraham Lincoln was afflicted.

E) Impacts of sex on inheritance and expression of alleles.

It was found that sex has a great influence on either the pattern of inheritance of alleles
or their expression. Generally, the influence of sex lies in the following categories:

1) Sex-linked genes (Describes Genes on the X Chromosome)

Sex determination systems vary among different organisms. The XX/XY sex-
determination system is the most familiar, as it is found in humans. In the system,
females have two of the same kind of sex chromosome (XX), while males have two
distinct sex chromosomes (XY). The XY sex chromosomes are different in shape and
size from each other, unlike the autosomes, and are termed allosomes.

Y chromosome lacks copies of most genes present on the X chromosome. As a result,

genes present on the X chromosome exhibit patterns of inheritance that are very different
from those seen with autosomal genes. For alleles carried on X chromosome, one copy
of recessive alleles is sufficient to show the recessive phenotype in male. Females have
two X chromosome (one from each parent) while males have only one X chromosome
(from mother). Consequently, alleles carried on X-chromosomes pass, equally, from
mother to her sons and daughters while they pass from father to his daughters only.

33
One of the first cases of X-linkage was documented in 1910 by Thomas H. Morgan. In
Drosophila, the normal wild type red eye color is dominant to white eye color. The
inheritance pattern of eye color trait was clearly related to the sex of the parent carrying
each allele. Reciprocal crosses between white-eyed and red-eyed flies did not yield
identical results. Analysis led to the conclusion that the locus for eye color is present on
the X chromosome rather than on one of the autosomes. Both the gene and the trait are
said to be X-linked. The obvious differences in phenotypic ratios in both the F1 and F2
generations are dependent on whether or not the P1 white-eyed parent was male or
female. Morgan was able to correlate these observations with the difference found in the
sex-chromosome composition of male and female Drosophila. He hypothesized that the
recessive allele for white eye is found on the X chromosome, but its corresponding locus
is absent from the Y chromosome. Females thus have two available gene loci, one on
each X chromosome, whereas males have only one available locus, on their single X
chromosome.

Morgan’s interpretation of X-linked inheritance, shown in the next figure, provides a

suitable theoretical explanation for his results. Since the Y chromosome lacks homology
with almost all genes on the X chromosome, these alleles present on the X chromosome
of the males will be directly expressed in the phenotype. Males cannot be either
homozygous or heterozygous for X-linked genes; instead, their condition— possession of
only one copy of a gene in an otherwise diploid cell—is referred to as hemizygosity. The
individual is said to be hemizygous. One result of X-linkage is the crisscross pattern of

34
inheritance, in which phenotypic traits controlled by recessive X-linked genes are passed
from homozygous mothers to all sons. This pattern occurs because females exhibiting a
recessive trait must contain the recessive allele on both X chromosomes. Because male
offspring receive one of their mother’s two X chromosomes and are hemizygous for all
alleles present on that X, all sons will express the same recessive X-linked traits as their
mother.

In humans, many genes and the respective traits controlled by them are recognized as
being linked to the X chromosome. Human color blindness and hemophilia are examples
for such pattern of inheritance.

35
 Male with White eye

Female with
red eye

Female with red eye Male with red eye

Female with red eye Male with red eye

F1: All with red eye

Male with red eye

Female with
red eye

Female with red eye Male with white eye

Female with red eye Male with red eye

F2: 3 red : 1 White

36
 Male with red eye

Female with
white eye

Female with red eye Male with white eye

Female with red eye Male with white eye

F1: 1 Red : 1 White

Male with white eye

Female with
red eye

Female with white eye Male with white eye

Female with red eye Male with red eye

F2: 1 red : 1 White

37
2) Sex-Limited and Sex-Influenced Inheritance
In contrast to X-linked inheritance, patterns of gene expression may be affected by the
sex of an individual even when the genes are not on the X chromosome. In numerous
examples in different organisms, the sex of the individual plays a determining role in the
expression of a phenotype. In these cases, autosomal genes are responsible for the
existence of contrasting phenotypes, but the expression of these genes is dependent on
the hormone constitution of the individual.

 Sex- limited inheritance

The expression of a specific phenotype is absolutely limited to one sex. In domestic fowl,
tail and neck plumage is often distinctly different in males and females, demonstrating
sex-limited inheritance. Cock feathering is longer, more curved, and pointed, whereas
hen feathering is shorter and less curved. Inheritance of these feather phenotypes is
controlled by a single pair of autosomal alleles whose expression is modified by the
individual’s sex hormones. As shown in the following chart, hen feathering is due to a
dominant allele, H, but regardless of the homozygous presence of the recessive h allele,
all females remain hen-feathered. Only in males does the hh genotype result in cock
feathering.

Genotype Phenotype
Male Female
HH Hen-feathered Hen-feathered

Hh Hen-feathered Hen-feathered

hh Cock-feathered Hen-feathered

 b) Sex-influenced inheritance

The sex of an individual influences the expression of a phenotype that is not limited to
one sex or the other. Cases of sex-influenced inheritance include pattern baldness in
humans. In such cases, autosomal genes are responsible for the contrasting phenotypes,

38
and while the trait may be displayed by both males and females, the expression of these
genes is dependent on the hormone constitution of the individual. Thus, the heterozygous
genotype exhibits one phenotype in one sex and the contrasting one in the other. For
example, pattern baldness in humans, where the hair is very thin or absent on the top of
the head, is inherited in the following way:

Genotype Phenotype
Male Female
BB Bald Bald

Bb Bald Not Bald

bb Not Bald Not Bald

39