MAT1341 Notes - By Eric Hua

Contents
Pre-knowledge 3

Chapter 2. Vector Geometry 4

Vectors in Rn . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
Dot product and applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6

Chapter 3. Lines and Planes 8

Lines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
The Cross Product in R3 and Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
Plane in R3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11

Chapter 11 and 12. Solving systems of linear equations 12

Linear systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
Coefficient and augmented matrix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
REF and RREF . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
Gaussian elimination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16

Chapter 13 Applications and examples of linear system 17

Rank . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
An Application to Network Flow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18

Chapter 14 Applications and examples of linear system 20

Matrix multiplication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
Vector equations and matrix equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22

Chapter 4 Vector Spaces 25

Chapter 5 Subspaces 27

Chapter 6 Spanning Sets 30

Chapters 7-8 Linear Independence 32

Chapters 9-10 Basis and dimension 33

Basis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33

1
 Dimension . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36

Chapters 15-17 Column space, row space, null space 38

Chapter 18 Matrix Inverses 43

Chapter 19-20 Orthogonality 45

Orthogonal Sets and Expansion Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
Orthogonal Complements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
Projection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
Approximation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
The Gram-Schmidt Algorithm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51

Chapter 1 Complex Numbers 53

Chapter 21 Determinants 55
Cofactor Expansion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55

Chapter 22 Eigenvalues and eigenvectors 60

Chapter 23 Diagonalization 65

Chapter 24 Linear Transformation 68

2
Chapter 2. Vector Geometry
Vectors in Rn
Rn = {(x1 , x2 , ..., xn )|xi ∈ R} .
If u or ~u ∈ Rn , then
 
u1
u2 
 
T
~u = (u1 , u2 , ..., un ) =  .  = [u1 u2 · · · un ] ,

 .. 
un

here T means transpose. The magnitude (or length, or norm)

q
||(u1 , u2 , ..., un )|| = u12 + · · · + un2 .

Special vectors:

• Zero vector ~0 = (0, 0, ..., 0).

• unit vector: ||~u|| = 1.

• In R2 : ~i = (1, 0), ~j = (0, 1); In R3 : ~i = (1, 0, 0), ~j = (0, 1, 0), ~k = (0, 0, 1).

Manipulation of vectors in Rn : Let ~u = (u1 , ..., un ), ~v = (v1 , ..., vn ).

• Addition: ~u + ~v = (u1 + v1 , ..., un + vn ).

• Scalar multiple: Let c be a scalar, then c~

u = (cu1 , cu2 , ..., cun ).

• ~u = ~v if and only if u1 = v1 , ..., un = vn ).

• ~u//~v if and only if ~u = c~v for a constant c.

Properties: Let c, d be scalars.

• ~u + ~v = ~v + ~u

• (~u + ~v) + w
~ = ~u + (~v + w)
~

• ~u + ~0 = ~u, ~u + (−~u) = ~0

• (cd)~u = c(d~u)

4
 • (c + d)~u = c~
u + d~u

• c(~u + ~v) = c~u + c~v

• 1~u = ~u, (−1)~u = −~u, 0~u = ~0

• ~u//~v ⇔ ~v = c~u

Linear combination: Let ~u1 , ..., ~un be n vectors, k1 ,..., kn be n scalars, then

k1~u1 + ... + kn~un

is called a linear combination of the n vectors.

Example 1. Is w ~ a linear combination of u~ and ~v?

(a) w
~ = (2, 3), ~
u = (1, 0), ~
v = (0, 1).
     
3 1 0
~ =  2 , ~u = 1, ~v = 1.
(b) w
     

−1 1 2
(c) w
~ = (1, 2, 3, 4), ~u = (1, 0, 0, 0), ~v = (0, 0, 1, 0).

Solution: (a): Yes, w

~ = 2~u + 3~v .

(b): No.

(c): No. If w
~ = a~u + b~v, then

(1, 2, 3, 4) = a(1, 0, 0, 0) + b(0, 0, 1, 0)

= (a, 0, 0, 0) + (0, 0, b, 0)

= (a, 0, b, 0).

Thus a = 1, 2 = 0, 3 = b, 4 = 0, a contradiction.

5
Example 2. Let ~u = (1, 2) and ~v = (3, −1). Find proj~v ~u and proj~u~v.
1
Solution: proj~v ~u = 10
(3, −1) and proj~u~v = 15 (1, 2).

Example 3. Let ~u = (1, 2, −2), ~v = (−2, −2, 1). Write ~u = u~1 + u~2 s.t. u~1 ⊥~v , u~2 //~v.

Solution:
16 16 8
  
−8

~u · ~v
~u2 = proj~v ~u = (−2, −2, 1) =
~v = , ,− .
||~v||2 9 9 9 9

16 16 8 7 2 10
  
~u1 = ~u − ~u2 = (1, 2, −2) − , ,− = − , ,− .
9 9 9 9 9 9
Example 4. Let ~u = (1, 2, −2), ~v = (−2, −2, 1), Find the cosine of the angle between u
~
and ~v.

Solution:
~u · ~v −8
cos θ = = .
||~u|| ||~v|| 9
Properties: Let c be a scalar.

• ~u · ~v = ~v · ~u

• w
~ · (~u + ~v ) = w
~ · ~u + w
~ · ~v

• c(~u · ~v) = (c~u) · ~v = ~u · (c~v )

• ~u · ~0 = 0

u||2 .
• ~u · ~u = ||~

7
Chapter 3. Lines and Planes
Lines
Line L: A line is determined by a point ~p and a vector (direction vector) d~ parallel to the
line. It can be described as
p + td~ |t ∈ R},
L = {~

t is a parameter.

Line L in R2 :

• Slope-intercept form: y = mx + b.

• vector form: Let p~ = (p1 , p2 ) be a point on L (a position vector). Let ~v = (v1 , v2 ) be

a vector parallel to the line L (a direction vector). Then the line is:

L = {~
p + t~v|t ∈ R}

or
(x, y) = ~p + t~v , t ∈ R.

Example 5. Find the line through points P (1, 2) and Q(3, −2).
" #
2
Solution: A direction vector ~v = Q − P = . Thus
−4
(" # " # )
1 2
L= +t |t ∈ R = {(1, 2) + t(2, −4)|t ∈ R} = {(1, 2) + t(1, −2)|t ∈ R} .
2 −4

Line L in R3 :

Let P (p1 , p2 , p3 ) be a point on the line L. Let ~v be a nonzero vector which is parallel L.

• vector form:
L = {~
p + t~v|t ∈ R}, ~p = (p1 , p2 , p3 )

or
(x, y, z) = p~ + t~v , t ∈ R.

• Parametric form: x = p1 + tv1 , y = p2 + tv2 , z = p3 + tv3 .

8
The Cross Product in R3 and Applications
• Cross product: Let ~u = (u1 , u2 , u3 ), ~v = (v1 , v2 , v3 ), then
~u × ~v = (u2 v3 − u3 v2 , +u3 v1 − u1 v3 , u1 v2 − u2 v1 ).

• Orthogonal: ~u × ~v⊥~u, ~u × ~v⊥~v.

Example 8. Find a vector that is orthogonal to both ~u = (1, 2, −1), ~v = (0, 2, 3).
Solution: Any scalar multiple of ~u × ~v = (8, −3, 2).
Properties: Let c be a scalar.
• ~u × ~v = −~v × ~u

• w
~ × (~u + ~v ) = w
~ × ~u + w
~ × ~v

• (~u + ~v) × w
~ = ~u × w
~ + ~v × w
~

• c(~u × ~v) = (c~u) × ~v = ~u × (c~v)

• ~u × ~0 = ~0

• ~u × ~u = ~0

• ~u × (~v × w)
~ = (~u · w)~
~ v − (~u · ~v)w.
~

• ||~u × ~v|| = ||~u|| ||~u|| sin θ, where θ is the angle between ~u and ~v

• ||~u × ~v|| is the area of the parallelogram determined by ~u and ~v.

• ||~u · (~v × w)||

~ is the volume of the parallelepiped spanned by ~u, ~v , w.
~ If it is 0, then
these three vectors are in the same plane.
Example 9. Find the area of the parallelogram determined by ~u = (1, 2, −1), ~v = (0, 2, 3).
√
Solution: A = ||~u × ~v|| = ||(8, −3, 2)|| = 77.

Example 10. Find the area of the triangle with vertices P (1, 2, 3), Q(−3, 2, 1), and R(2, 4, 5).
Solution: P~Q = Q − P = (−4, 0, −2), P~R = R − P = (1, 2, 2).
1 √
A = ||P~Q × P~R|| = ||(4, 6, −8)|| = 29.
2
Example 11. Find the volume of the parallelepiped spanned by ~u = (1, 2, 3), ~v = (1, 3, 2), w
~=
(1, 2, 2).
Solution: Volume = ||~u · (~v × w
~ )|| = 1.

10