English Grammer

The Grammer Companion: your friendly guide to English language

3/20/2024

Ehsanullah Rahimi
[email protected]
English Grammar
English grammar is a set of rules and guidelines that ensure the correct and standard use of the English language. It helps
preserve the accuracy of the language by guiding its new learners as well as current users towards standard language use.
We have assembled an extensive list of topics that cover basic English grammar to advance in a manageable succession.
We hope that the new learners can follow the list put together by our experts while the experienced ones can check back on
their topic of necessity with ease.

Word: The Definition & Criteria

In traditional grammar, words are the basic unit of language. Words can be classified according to their action and meaning,
but it is challenging to define.
A word refers to a speech sound, or a mixture of two or more speech sounds in both written and verbal form of language.
A word works as a symbol to represent/refer to something/someone in language to communicate a specific meaning.
Example: ‘love’, ‘cricket’, ‘sky’ etc.

"[A word is the] smallest unit of grammar that can stand alone as a complete utterance, separated by spaces in
written language and potentially by pauses in speech."

Morphology, a branch of linguistics, studies the formation of words. The branch of linguistics that studies the meaning
of words is called lexical semantics.
There are several criteria for a speech sound, or a combination of some speech sounds to be called a word.
o There must be a potential pause in speech and a space in written form between two words.
For instance, suppose ‘ball’ and ‘bat’ are two different words. So, if we use them in a sentence, we must have
a potential pause after pronouncing each of them. It cannot be like “I don’t play with balls.” If we take pause,
these sounds can be regarded as seven distinct words which are ‘I,' ‘do,' ‘not,' ‘play,' ‘with,' ‘bat,' and ‘ball.'
o Every word must contain at least one root. If you break this root, it cannot be a word anymore.
For example, the word ‘unfaithful’ has a root ‘faith.' If we break ‘faith’ into ‘fa’ and ‘ith,' these sounds will not be
regarded as words.
o Every word must have a meaning.
For example, the sound ‘lakkanah’ has no meaning in the English language. So, it cannot be an English word.

o Sentence: Definition & Types

A sentence is the largest unit of any language. In English, it begins with a capital letter and ends with a full-stop, or a question
mark, or an exclamation mark.
The sentence is generally defined as a word or a group of words that expresses a thorough idea by giving a statement/order,
or asking a question, or exclaiming.
Example:
He is a good boy (statement), Is he a good boy? (question), What a nice weather! (exclaiming).
Ideally, a sentence requires at least one subject and one verb. Sometimes the subject of a sentence can be hidden, but the
verb must be visible and present in the sentence. Verb is called the heart of a sentence.
Example:
Do it. (In this sentence, a subject ‘you’ is hidden but verb ‘do’ is visible)
“[A sentence is] a group of words, usually containing a verb, that expresses a thought in the form of
a statement, question, instruction, or exclamation and starts with a capital letter when written.” - (Cambridge Advanced
Learner’s Dictionary & Thesaurus © Cambridge University Press.)
More Examples of Sentences
In other words, a complete English sentence must have three characteristics:
o First, in written form, a sentence begins with a capital letter and ends with a period (i.e., a full stop) [ .], a note
of interrogation (i.e., a question mark) [?], or a note of exclamation (i.e., an exclamation mark) [!].
o Second, it must express a complete thought, not fragmented.
o Third, it must contain at least one subject (hidden/visible) and one verb comprising an independent clause. (An
independent clause contains an independent subject and verb and expresses a complete thought.)
Types of Sentences
Structurally, sentences are of four types:
• Simple sentence
• Compound sentence
• Complex sentence, and
• Compound-complex sentence.

Simple sentence
A simple sentence must have a single clause (a single verb) which is independent, and it cannot take another clause.
Example:
I always wanted to become a writer. (One clause – one verb)

Compound sentence
A compound sentence must have more than one independent clause with no dependent clauses. Some
specific conjunctions, punctuation, or both are used to join together these clauses.
Example:
I always wanted to become a writer, and she wanted to become a doctor. (Two independent clauses – two verbs)

Complex sentence
A complex sentence also has more than one clause but of one them must be an independent clause and the other/others
must be (a) dependent clause(es). There are also some particular connectors for the clauses of a complex sentence to be
connected.
Example:
I know that you always wanted to be a writer. (Here, a dependent clause is followed by a connector and an independent
clause. The other way around is also possible.)
More

Compound-complex sentence
A compound-complex sentence (or complex–compound sentence) is a mixture of the features of compound and complex
sentences in one sentence. So, it must contain at least two independent clauses and at least one dependent clause.
Example:
I know that you always wanted to become a writer, but I always wanted to become a doctor. (Here, one dependent clause is
followed by a complex connector and two independent clauses with a compound conjunction between them.)

Functionally, sentences are of mainly four types:

• Declarative sentence
• Imperative sentence
• Interrogative sentence, and
• Exclamatory sentence

Declarative sentence:
An assertive sentence (declarative sentence) simply expresses an opinion/feeling, or makes a statement, or describes
things. In other words, it declares something. This type of sentence ends with a period (i.e., a full-stop).
Examples:
o I want to be a good cricketer. (a statement)
o I am very happy today. (a feeling)
More Examples of Declarative Sentence

Imperative sentence:
We use an imperative sentence to make a request or to give a command. Imperative sentences usually end with a period
(i.e., a full stop), but under certain circumstances, it can end with a note of exclamation (i.e., exclamation mark).
Examples:
o Please sit down.
o I need you to sit down now!
More Examples of Imperative Sentence

Interrogative sentence:
An interrogative sentence asks a question. Interrogative sentences must end with a note of interrogation (i.e., question mark)
Examples:
o When are you going to submit your assignment?
 oDo you know him?
More Examples of Interrogative Sentence

Exclamatory sentence.
An exclamatory sentence expresses overflow of emotions. These emotions can be of happiness, wonder, sorrow, anger, etc.
Examples:
o What a day it was!
o I cannot believe he would do that!

Parts of Speech
Parts of speech are the classification of words categorized by their roles and functions within the structure of the language.
Parts of speech encompass everything a language has in itself. Can you imagine all the words of a language can be sorted
into these categories? They play different roles in the structure of a language.
In English, there are eight parts of speech:
• Noun
• Pronoun
• Verb
• Adjective
• Adverb
• Preposition
• Conjunction
• Interjection
Noun
Noun refers to people, places, things, ideas, concepts, etc.
Example: Michael is a good boy. Melbourne is the best city.
Pronoun
A pronoun is used to refer to a noun/noun phrase, or nouns/noun phrases; instead of the repeated use of the same
noun(s)/noun phrase(s).
Example: Michael is a good boy. He gets up early in the morning.
Verb
Verb shows an action or an ongoing condition. It is considered as the heart of a sentence.
Example: Alex is going home. He loves his home.
Adjective
Adjective modifies or describes noun in a sentence.
Example: Alex loves his beautiful daughters. His daughters also love their caring father.
Adverb
Adverbs modify or describe adjectives, verbs, or other adverbs. It answers the questions When? Where? How? or How
much?
Example: He is running fast. She always reads attentively.
Preposition
Preposition gives context to nouns in relationship to other nouns or pronouns.
Example: I am going to France. France is in Europe.
Conjunction
A conjunction connects nouns, noun phrases, clauses or sentences together.
Example: Julie love chocolate and chips. She loves pasta, but she hates pizza.
Interjection
Interjections are brief and abrupt pauses in speech, usually used for expressing emotions.
Example: Oh! That feels terrible. Alas! They have lost the match.
What is Noun? Types of Noun with Their Definitions and Examples
Nouns refer to persons, animals, places, things, ideas, or events, etc. Nouns encompass most of the words of a language.
Noun can be a/an -
o Person – a name for a person: - Max, Julie, Catherine, Michel, Bob, etc.
o Animal – a name for an animal: - dog, cat, cow, kangaroo, etc.
o Place – a name for a place: - London, Australia, Canada, Mumbai, etc.
o Thing – a name for a thing: - bat, ball, chair, door, house, computer, etc.
o Idea – A name for an idea: - devotion, superstition, happiness, excitement, etc.
Examples of Noun in sentence

Different Types of Noun:

• Proper Noun
• Common Noun
• Abstract Noun
• Concrete Noun
• Countable Noun
• Non-countable Noun
• Collective Noun
• Compound Noun

Proper Noun:
A proper noun is a name which refers only to a single person, place, or thing and there is no common name for it. In written
English, a proper noun always begins with capital letters.
Example: Melbourne (it refers to only one particular city), Steve (refers to a particular person),
Australia (there is no other country named Australia; this name is fixed for only one country).
More Examples of Proper Noun

Common Noun:
A common noun is a name for something which is common for many things, person, or places. It encompasses a particular
type of things, person, or places.
Example: Country (it can refer to any country, nothing in particular), city (it can refer to any city like Melbourne, Mumbai,
Toronto, etc. but nothing in particular).
So, a common noun is a word that indicates a person, place, thing, etc. In general and a proper noun is a specific one of
those.
More Examples of Common Noun

Abstract Noun:
An abstract noun is a word for something that cannot be seen but is there. It has no physical existence. Generally, it refers
to ideas, qualities, and conditions.
Example: Truth, lies, happiness, sorrow, time, friendship, humor, patriotism, etc.
Abstract Noun examples in sentences

Concrete Noun:
A concrete noun is the exact opposite of abstract noun. It refers to the things we see and have physical existence.
Example: Chair, table, bat, ball, water, money, sugar, etc.

Countable Noun:
The nouns that can be counted are called countable nouns. Countable nouns can take an article: a, an, the.
Example: Chair, table, bat, ball, etc. (you can say 1 chair, 2 chairs, 3 chairs – so chairs are countable)
Countable Noun examples in sentences

Non-countable Noun:
The nouns that cannot be counted are called non-countable nouns.
Example: Water, sugar, oil, salt, etc. (you cannot say “1 water, 2 water, 3 water” because water is not countable)
Abstract nouns and proper nouns are always non-countable nouns, but common nouns and concrete nouns can be
both count and non-count nouns.
Non-countable Noun examples in sentences
Collective Noun:
A collective noun is a word for a group of things, people, or animals, etc.
Example: family, team, jury, cattle, etc.
Collective nouns can be both plural and singular. However, Americans prefer to use collective nouns as singular, but both of
the uses are correct in other parts of the world.

Compound Noun:
Sometimes two or three nouns appear together, or even with other parts of speech, and create idiomatic compound nouns.
Idiomatic means that those nouns behave as a unit and, to a lesser or greater degree, amount to more than the sum of their
parts.
Example: six-pack, five-year-old, and son-in-law, snowball, mailbox, etc.

More Types of Noun:

Singular Noun:
Singular Nouns are namely, singular in number. The base form of any noun is naturally singular and so that is the Singular
Noun.
Examples:
Duck, Bush, Man, Mouse, Child, Fish etc. are Singular Nouns.
Singular Noun in a sentence:
o I have a pet duck.
o That big bush is beside our house.
o He is the man of the house.
o Ron’s pet mouse is too vicious for such a little creature.
o Their child has a sound sense of situational adjustments.
o I’d like that small fish, please.

Plural Noun:
The plural forms of the Singular Nouns are Plural Nouns. These nouns determine more than one element.
Examples:
Belts, Boxes, Mice, Sheep, People etc. are examples of Plural Noun.
Plural Noun in a sentence:
o There are seven belts in the seat.
o Let’s unpack those boxes.
o Our house is scattered with a herd of mice.
o I’ve chased the sheep back into the shed.
o These people are getting on my nerves.

Regular Noun:
Regular Nouns do not change in spelling when changed into plural; only the regular plural suffixes -s or -es are attached to
it according to the grammar and spelling agreement.
Examples:

Singular Noun Plural Noun

Duck Ducks

Belt Belts
 Box Boxes

Bush Bushes

Apple Apples

Irregular Noun:
Irregular Nouns do not have plural suffixes added to them for their plural form and they monumentally change in spelling.
Examples:

Singular Noun Plural Noun

Man Men

Ox Oxen

Fox Vixen

Goose Geese

Mouse Mice

Possessive Noun:
The noun that owns something or has something in its possession is the Possessive Noun. These nouns usually end with
an apostrophe before one “s” that determines the possession of the object(s) that follows.
Example:
o My cat’s litter needs changing very soon.
o Jacky’s wallet is stolen.
o Your pet’s feeder is missing.

Verbal Noun:
Verb + ing often act as the noun/subject of the sentence instead of posing as a verb and then they become a Verbal Noun.
Gerunds can be Verbal Nouns at times.
Example:
 o Smoking is injurious to health.
o Killing the runaway
tiger is not a solution.
Verb Verbal Noun o Running for dear
life is what thieves do.

Material Noun:
Run Running
Substances made out of
tangible materials are
usually Material Nouns.
Smoke Smoking These are Common
Uncountable Nouns by
nature since they mostly
determine a certain sector
Kill Killing type of product.
Examples:
o I lack the common
Treat Treating fascination with gold.
o Coal produces
nonrenewable energy.
o Humans are 70% water.

Functions of Nouns
Nouns can be used as a subject, a direct object, and an indirect object of a verb; as an object of a preposition; and as an
adverb or adjective in sentences. Nouns can also show possession.
Subject: The company is doing great. Roses are the flowers of love.
Direct object: I finally bought a new mobile.
Indirect object: Max gave Carol another chocolate.
Object of preposition: Roses are the flowers of love.
Adverb: The train leaves today.
Adjective: The office building faces the mall.
Possession: The lion’s cage is dangerous. My brother’s daughter is adorable.

Pronoun: Definition & Types

A pronoun is used in place of a specific noun mentioned earlier in a sentence so that you don’t have to keep saying/writing
that particular noun.
Example:
o Michael is a good boy. He gets up early in the morning. (Here, you don’t have to mention ‘Michael’ again)
o The coach selected several key points. He wanted the team to memorize them. (‘He’ replaces ‘the coach’;
‘them’ replaces ‘several key points’)
The word or phrase that a pronoun replaces is called the antecedent of the pronoun. In the previous example, original noun
‘the coach’ is the antecedent and the pronoun ‘he’ is the referent because it refers back to the original noun. The antecedent
and the pronoun/s must agree in terms of number and gender.
More Examples of Pronoun

Types of Pronoun:
• Subject Pronouns
• Object Pronouns
• Possessive Pronouns
• Reflexive Pronouns
• Intensive Pronouns
• Relative Pronouns
• Demonstrative Pronouns
• Interrogative Pronouns

Subject Pronouns
Subject pronouns work as the subject of the verb in a sentence. A subject pronoun normally replaces the subject/object (a
noun) of the previous sentence.
Example:
o Mike can’t attend the party. He has gone to his grandparents.
o Marta is a good storyteller. She told a ghost story that scared everyone.
 Julie made some cakes. They look tasty. (Here, the subject pronoun replaced the object of the previous
o
sentence)
More Examples of Subject Pronoun

Object Pronouns:
Object pronouns work as the object or indirect object in a sentence replacing the antecedent object. This form of the pronoun
is also used after prepositions.
Example:
o I’ll give you a present on your birthday. I have a great idea for you. (after preposition)
o Tell her that you’ll take the job.
o I have a gift for your boss. Give it to your boss. (Here, ‘it’works as an object)
More Examples of Object Pronoun

Possessive Pronouns:
Possessive pronouns replace the nouns of the possessive adjectives: my, our, your, her, his, their. The possessive
pronouns are mine, ours, yours, hers, his, its, theirs. The pronoun ‘who’ also has a possessive form, whose.
Example:
o I thought my bag was lost, but the one Kesrick found was mine. (Here, ‘mine’ refers to ‘my bag’)
o Their vacation will start next week. Ours is tomorrow. (Here, ‘ours’ refers to ‘our vacation’)
o Those four suitcases are ours.
o Is this yours?
You have to take either her car or theirs. Hers is better than theirs. (Here, ‘her’ is possessive adjective and ‘hers’ and ‘theirs’
are possessive pronouns which replaced ‘her car’ and ‘their car’)
More Examples of Possessive Pronoun

Reflexive Pronouns:
Reflexive pronoun redirects a sentence or a clause back to the subject, which is also the direct object of that sentence. A
reflexive pronoun comes when the subject performs its action upon itself. Here, ‘itself’ is a reflexive pronoun.
Example:
o Since she is her own boss, she gave herself a raise. (Here, ‘herself’ is the direct object of the clause and the
same person is the subject)
o She allowed herself more time to get ready.
o The computer restarts itself every night.
o We told ourselves that we were so lucky to be alive.
More Examples of Reflexive Pronoun

Intensive Pronouns:
Intensive pronouns add emphasis/importance but do not act as the object in the sentence. They can appear right after the
subject.
Example:
o I will do it myself. (Here, ‘myself’ is not an object)
o I myself saw the missing boat into the harbor.
o We intend to do all the work ourselves.
o You yourselves are responsible for this mess.

Relative Pronouns:
Relative pronouns introduce the relative clause. They are used to make clear what is being talked about in a sentence.
They describe something more about the subject or the object.
The relative pronouns are:

Subject Object Possession Uncertainty

Which Which Whose Whichever ---- (for things)

That That ---- (for both things and people)

Who Whom Whose Whoever/whomever/whosever ---- (for person)

Example:
 oThe car that was stolen was the one they loved most.
o A person who loves nature is a good person.
o Our school, which was founded in 1995, is being renovated.
o I will accept whichever party dress you buy me on Valentine's Day.
o Whoever you are behind this great initiative, I want to thank you.
More Examples of Relative Pronoun

Demonstrative Pronouns:
Demonstrative pronouns normally indicate the closeness of or distance from the speaker, either literally or
symbolically. This, these, that, and those are the demonstrative pronouns. They also work as demonstrative adjectives
when they modify a noun. However, demonstrative pronouns do not modify anything rather replace the nouns/noun phrases.
Sometimes neither, none and such are also used as demonstrative pronouns.
Example:
o That is a long way to go. (demonstrative pronoun)
o This is my car. (demonstrative pronoun)
o Hand me that cricket bat. (demonstrative adjective)
o Neither is permitted to enter the building.
o Such are ways of life.

Interrogative Pronouns:
Interrogative pronouns produce questions. They are what, which, who, whom, and whose.
Who, whom, and whose refer to questions related to a person or animal; what refers to an idea, object, or event;
and which can indicate either a person/s or a thing/s.
Example:
o What was the name of your dog?
o Which is your favorite movie?
o Who works for you?
o Whom do you prefer in this competition?
o There’s a new bike on the lawn. Whose is it?

What is Adjective? Types of Adjectives with Definitions and Examples

An adjective describes or modifies noun/s and pronoun/s in a sentence. It normally indicates quality, size, shape, duration,
feelings, contents, and more about a noun or pronoun.
Adjectives usually provide relevant information about the nouns/pronouns they modify/describe by answering the
questions: What kind? How many? Which one? How much? Adjectives enrich your writing by adding precision and originality
to it.
Example:
o The team has a dangerous batsman. (What kind?)
o I have ten candies in my pocket. (How many?)
o I loved that red car. (Which one?)
o I earn more money than he does. (How much?)
More Examples of Adjectives
However, there are also many adjectives that do not fit into these questions. Adjectives are the most used parts of speech
in sentences. There are several types of adjectives according to their uses.

Types of Adjectives
• Descriptive Adjectives
• Quantitative Adjectives
• Proper Adjectives
• Demonstrative Adjectives
• Possessive Adjectives
• Interrogative Adjectives
• Indefinite Adjectives
• Articles
• Compound Adjectives
• Absolute Adjectives
• Emphasizing Adjectives
• Exclamatory Adjectives
• Noun as Adjectives
• Adjectives of Origin
• Adjectives or Color
 • Adjectives of Position
• Adjectives of Shape
Descriptive Adjectives:
A descriptive adjective is a word which describes nouns and pronouns. Most of the adjectives belong in this type. These
adjectives provide information and attribute to the nouns/pronouns they modify or describe. Descriptive adjectives are also
called qualitative adjectives.
Participles are also included in this type of adjective when they modify a noun.
Examples:
o I have a fast car. (The word ‘fast’ is describing an attribute of the car)
o I am hungry. (The word ‘hungry’ is providing information about the subject)
o The hungry cats are crying.
o I saw a flying Eagle.
Descriptive Adj. is divided into two types.
1. Attributive Adj.
2. Predicate Adj.

1. Attributive Adjective:
It attributes quality, shape etc. to the Noun. The adjective that comes right before the Noun it defines is an Attributive Adj.
Examples:
o That's a little baby.
o She is one feisty cat.
o Your dad is an angry man.

2. Predicate Adjective:
Predicate Adj. or Predicative Adj. that comes after a Linking Verb instead of before a Noun. It is also known as Subject
Complement.
Examples:
o I am happy.
o Your dad is proud of you.
o The cat lady was crazy.

Quantitative Adjectives:
A quantitative adjective provides information about the quantity of the nouns/pronouns. This type belongs to the question
category of ‘how much’ and ‘how many’.
Examples:
o I have 20 bucks in my wallet. (How much)
o They have three children. (How many)
o You should have completed the whole task. (How much)
More Examples of Quantitative Adjectives
Proper Adjectives:
Proper adjectives are the adjective form of proper nouns. When proper nouns modify or describe other nouns/pronouns,
they become proper adjectives. ‘Proper’ means ‘specific’ rather than ‘formal’ or ‘polite.’
A proper adj allows us to summarize a concept in just one word. Instead of writing/saying ‘a food cooked in Chinese recipe’
you can write/say ‘Chinese food’.
Proper adjectives are usually capitalized as proper nouns.
Example:
oAmerican cars are very strong.
o Chinese people are hard workers.
o I love KFC burgers.
o Marxist philosophers despise capitalism.
More Examples of Proper Adjectives
Demonstrative Adjectives:
A demonstrative adjective directly refers to something or someone. Demonstrative adjectives include the words: this, that,
these, those.
A demonstrative pronoun works alone and does not precede a noun, but a demonstrative adj always comes before the word
it modifies.
Examples:
o That building is so gorgeously decorated. (‘That’ refers to a singular noun far from the speaker)
o This car is mine. (‘This’ refers to a singular noun close to the speaker)
o These cats are cute. (‘These’ refers to a plural noun close to the speaker)
 oThose flowers are heavenly. (‘Those’ refers to a plural noun far from the speaker)
More Examples of Demonstrative Adjectives
Possessive Adjectives:
A possessive adjective indicates possession or ownership. It suggests the belongingness of something to
someone/something.
Some of the most used possessive adjs are my, his, her, our, their, your.
All these adjectives always come before a noun. Unlike possessive pronouns, these words demand a noun after them.
Examples:
o My car is parked outside.
o His cat is very cute.
o Our job is almost done.
o Her books are interesting.
More Examples of Possessive Adjective
Interrogative Adjectives:
An interrogative adj asks a question. An interrogative adj. must be followed by a noun or a pronoun. The interrogative
adjectives are which, what, whose. These words will not be considered adjectives if a noun does not follow right after them.
Examples:
o Which phone do you use?
o What game do you want to play?
o Whose car is this?
More Examples of Interrogative Adj
Numeral Adjective:
The adjectives defining how many, how much and in what number are usually Numeral Adj.
Examples:
o There are four cats.
o I don’t like doing two things at a time.
o Rehan has stood first in the Board exam.
There are three types of Numeral Adj. and they are –
1. Definite Adj.
2. Indefinite Adj.
3. Distributive Adj.
1. Definite Adjective:
Definite Adj. or Definite Numeral Adj. begets definitive numeric answers as in reply to “How many?” questions.
Examples:
o Two doors lead to the main entrance of the castle.
o I am 27 years old.
o I’ve run 3 miles this afternoon.
Definite Adj. are divided into two categories –
1. Cardinal Adj.
2. Ordinal Adj.

a. Cardinal Adjective:
These indicate definitive numbers in sentences.
o 2 kilos of rice, please.
o Let’s add two spoons of sugar to my tea.
o Have one glass of water, you will feel much better.

b. Ordinal Adjective:
These indicate positions in a series or order.
o You are my first friend at this school.
o I live on the third floor.
o This is my fourth glass of milk today.
2. Indefinite Adjectives:
It describes or modifies a noun unpacifically. They provide indefinite/unspecific information about the noun. The common
indefinite adjectives are few, many, much, most, all, nobody, several, some, etc.
Examples:
o I gave some candy to her.
 o I want a few moments alone.
o Several writers wrote about recent incidents.
o Each student will have to submit homework tomorrow.
3. Distributive Adjectives:
These distribute the numbers indefinitely among each and every noun or pronoun in consideration. “Each” and “every” are
the two most widely used adjectives of this type.
o Each birthday I bake a chocolate cake for my brother.
o I like every flavor of this ice cream brand.
o Each day I wake up at 5 am.
Articles
Articles are also adjectives. Articles determine the specification of nouns. ‘A’ and ‘an’ are used to refer to an unspecific noun,
and ‘the’ is used to refer to a specific noun.
Examples:
o A cat is always afraid of water. (Here, the noun ‘cat’ refers to any cat, not specific.)
o The cat is afraid of me. (This cat is a specific cat.)
o An electronic product should always be handled with care.

Compound Adjectives:
When compound nouns/combined words modify other nouns, they become compound adj. This type of adjective usually
combines more than one word into a single lexical unit and modifies a noun. They are often separated by a hyphen or joined
together by a quotation mark.
Example:
o I have a broken-down sofa.
o I saw a six-foot-long snake.
o He gave me an “I’m gonna kill you now” look.
Absolute Adjective:
There are some adjectives that cannot be graded, intensified or reduced in intensity with the help of any kind of modifier.
Absolute Adj. are often found in the superlative degree.
Examples:
o I am still alive.
o The color is just perfect.
o This style is very unique.

Exclamatory Adjective:
There are a couple of WH question words that are used as adjectives that help turn a sentence into Exclamatory sentences
and they are - What and How. These are termed as Exclamatory Adj.
Example:
o What a day!
o How majestic!
o How lucky I am!
o What a great way to start the day!

Emphasizing Adjective:
These emphasize the preceding noun. "Own" and "very" are the two most commonly used Emphasizing Adj. in the English
language.
Examples:
o We put them out with our own hands.
o Keep playing the piano with your own hands.
o It all went down in front of their very eyes.
o This very moment you should clear out of this apartment.

Noun as Adjective:
There are Nouns that act as Adjectives on particular occasions and they are termed as Adjectival Nouns. They are also
known as Noun Modifiers or Attributive Nouns.
Examples:
o Hadn't you just bought a sports car?
o This is my first cookbook.
o Your dad owns a shabby motorbike.
Adjective of Origin:
The adjective that specifies the origin of the preceding noun is termed as the adjective of origin.
Examples:
o I'll have one Mexican rice with some fried chicken.
o Romi can play the Hawaiian guitar.
o Let's groove to those Jamaican beats.

Adjective of Color:
The adjective that indicates the color of the preceding noun is termed as the adjective of color.
Examples:
o Looking at the blue sky makes your heart kinder.
o Red roses are symbols of affection.
o I love the violet curtains at my house.

Adjective of Position:
The adjective that pinpoints the position of the preceding noun is the adjective of position.
Examples:
o Go to the nearby store.
o That is a faraway destination.
o I choose the middle shade.

Adjective of Shape:
If the adjective before the noun determines the shape of it, that is the adjective of shape.
Examples:
o Squats will get you those round buttocks.
o Soccer is played on an oval field.
o I need a plain surface for the project.

The Degree of Adjectives:

There are three degrees of adj: Positive, comparative, superlative.
These degrees are applicable only for descriptive adj.
Examples:
Positive degree: He is a good boy.
Comparative degree: He is better than any other boy.
Superlative: He is the best boy

Verb: Definition & Types

A verb is a word or a combination of words that indicates action or a state of being or condition. A verb is the part of
a sentence that tells us what the subject performs. Verbs are the hearts of English sentences.
Examples:
o Jacob walks in the morning. (A usual action)
o Mike is going to school. (A condition of action)
o Albert does not like to walk. (A negative action)
o Anna is a good girl. (A state of being)
Verbs are related to a lot of other factors like the subject, person, number, tense, mood, voice, etc.
Basic Forms of Verbs
There are six basic forms of verbs. These forms are as follows:
o Base form: Children play in the field.
o Infinitive: Tell them not to play
o Past tense: They played football yesterday.
o Past participle: I have eaten a burger.
o Present participle: I saw them playing with him today.
o Gerund: Swimming is the best exercise.

Different Types of Verbs

• Main/Base Verb
• Regular/Weak Verb
 • Irregular/Strong Verb
• Transitive Verb
• Intransitive Verb
• Weak Verb
• Strong Verb
• Finite Verbs
• Non-finite Verbs
• Action Verbs
• Linking Verb
• Auxiliary Verbs
• Modal Verbs
• Reflexive Verb
• Ergative Verb
• Phrasal Verb
• Lexical Verb
• Delexical Verb
• Stative/Being Verb
• Dynamic Verb
• Non-continuous Verb
• Participle
• Gerund
• Infinitive
Base Verb
The base verb is the form of a verb where it has no ending (-ing, -ed, -en) added to it. It is also called the Root Verb since it
is the very root form of a verb.
Examples:
o I go to school every day.
o You run a mile every morning.
o Do your homework.

Regular Verb
The Verbs that follow the most usual conjugations are considered Regular Verbs. It is regular since it abides by most if not
all of the regular grammar rules there are.
Examples:
o Rehan plays cricket.
o Tam called out my name.
o You really walked all the way back?

Irregular Verb
The Verbs that have irregularities in terms of following grammar rules are Irregular Verbs, in general.
Examples:
o Do the dishes.
o I hardly ever drink enough water in a day.
o She drove all the way back.

Transitive Verb
The Main Verb that takes a direct object sitting right after it would be a Transitive Verb. They usually construct the most
straightforward of sentences.
Examples:
o She went to the fair.
o We do not like being called out loud in crowds.
o I love visiting my village home.

Intransitive Verb
The main Verb that does not take a direct object specified right afterward and rather there is an indirect one mentioned
somewhere along the line is called an Intransitive Verb. These verbs often make the corresponding sentences incomplete.
Example:
o I laughed.
o John ran.
o A ghast of cold wind blew.
Weak Verb
Verbs that end with “-d” and “-t” in their Past Indefinite and Past Participle form are Weak Verbs. There is a tendency to
associate Weak Verbs with Regular Verbs but not all Weak Verbs are Regular Verbs in the English language.
Examples:

Present Indefinite Past Indefinite

Spend Spent

Walk Walked

Book Booked

Learn Learnt

Want Wanted

Strong Verb:Strong Verbs are those in which the vowels in the verb stem changes from “i” to “a” to “u” in the Present
Indefinite to Past Indefinite to Past Participle form of Verbs.
Examples:
Present Indefinite Past Indefinite Past Participle
Ring Rang Rung

Drink Drank Drunk

Cling Clang Clung

Swim Swam Swum

Sing Sang Sung

Wring Wrang Wrung

Finite Verbs
Finite verbs are the actual verbs that are called the roots of sentences. It is a form of a verb that is performed by or refers
to a subject and uses one of the twelve forms of tense and changes according to the number/person of the subject.
Example:
o Alex went to school. (Subject – Alex – performed the action in the past. This information is evident only by the
verb ‘went’.)
o Robert plays hockey.
o He is playing for Australia.
o He is one of the best players. (Here, the verb ‘is’ directly refers to the subject itself.)

Non-finite Verbs
Non-finite Verbs are not actual verbs. They do not work as verbs in the sentence rather they work as nouns, adjectives,
adverbs, etc. Non-finite verbs do not change according to the number/person of the subject because these verbs, also
called verbal’s, do not have any direct relation to the subject. Sometimes they become the subject themselves.
The forms of non-finite verbs are – infinitive, gerund, and participle (participles become finite verbs when they take auxiliary
verbs.)
Example:
o Alex went abroad to play (Infinitives)
o Playing cricket is his only job. (Present participle)
o I have a broken bat. (Past participle)
o Walking is a good habit. (Gerund)
Action Verbs
Action verbs indicate what the subject of a sentence performs. Action verbs can make the listener/reader feel emotions,
see scenes more vividly and accurately.
Action verbs can be transitive or intransitive.
Transitive verbs must have a direct object. A transitive verb demands something/someone to be acted upon.
Example:
o I painted the car. (The verb ‘paint’ demands an object to be painted)
o She is reading the newspaper. (The verb ‘read’ asks the question “what is she reading?” – the answer is the
object)
Intransitive verbs do not act upon anything. They may be followed by an adjective, adverb, preposition, or another part of
speech.
Example:
o She smiled. (The verb ‘smile’ cannot have any object since the action of ‘smiling’ does not fall upon
anything/anyone)
o I wake up at 6 AM. (No object is needed for this verb)

Note: {Subject + Intransitive verb} is sufficient to make a complete sentence but {Subject + Transitive verb} is not sufficient
because transitive verbs demand a direct object.
Linking Verb
A linking verb adds details about the subject of a sentence. In its simplest form, it connects the subject and the complement
— that is, the words that follow the linking verb. It creates a link between them instead of showing action.
Often, what is on each side of a linking verb is equivalent; the complement redefines or restates the subject.
Generally, linking verbs are called ‘be’ verbs which are - am, is, are, was, were. However, there are some other verbs that
can work as linking verbs. Those verbs are:
Act, feel, remain, appear, become, seem, smell, sound, grow, look, prove, stay, taste, turn.
Some verbs in this list can also be action verbs. To figure out if they are linking verbs, you should try replacing them with
forms of the be verbs. If the changed sentence makes sense, that verb is a linking verb.
Example:
o She appears ready for the game. (She is ready for the game.)
o The food seemed delicious. (The food was delicious.)
o You look happy. (You are happy.)

Auxiliary Verbs
Auxiliary verbs are also called helping verbs. An auxiliary verb extends the main verb by helping to show time, tense, and
possibility. The auxiliary verbs are – be verbs, have, and do.
They are used in the continuous (progressive) and perfect tenses.
Linking verbs work as main verbs in the sentence, but auxiliary verbs help main verbs.
Do is an auxiliary verb that is used to ask questions, to express negation, to provide emphasis, and more.
Example:
o Alex is going to school.
o They are walking in the park.
o I have seen a movie.
o Do you drink tea?
o Don’t waste your time.
o Please, do submit your assignments.

Modal Verbs
A modal verb is a kind of auxiliary verb. It assists the main verb to indicate possibility, potentiality, ability, permission,
expectation, and obligation.
The modal verbs are can, could, must, may, might, ought to, shall, should, will, would.
Example:
o I may want to talk to you again.
o They must play their best game to win.
o She should call him.
o I will go there.
Reflexive Verb
When the Subject and the Object are the same and the Verb reflects on the Subject, that is the Reflexive Verb. These Verbs
are often used with Reflexive Pronouns like - myself, himself, herself, itself etc.
Examples:
o He has done it himself.
o I'll watch it myself.

Ergative Verb
Ergative Verbs can be used as Transitive and Intransitive Verb. They are also called Labile Verb in English.
Examples:
Intransitive Verbs Transitive Verbs
The door opens. I opened the door.
The bell rang. She rang the bell.
The light is fused. They fused the lights.
The whistle blew. Tom blew the whistle.
Phrasal Verb
An idiomatic phrase consisting of a Verb and another element, most likely an Adverb or a Preposition is called a Phrasal
Verb.
Examples:
o She broke down in tears.
o Don't look down upon the poor.
o I'll see to it.

Lexical Verb
Lexical Verb is the main or principal verb of a sentence which typically takes the major responsibility of a Verb that represents
the action of the Noun or Pronoun.
Examples:
o He ran to his father.
o I laughed out loud.
o Rina tried her best.

DE-Lexical Verb
Delexical Verbs lack importance when it comes to meaning since these Verbs hardly have meanings of their own when used
individually. The meaning is taken out of the Verbs and put into the Noun. Take, have, make, give etc. are Delexical Verbs.
Examples:
o He took a shower.
o I had a cold drink.
o She made some arrangements.

Stative Verb
The Verbs that describe the state of being are called Stative or Being Verbs.
Examples:
o I need some boxes.
o You belong to the pomp and power.
o He smells danger.
o They remember what happened that day.

Dynamic Verb
The Verbs that entail continuous or progressive action of the Subject are called Dynamic or Fientive Verbs. They express
the Subject’s state of being on the move.
Examples:
o He’s running fast.
o Keep hitting the ball hard.
o The dog goes for a walk every afternoon.

Non-continuous Verb
The Verbs that are usually never used in their continuous forms are called Non-continuous Verbs.
Examples:
I like to swim. I'm liking to swim.
I love to do the chords. I'm loving to do the chords.
He does not hate you. He's hating you.
She just feels a bit dizzy, no need to
worry. She's just feeling a bit dizzy.
Intensive Verb
The Verbs that focus intensely on just the Subject are called Intensive Verbs. Intensive Verbs are also called Linking or
Copular Verbs.
Examples:
o You seem happy.
o It appears to be just perfect.
o She looks stunning.
o He's become rather irritable.

Extensive Verb
All the Verbs that do not focus intensively on just the Subject (as the Intensive Verbs) of the sentence are Extensive Verbs.
Examples:
o He loves her.
o She runs too fast.
o Ron sells fish.
Participle
A participle is a Verb form where they retain some of the characteristics and functions of both Verbs and adopt those of
the Adjectives.
Examples:
Present Participle (Verb + -ing)
o Have I become a laughing stock?
o Cycling is a well-rounded exercise.
Past Participle
o I have taken a hint.
o Have you given it enough thought?
Perfect Participle (Having + Past Participle)
o Having said that, I was quite worried.
o Having stepped out of my comfort zone, I saw a whole new world.

Gerund
The Verbs having -ing endings that function like Nouns in sentences are called Gerunds.
Examples:
o Smoking is injurious to health.
o Walking is good for health.
o I love swimming.

Infinitive
The 'to + Verb' forms where the Verbs are at their base or stem forms while they function as Nouns, Adjectives or Adverbs
instead of Verbs.
Examples:
o I wanted to help you out.
o Are you trying to go there?
o I just love to flaunt my new Ferrari.

Adverb: Definition & Types

An adverb is a word/a set of words that modifies verbs, adjectives, and other adverbs. It tells when, where, and how an
action is performed or indicates the quality or degree of the action.
Many adverbs end in -ly but some words which end in -ly (such as friendly) are not adverbs. Many words can be both adverbs
and adjectives according to their activity in the sentence.
Example:
o Robin is always hungry for success.
o I love her very much.
o He is running fast.
o Alex works hard.
 o He wrote that willingly.
Adverb Clauses and Adverb Phrases are clauses and phrases that modify the verbs, adjectives or other adverbs in the
sentence.
Example:
o He ran toward the bus until he was tired. (Adverb Clause)
o He came carrying his box with two hands. (Adverb Phrase)
o We were panicked without any reason. (Adverb Phrase)

Types of Adverbs:
• Conjunctive Adverbs
• Sentence Adverbs
• Adverbs of Time/Frequency (When?)
• Adverbs of Place/Direction (Where?)
• Adverbs of Degree (How Much?)
• Adverbs of Manner (How?)

Conjunctive Adverbs:
A conjunctive adverb connects phrases or independent clauses. It provides transitions between ideas and shows
relationships.
Conjunctive adverbs are also called connectors.
Example:
o It rained last night. Nonetheless, the final match has not been canceled.
o We are still confused, however, if the umpires will come.
o Last season there was a great drought; consequently, we could not grow crops.

Sentence Adverbs:
A sentence adverb starts the sentence and modifies the whole sentence.
Example:
o Hopefully, we will win the match.
o Apparently, the sky is getting cloudy.
o Certainly, I did not think of coming here.

Adverbs of Time/Frequency (When?)

Adverbs of time/frequency indicate time or frequency of the action in the sentence. They answer the question ‘when/how
frequently is the action performed?’.
Always, never, often, eventually, now, frequently, occasionally, once, forever, seldom, before, Sunday, Monday, 10 AM, 12
PM, etc. are common adverbs of time/frequency.
Example:
o I went to school a little late yesterday.
o He always gets a good result.
o I will leave Monday.
o He smokes occasionally.

Adverbs of Place/Direction (Where?)

Adverbs of place/direction that indicate place/direction of the action in the sentence. They answer the question ‘ where is
the action performed?’.
Across, over, under, in, out, through, backward, there, around, here, sideways, upstairs, in the park, in the field, in that place,
etc. are some common adverbs of place/direction.
Example:
o I went through the jungle.
o He plays in the field.
o Alex is going to school.
o He is staying at my home.

Adverbs of Degree (How Much?)

Adverbs that express the importance/degree/level of the action in the sentence are called adverbs of degree. They answer
the question ‘how much is the action performed?’.
Completely, nearly, entirely, less, mildly, most, thoroughly, somewhat, excessively, much, etc. are common adverbs of
degree.
Example:
o She completely forgot about her anniversary.
 o I read the newspaper thoroughly.
o I am so excited about the new job.

Adverbs of Manner (How?)

Adverbs that express the manner/approach/process of the action in the sentence are called adverbs of manner. They
answer the question ‘how is the action performed?’.
Beautifully, equally, thankfully, carefully, handily, quickly, coldly, hotly, resentfully, earnestly, nicely, tirelessly, etc. are
common adverbs of manner. These adverbs usually end in ly.
Example:
o Let's divide the prizes equally.
o Please, handle the camera carefully.
o Mike is walking slowly.
o He is running fast

Preposition: Definition & Types

A preposition is a word that indicates the relationship between a noun and the other words of a sentence. They explain
relationships of sequence, space, and logic between the object of the sentence and the rest of the sentence. They help us
understand order, time connections, and positions.
Example:
o I am going to Canada.
o Alex threw a stone into the pond.
o The present is inside the box.
o They have gone out of the town.
There are a few interesting linguistic facts about prepositions.
First, they are a closed class of words which means no new preposition gets added to the language. We use a fixed set of
prepositions.
Second, prepositions do not have any other form. They cannot be plural, possessive, inflection, or anything else.
Third, most of the prepositions have many different contextual and natural uses. So, it is easy to be confused about it.
Fourth, sometimes a preposition works as nouns, adjectives, and adverbs.
Prepositions can be of one, two, three, or even more words. Prepositions with two or more words are called phrasal
prepositions.
There are some commonly used phrasal prepositions:
because of, in case of, instead of, by way of, on behalf of, on account of, in care of, in spite of, on the side of, etc.

Types of Preposition
Most of the prepositions have many uses. There are some prepositions which are common in every type of preposition as
they function in a versatile way.
• Simple Preposition
• Double Preposition
• Compound Preposition
• Participle Preposition
• Disguised Preposition
• Detached Preposition
• Prepositions of Time
• Prepositions of Place and Direction
• Prepositions of Agents or Things
• Phrasal Prepositions
Simple Preposition
These are among the most common type of prepositions. The prepositions used to express the relationship the Nouns
and Pronouns of a sentence have with the rest of the words in it are called Simple Prepositions. They are often used to join
two clauses in terms of Complex Sentence and Compound Sentence.
Examples:

Most Popular Prepositions

and but at to on in
 for of up off from out

with during down below beside over

by near behind inside among along

Double Preposition
Two Simple Prepositions joining together to form one which connects the Noun(s) or Pronoun(s) to the rest the words in a
sentence.
Examples:
o Are you out of your mind?
o I was allowed the inside of the temple.
o She’s sandwiched in between two of her cousins.

Compound Preposition
Compound Prepositions are composed of prepositions as well as other words. Compound Prepositions are easily confused
with Double Prepositions since they both require other prepositions or words to help with acting like a preposition.
Examples:
o According to my calculations, this color should work just fine.
o I started for home, with a view to celebrating Eid with my family.
o On behalf of our family, my father attended the family reunion.

Participle Preposition
Present Participles (-ing) and Past Participles (-ed and -en) that are used as Prepositions instead of Verbs, are called
Participle Prepositions. These are participles as well as prepositions.
Examples:

Present Participle Prepositions Past Participles Prepositions

Assuming Respected

Barring Given

Considering Gone

During Barred

Notwithstanding Provided

Regarding Taken

Participle Prepositions Used in Sentences:

o Barred from the entrance, he threw a fit.
o I was happy given the fact that I got great marks.
 o Assuming the possibility of rain, she carried an umbrella.
Disguised Preposition
These prepositions are usually disguised as some other element in the English language. Often these prepositions are
disguised as "a" and "o" in sentences.
Examples:
o I wake up at 5 o'clock. (Of the clock)
o Keep striding ahead. (on the head)
o Pope went ashore. (onshore)
o Rimi visits the riverbank once a day. (in a day)

Detached Preposition
A preposition that has been detached and sent to the very end of the sentence is called Detached Preposition. These
prepositions are detached from the interrogative or relative pronouns and adverbs but get detached for the sake of the
integrity of sentences.
Examples:
o Where are you coming from?
o Is that the neighborhood you are headed to?
o I won't tolerate being screamed at.

Prepositions of Time
Prepositions of time show the relationship of time between the nouns to the other parts of a sentence.
On, at, in, from, to, for, since, ago, before, till/until, by, etc. are the most common preposition of time.
Example:
o He started working at 10 AM.
o The company called meeting on 25 October.
o There is a holiday in December.
o He has been ill since Monday.
Read More: Prepositions of Time Usage
Prepositions of Place and Direction
Prepositions of place show the relationship of place between the nouns to the other parts of a sentence.
On, at, in, by, from, to, towards, up, down, across, between, among, through, in front of, behind, above, over, under,
below, etc. are the most common prepositions of place/direction.
Example:
o He is at home.
o He came from England.
o The police broke into the house.
o I live across the river.
Read More: Prepositions of Places & Direction Usage
Prepositions of Agents or Things
Prepositions of agents or things indicate a causal relationship between nouns and other parts of the sentence.
Of, for, by, with, about, etc. are the most used and common prepositions of agents or things.
Example:
o This article is about smartphones.
o Most of the guests have already left.
o I will always be here for you.
o He is playing with his brothers.

Phrasal Prepositions
A phrasal preposition is not a prepositional phrase, but they are a combination of two or more words that function as a
preposition.
Along with, apart from, because of, by means of, according to, in front of, contrary to, in spite of, on account of, in
reference to, in addition to, in regard to, instead of, on top of, out of, with regard to, etc. are the most common phrasal
prepositions.
Example:
o They along with their children went to Atlanta.
o According to the new rules, you are not right.
o In spite of being a good player, he was not selected.
o I’m going out of the city.
What is Conjunction? Types of Conjunction with Their Definitions and Examples
Conjunctions Definition:
Conjunctions are used to join clauses, phrases, and words together for constructing Complex and Compound sentences.
They make a link between/among words or groups of words to other parts of the sentence and show a relationship
between/among them.
Example:
o Alex and Robin are playing together.
o Alex plays well, but Robin plays better than him.
o I play cricket, and Robin plays football.
o When he was sick, I went to see him.

Types of Conjunctions
• Coordinating Conjunctions
• Correlative Conjunctions
• Subordinating Conjunctions
• Compound Conjunction
• Adverbial Conjunction
Coordinating Conjunctions
The job of a coordinating conjunction is to join two words, phrases, or independent clauses, which are parallel in structure.
There are seven coordinating conjunctions which are by far the most common conjunctions: and, but, for, nor, or, so, yet.
It's easier to memorize the seven Coordinating Conjunctions with the acronym - FANBOYS.
For - I was meaning to leave soon, for I was getting late to the next class.
And - Freya left quickly and I was worried about her.
Nor - They weren’t up for athletics nor was I.
But - We were running late but it wasn’t possible to get out of here anytime soon.
Or - Is it okay or should I go for the last laugh?
Yet - It was early in the morning yet we were all ready to go home.
So - He was panicking so we were cautious.

Example:
o We went to the stadium and enjoyed the cricket match.
o Do you want ice cream or would some chocolates be more preferable?
o Go away and never come back.
Correlative Conjunctions
Correlative conjunction uses a set of words in a parallel sentence structure to show a contrast or to compare the equal
parts of a sentence. The words of correlative conjunctions have a special connection between them.
The correlative conjunctions are not only - but also, either- or, neither - nor, both - and, not - but, whether - or etc.
Example:
o Neither Alex nor Robin can play baseball.
o I want both ice cream and cereal
o He ate not only the ice cream but also the chocolate.
o Rina is both the CEO and Managing Director of the company.
o She didn’t know whether to call in or wait her turn.

Subordinating Conjunctions
A subordinating conjunction joins elements of an unparallel sentence structure. These elements are usually a dependent
clause and an independent clause.
The most commonly used subordinating conjunctions are:
After, how, than, when, although, if, that, where, as, in order that, though, which, as much as, inasmuch as, unless, while,
because, provided, until, who/whom, before, since, what, whoever and whomever.

Time Comparison Condition

 After Than If
Before Rather than If only
As soon as Whether Unless
Until Whereas Provided
Whenever Provided that
Now Supposing
Now that Assuming
When Assuming that
Now when
Once
Till
While
As long as

Reason Relativity Opinion

As That Though
Because What Although
Since Whatever Even though
Inasmuch as Which As though
In order to Whichever As if
In order that Who How
So that Whoever
Why Whom
Lest Whomever
Whose

Example:
o Before we left home, I had had my breakfast.
o Provided they come, we can start class Tuesday.
o When he was washing my car, I went to the store.
o Even though the weather was horrible, they still went outside.
Compound Conjunction
These are conjunctions that have two or three parts. Each and every part of these does not have to be conjunctions
themselves. The parts become inseparable in the sense that they tend to pop up next to one another more often and not.
Examples:
o We love to go skinny dipping as well as busking in the sun.
o He acted as if it were his first time under the sun.
o I made a deal to see them provided that I was assured police protection.
o I hurried out of the room so that I didn’t have to listen to her anymore.

Adverbial Conjunction
They help bring together two complete thoughts like some of the other Conjunctions while also being Adverbs themselves.
They are also called Conjunctive Adverbs.
List of Adverbial Conjunctions

To compare To contrast Time To emphasize

Similarly But Lately Undoubtedly

Like However Since Definitely
As Instead Now Certainly
Likewise Rather Meanwhile Of course
In spite of Before Indeed
 To summarize To exemplify Effect Sequence

Briefly For example Accordingly First

Merely For instance Consequently Next
Quickly Namely Hence Finally
In conclusion Typically Therefore Furthermore
In summary Representatively Then In addition
Moreover

Examples:
o I was looking for a tea stall; additionally, I needed a salon for a complete makeover.
o Tim was banking on his skills as a salesman. Meanwhile, he should have researched the clients.
o I shouted my discomfort out, that is, I didn’t like the stares I was getting.
o Mila was on her way back home, therefore, the world she left behind her didn’t bother her as much.

Punctuations with Conjunctions

Two independent clauses in a sentence must be separated by a comma and that goes for no matter what conjunction is
used. If the clauses attached by the conjunction can stand as complete sentences, a comma must be used between them.
Examples:
o I'm doing fine, but I have my own struggles.
o You were running the marathon, and I was cheering you on.
o My father was unsure of the result, though he was keeping it together.
While using the Subordinating Conjunctions to attach Dependent and Independent Clauses in a sentence, there are two
ways to construct these complex sentences and one of them requires a comma separating the two clauses. The comma
becomes an integral part of the sentence when the Subordinating Conjunctions are placed at the start of the sentence.
Examples:
o (Comma) If you are going for gold, I'll come with you.
o (No comma) I'll come with you if you are going for gold.
o (Comma) Though we are running late, we can help you install your home theatre.
o (No comma) We can help you install your home theatre though we are running late.
In the case of Adverbial Conjunctions joining two independent clauses, the most common punctuational practice is to use
a semicolon before It and a comma after that while the two complete thoughts are situated on either side. Some opt for two
commas on both sides of the conjunction and there is another practice to separate the two clauses with a period while the
capitalized conjunction starts the next sentence followed by a comma.
Examples:
o Sam was worried about the rain; therefore, she didn’t do her laundry today.
o I was there with her 24/7. Moreover, I kept a close eye on her every move.
o Matt was agitated, however, the rest of us were trying to convince him to stay.

Interjection: Definition, Types and Examples

What is Interjection
An interjection is a kind of exclamation inserted into regular speech. Actually, it is a brief and abrupt pause in speech for
expressing emotions.
They are unique and have some interesting features:
o Interjections don’t have a grammatical function in sentence construction.
o They usually cannot be modified or inflected.
o They do not have to have a relation to the other parts of the sentence.
o They are highly context-sensitive.
In spoken language, interjections are the words we instantly use to show our reaction to something which influences our
emotion. They are the initial reaction and sometimes do not even make sense. However, for formal speech or writing, using
interjections is not appropriate.
Types of Interjections
• Primary Interjection
• Secondary Interjection

List of Primary Interjections • Mild Interjection

• Strong Interjection
• Volitive Interjection
• Emotive Interjection
Phew Wow Oh Blah • Cognitive Interjection
There are basically two types
of it and they are -
1. Primary Interjection
Huh Aw God Oops The words that are exclusively
interjections and cannot be
classified as any other Parts of
Speech are called Primary
Hurray Yuck Gee Ugh Interjections.
Examples:
o Oops, My bad.
o Wow! You had time to join
Ouch Alas Geez Meh us.
o Alas! I couldn’t be there
on time.
2. Secondary Interjection
The Nouns, Adjectives, and other Parts of Speech that act as interjections on occasions are called Secondary Interjections.
Examples:
o Indeed, I was waiting for your premonitions.
o Goodness! How did you go through all these books in a day?
o Holy cow! You're the last person I expected.
o
Based on the severity of the expressions, Interjections are categorized into two types -
1. Mild Interjection
The relatively mild expression of feelings and emotions is usually called Mild Interjections. These types are typically separated
from the rest of the sentence by commas.
Examples:
o Oh, I was looking for you.
o Well, it wasn't very easy.
o Hmm, I'm doing well.

2. Strong Interjection
The strong outbursts of expression are determined as Strong Interjections. These types are typically separated from the rest
of the sentence by exclamation marks.
Examples:
oYay! I finally passed.
o Bingo! Found it.
o Ouch! That hurt.
Based on the kind of emotions conveyed, Interjections are divided into three categories -
1. Volitive Interjection
Commands, requests, and wishes are usually expressed with Volitive Interjections. In the speech, "I want" expressions are
replaced with Volitive Interjections.
"Enough" expresses the wish to stop listening to someone and maybe put forward a contesting statement. "Shoo" tends to
express the speaker's wish to drive someone away.
Examples:
o Shh (I want you to be quiet) - Shh! We have to keep it quiet.
o Ahem (I request your attention) - Ahem! I was looking at another problem.
o Psst (I want to attract attention in secrecy) - Psst! I've started working out.

2. Emotive Interjection
The words to express sudden spur of emotions like surprise, delight, sorrow, disgust and fear are Emotive
Interjections. These types usually replace the "I feel" expressions in speech.
"Eww" means to convey - "I feel disgusted" and "Phew" means to express - "I feel relieved".
Examples:
o Ugh (I feel disgusted) - Ugh! What is that filthy smell?
o Ouch (I feel hurt) - Ouch! These ants sting.
o Yippee (I feel elated) - Yippee! We ended the year victorious.

3. Cognitive Interjection
Words that are born off cognition and used as exclamations are called Cognitive Interjections. These types are used to
convey the feelings and emotions that people come across and understand through experience.
Examples:
o Well, I'll try harder.
o Bravo! What a performance!
o Gosh, you're so fast.

Interjections mainly have four roles:

Rule 1: Interjections express a sudden mood, emotions, and feeling with emphasis. There are also many taboo words that
are usually used in everyday conversation but not in formal aspects. These words fall into the category of interjections.
Example:
o Wow! That’s an amazing scene.
o Aw, I did not want him to come.
o What? You never told me that!
Rule 2: Some interjections interrupt a conversation or a thought or hold someone’s attention for a moment. These are just
sounds, not words because these sounds do not make any sense.
Example:
o Your, um, shirt has a stain on the back.
o I want to, uh, ask you out on a date.
Rule 3: Some interjections express only yes or no.
Example:
o Yes! I will most definitely do it.
o Nah, we are not going.
Rule 4: Some are used to get someone’s attention.
Example:
o Yo, Alex! Get in the car!
o Hey! Will you give me that ball?
o Yoo-hoo! Is there anyone?

More Examples:
o Interjections for Greeting Examples
o Interjections for Joy Examples
o Interjections for Surprise Examples
o Interjections for Attention Examples
o Interjections for Grief/Pain Examples
o Interjections for Approval Examples

Present Tense: Definition, Structure & Examples

Tenses demonstrate the time of action in sentences usually performed by or centered around the subject of the sentence.
The actions are called verbs. Verbs change according to tenses and other issues. As verbs are the most important elements
of English sentences, tenses also carry paramount importance in English grammar.
Tenses are mainly categorized into three types.
1. Present Tense
2. Past Tense
3. Future Tense

Present Tense
Each of the types of tenses has four different forms.
• Present Indefinite Tense
• Present Progressive (Continuous) Tense
• Present Perfect Tense
• Present Perfect Progressive (Continuous)
 Examples of Present
Person /Number Tense
Singular Plural
Present Indefinite
Tense
First I am a good cricket player. We are good cricket players.
The present
indefinite tense, also
Second You are an irresponsible person. You all are always irresponsible. known as simple present
tense, denotes a stative
or habitual or eternally
true action.
Third The earth is smaller than Jupiter. Junk food is not good for health.
Generally, simple present
tense is used to indicate
an action which happens
– always, regularly, every
day, daily, normally,
generally, usually, occasionally, sometimes, often, rarely, frequently, nowadays, naturally, seldom, constantly, never, every
week, every year, once a year, on a week, at times, at present, now and then, or all the time.
Structure:
Subject (third person singular number) + verb in simple present form + s/es + . . . . .

Subject (all other kinds) + verb in simple present form + . . . . .

Note: When ‘be’ verbs work as the main verb in a sentence, they are different from the above structures.

There are some stative verbs that are usually used in simple tenses whether present or past or future.
The stative verbs are:

Have Hate Appear Smell Sound

Understand Need See Want Own
Know Hear Like Taste
Believe Love Seem Wish

Examples:
o I know Billy Bob.
o He understands it.
o They love swinging in the park.
o Some people do not believe in God.
o I usually wake up at 6:00 AM.
o He plays cricket, but his brother plays football.
o Earth is bigger than Mercury.
o The heat of the sun reaches the least to the polar.
How the Forms of Verbs Change in Different Types of Sentences
Affirmative Interrogative Negative

I sing on stage. Do I sing on stage? I don’t sing on stage.

We run behind the train. Do we run behind the train? We don’t run behind the train.

You are on the roof. Are you on the roof? You aren’t on the roof.

Allan writes well. Does Allan write well? Allan does not write well.

She hands out leaflets. Does she hand out leaflets? She doesn’t hand out leaflets.

They love dancing in the rain. Do they love dancing in the rain? They don’t love dancing in the rain.
More Examples of Present Indefinite Tense

Present Progressive (Continuous) Tense

The present progressive tense is used to indicate the ongoing time (now). However, the stative verbs do not usually take
the form of present progressive tense even though they refer to the present time.
Now, continually, perpetually, at this moment, at the moment, right now, this season, this year, forever, etc. words or word
pairs are usually signs that the verb in a sentence is in the present progressive form. However, these signs are not necessary
all the time for a verb to be of present progressive tense.
Structure:
Subject + am/is/are + verb + ing + . . . . . . . . .
Example:
o I am going to the college field.
o He is coming here for some tips.
o They are making a basketball ground.
o Why are you working in that horrible place? (Interrogative)
o Four teams are playing at this moment.
o John is not joining the class today. (Negative)
This structure is also used to demonstrate future time.
Example:
Alex is leaving for Portugal.
o
o I am going to complete my task.
o We are leaving at 6:00 PM.
o They are flying to Australia next month.
More Example of Present Progressive Tense

Present Perfect Tense

The present perfect tense is used when one intends to indicate:
o an action that occurred at a time which is indefinite and has its effect on the subject
o or an action that occurred many times and has the possibility to occur in the present/future
o or an action that began in the past and still going on in the present.
Structure:
Subject + have/has + verb in the past participle form + . . . . . . .
The Present-Past-Past Participle Chart:

Present Form Past Form Past Participle Form

Shout Shouted Shouted

Read Read Read

Give Gave Given

Take Took Taken

Sing Sang Sung

Write Wrote Written

Wake Woke Woken

 Cast Cast Cast

Lose Lost Lost

Example:
o Alex has read the book through. (No time is indicated)
o I have read this poem many times. (Not habitual but occurred many times in the past)
o He has lived in this apartment for 15 years. (Still going on)
More examples:
o Their event has not been approved this year. (Negative)
o Have we really done so bad? (Interrogative)
Just, already, yet, just now, ever, lately, recently, etc. are some of the signs for present perfect tense.
Note: Already comes between have/has and the past participle; yet appears with a negative form at the end of the sentence.
Example:
Alex has already reached there.
o
o Alex has not reached yet.
o I have already cleaned the house.
o I have not cleaned the house yet.(Negative)
o Has she already gone home? (Interrogative)
More Examples of Present Perfect Tense

Present Perfect Progressive (Continuous)

It is the least used form of present tense. Present perfect progressive tense is used to indicate an action that began in the
past and is still occurring in the present. Both present perfect and present perfect continuous tense can be used to indicate
this type of action.
Structure:
Subject + have/has + been + [verb + ing] + . . . . .+ for/since + time frame.
Example:
Alex has been reading for 3 years.
o
o I have been sleeping since 10.00 AM.
o Robert has been working in that shop for 6 years.
o We have been living together for four years.
o Have we really been waiting for a miracle for fifteen years? (Interrogative)
o She hasn’t been doing her job well enough for the last 5 years. (Negative)
More Examples of Present Perfect Continuous Tense

Number: Types, Rules & Examples

In grammar, the number refers to the count of a noun or pronoun.
Example: Boy-boys, wife-wives, my-our, ox-oxen, it-they, etc.
Types of Number:
Two types exist
• Singular Number
• Plural Number

Singular Number
It refers to the count of only one of a noun or pronoun.
Example: pen, table, aunt, father, goose, etc.

Plural Number
It refers to the count of more than one of a noun or pronoun.
Example: pens, tables, aunts, fathers, geese, etc.

How to change number

Numerous RULES are there to change the number from singular to plural. They are as follows-
Rule 1:
In general “s” is used at the end of a singular noun to make it plural
Example:

Singular Plural

Pencil Pencils

Cow Cows

House Houses

Dog Dogs

Mobile Mobiles

Rule 2:
If there exist s, sh, ch, x and z in the end, “es” gets to be used.
Examples:

Singular Plural

Bus Buses

Dish Dishes

Branch Branches

Fox Foxes

Fez Fezes

Rule 3:
While pronunciation of ch is like “k”, just “s” is added at the end
Example:

Singular Plural
 Monarch Monarchs

Patriarch Patriarchs

Matriarch Matriarchs

Stomach Stomachs

Hierarch Hierarchs

Part 1: when there’s a “y” in the end and a Consonant before that “y”, “i” substitutes it and an “es” thereafter.
Example:

Singular Plural

Story Stories

Hobby Hobbies

Army Armies

Fly Flies

Baby Babies

Part 2: but if there’s a vowel ahead of that “y”, no need to change it, only “s” to add.

Example

Singular Plural

Donkey Donkeys

Toy Toys
 Day Days

Joy Joys

Play Plays

Rule 4:
“v” replaces f or fe and then adds an “es” to finish it.
Example:

Singular Plural

thief Thieves

Wife Wives

Knife Knives

Wolf Wolves

Leaf Leaves

Part 1: “es” to be added if the noun is finished by “o” and a consonant places ahead.
Example:

singular Plural

Hero Heroes

Mango Mangoes

Zero Zeroes

Potato Potatoes
 Echo Echoes

Part 2: but when there’s a vowel before that “o”, only “s” is enough.
Example

Singular Plural

Cuckoo Cuckoos

Bamboo Bamboos

Studio Studios

Portfolio Portfolios

Cameo Cameos

Exception 1: though there’s an “o” and a consonant ahead of it, some nouns use only “s”.
Example:

Singular Plural

Photo Photos

Piano Pianos

Radio Radios

Canto Cantos

Memo Memos

Exception 2: for some, “s” and “es” both are correct.

Singular Plural

Mosquito Mosquitos/mosquitoes
 Commando Commandos/commandoes

Portico Porticos/porticoes

Calico Calicos/calicoes

Memento Mementos/mementoes

Rule 5:
Some require changing the middle-vowel of the word to make it plural.
Example:

Singular Plural

Man Men

Woman Women

Foot Feet

Mouse Mice

Tooth Teeth

Rule 6:
Some require en, ren and ne to add at last.
Example:

Singular plural

Ox Oxen

Child Children

Brother Brethren (brothers also correct)

 Cow Kine (cows also correct)

Sister Sistren (sisters also correct)

Part 1: if “man” means human being in a compound noun(a noun that contains two or more words that jointly make a single
noun), “men”replaces that “man”.
Example:

singular plural

Fisherman Fishermen

Workman Workmen

Boatman Boatmen

Man-of-war Men-of-war

Salesman salesmen

Part 2: but when “man” is just a part of the word, or it refers to any ethnic group, race or civilian, there comes “s”.

Singular Plural

Mussalman Mussalmans

Brahman Brahmans

German Germans

Norman Normans

Rule 7:
“s” to be added when there’s a “ful” in the end.
Example:

singular plural
 Handful Handfuls

Mouthful mouthfuls

Spoonful Spoonfuls

armful Armfuls

cupful cupfuls

Part 1: If compound noun contains several words, “s” comes to join with the main part of that noun.
Example:

Singular Plural

Brother-in-law Brothers-in-law

Passers-by Passers-by

Step-brother Step-brothers

Commander-in-chief Commanders-in-chief

Maid-servant Maid-servants

Part 2: in some cases,“s”comes in every part to make it so.

Example:

Singular Plural

Lord-justice Lords-justices

Man-servant Men-servants

Woman-servant Women-servants
Rule 8:
Besides, adding “s” only in the end gets it done for few.
Example:

Singular Plural

Book-shelf Book-shelves

Book-case Book-cases

Major-general Major-generals

Poet-laurete Poet-lauretes

Forget-me-not Forget-me-nots

Rule 9:
Some singular nouns have no plural form, only used in singular.
Example:

Furniture

Scenery

Issue

Bread

expenditure

Rule 9:
Adversely, some are always used as a plural form.
Example:

Mumps
 Scissors

Trousers

Spectacles

Assets

Rule 10:
Though some nouns seem like singular, but actually they are plural.
Example:

Rule 11:
Similarly, some nouns seem like plural though they are singular.
Example:

Physics

Politics

Ethics

News

Wages

Rule 12:
Some have the same singular and plural form.
Example:

Deer

Sheep

Species
 Corps

Canon

Rule 12:
In case of letters, numbers and other symbols, it takes an apostrophe and s to change it.
Example:

Sam, write your g’s and y’s clearly.

John, add two 5’s and three 8’s.

Rule 13:
There is no specific rule for changing the number of pronouns. It’s all about memorizing.

Singular plural singular plural

I We Him/her Them

My Our Your Your

Mine Ours This These

Me Us That Those

You You It They

He/she they His/her their

Phrase: Definition, Types & Examples

What is Phrase?
Phrases and clauses are the most important elements of English grammar. Phrases and clause cover everything a sentence
has. Clauses are the center of sentences and phrases strengthen the sentences to become meaningful. If the clauses are
the pillars of a building, the phrases are the bricks. A phrase usually is always present within a clause, but a phrase cannot
have a clause in it.
The basic difference between a clause and a phrase is that a clause must have a finite verb and a phrase must not.

A phrase, therefore, is a group of words which has no finite verb in it and acts to complete the sentence for making it
meaningful.

“A phrase is a small group of words that form a meaningful unit within a clause.” -Oxford Dictionary

“In linguistic analysis, a phrase is a group of words (or possibly a single word) that functions as a constituent in the syntax of
a sentence, a single unit within the grammatical hierarchy.” - Osborne, Timothy, Michael Putnam, and Thomas Gross (2011)

Phrase Examples

Types of Phrases
The phrases are generally of several types.
• Noun Phrase
• Adjective Phrase
• Adverbial Phrase
• Prepositional Phrase
• Conjunctional Phrase
• Interjectional Phrase
• Absolute Phrase
• Appositive Phrase
• Participle Phrase
• Gerund Phrase
• Infinitive Phrase
Noun Phrase
It is usually assembled centering a single noun and works as a subject, an object or a complement in the sentence.
Example:
o I like to swing the bat hard when I am at the crease. (An object)
o Reading novels is a good habit. (A subject)
o The probability of happening that match is not much. (A subject)
o We are sorry for her departure.

Adjective Phrase
It is comprised of an adjective and works as a single adjective in the sentence.
Example:
o Alex is a well-behaved man.
o He is a man of friendly nature.
o Julie is a woman of gorgeous style.
o She leads a very interesting life.
o A lot of people do not sleep at night.

Adverbial Phrase
It modifies the verb or the adjective and works as an adverb in the sentence.
Example:
o The horse runs at a good speed.
o I was in a hurry then.
o I ran as fast as possible.
o He works very slowly.

Prepositional Phrase
It always begins with a preposition and connects nouns.
Example:
o He sacrificed his life for the sake of his country.
o In the end, we all have to die.
o He is on the way.
o By working aimlessly, you will not get success.
o In spite of working hard, he was insulted by his boss.

Note: Prepositional phrases include all other types of phrases.

Conjunctional Phrase
A conjunctional phrase works as a conjunction in the sentence.
Example:
o As soon as you got in, he went out.
o We have to work hard so that we can win the next match.
o I will attend the ceremony provided that you come.
o John started working early in order that he could finish early.

Interjectional Phrase
Interjections that have more than one word are called interjectional phrases.
Example:
o What a pity! He is dead.
o What a pleasure! I won the first prize.
o Oh please! Don’t say that again.

Absolute Phrase
The phrases containing Noun or Pronoun accompanied by a participle and necessary modifiers if any are stated as Absolute
Phrases. They modify indefinite classes and are also called Nominative Phrases.
Examples:
o Weather permitting, I will join the party.
o God willing, he’ll pass the test this time.
o The hot summer sun having set, we left for the movie

Appositive Phrase
An appositive is a Noun or Pronoun often accompanied by modifiers that sit beside another Noun or Pronoun to describe it.
An Appositive Phrase is a set of words containing an Appositive and it follows or precedes the Noun or Pronoun it identifies
or explains.
Examples:
o My school friend, Brooks always bunked classes.
o His colleague, Mr. Robinson, likes his tea.
o Jeremy, the police officer on duty, wrote the speeding ticket.

Participle Phrase
It is made of a participle, its modifier(s) and/or the objects that complete the sense of the sentence.
Examples:
o Walking fast, I keep looking left and right.
o Climbing the stairs, she waved at us.
o I looked back, starting the engine.

Gerund Phrase
These contain a Gerund, its modifier(s) and the other necessary elements. They function as Nouns just like Gerunds
themselves and that means they can be Subjects and Objects of the sentences.
Examples:
o Eating plenty of grapes in one sitting is a bad idea.
o Doing the dishes gives me cold allergies.
o I hate hurrying right before the deadline.

Infinitive Phrase
These are comprised of infinitive verbs (To + base verb)along with their modifiers and/or complements.
Examples:
o We love to cook together.
o He likes to solve math problems too much.
o Rina walks fast to be there on time.
Clauses: Definition, Types & Examples
What is a Clause
A clause is comprised of a group of words that include a subject and a finite verb. It contains only one subject and one verb.
The subject of a clause can be mentioned or hidden, but the verb must be apparent and distinguishable.

A clause is “a group of words containing a subject and predicate and functioning as a member of a complex or compound sentence. ”
– Merriam-Webster

Example:
o I graduated last year. (One clause sentence)
o When I came here, I saw him. (Two clause sentence)
o When I came here, I saw him, and he greeted me. (Three clause sentence)

Types of Clauses
• Independent Clause
• Dependent Clause
o Adjective Clause
o Noun Clause
o Adverbial Clause
• Principal Clause
• Coordinate Clause
• Non-finite Clause
Independent Clause
It functions on its own to make a meaningful sentence and looks much like a regular sentence.
In a sentence two independent clauses can be connected by the coordinators: and, but, so, or, nor, for*, yet*.
Example:
o He is a wise man.
o I like him.
o Can you do it?
o Do it please. (Subject you is hidden)
o I read the whole story.
o I want to buy a phone, but I don’t have enough money. (Two independent clauses)
o He went to London and visited the Lords. (Subject of the second clause is ‘he,' so “he visited the Lords” is an
independent clause.)
o Alex smiles whenever he sees her. (One independent clause)

Dependent Clause
It cannot function on its own because it leaves an idea or thought unfinished. It is also called a subordinate clause. These
help the independent clauses complete the sentence. Alone, it cannot form a complete sentence.
The subordinators do the work of connecting the dependent clause to another clause to complete the sentence. In each of
the dependent clauses, the first word is a subordinator. Subordinators include relative pronouns, subordinating conjunctions,
and noun clause markers.
Example:
o When I was dating Daina, I had an accident.
o I know the man who stole the watch.
o He bought a car which was too expensive.
o I know that he cannot do it.
o He does not know where he was born.
o If you don’t eat, I won’t go.
o He is a very talented player though he is out of form.

Dependent Clauses are divided into three types and they are –

1. Adjective Clause
It is a Dependent Clause that modifies a Noun. Basically, Adjective Clauses have similar qualities as Adjectives that are of
modifying Nouns and hence the name, Adjective Clause. These are also called Relative Clauses and they usually sit right
after the Nouns they modify.
Examples:
o I’m looking for the red book that went missing last week.
o Finn is asking for the shoes which used to belong to his dad.
o You there, who is sitting quietly at the corner, come here and lead the class out.

2. Noun Clause
Dependent Clauses acting as Nouns in sentences are called Noun Clauses or Nominal Clauses. These often start with “how,”
“that,” other WH-words (What, Who, Where, When, Why, Which, Whose and Whom), if, whether etc.
Examples:
o I like what I hear.
o You need to express that it’s crossing a line for you.
o He knows how things work around here.

3. Adverbial Clause
By definition, these are Dependent Clauses acting as Adverbs. It means that these clauses have the power to modify Verbs,
Adjectives and other Adverbs.
Examples:
o Alice did the dishes till her legs gave up.
o Tina ran to the point of panting vehemently.
o I went through the book at a lightning speed.

Principal Clause
These have a Subject (Noun/Pronoun), Finite Verb and an Object and make full sentences that can stand alone or act as
the main part of any Complex or Compound Sentence. Independent and Principal Clauses are functionally the same but
named from different perspectives.
Examples:
o I know that boy.
o He can jog every morning.
o Robin fishes like a pro.

Coordinate Clause
Two or more similarly important Independent Clauses joined by Coordinating Conjunctions (and, or, but etc.) in terms of
Compound Sentences are called Coordinate Clauses.
Examples:
o I like taking photos and he loves posing for them.
o You prefer flying but she always wants to take a bus.
o We are going to visit Terry or he is coming over.

Non-finite Clause
They contain a Participle or an Infinitive Verb that makes the Subject and Verb evident even though hidden. In terms of a
Participle, the Participial Phrase takes place of the Subject or Object of the sentence.
Examples:
o He saw the boy (who was) staring out of the window.
o She is the first person (who is) to enter the office.
o Hearing the fireworks, the children jumped up.

Conditionals: Definition, Structure & Examples

Normally conditional sentences are called conditionals. These sentences usually contain the
conjunction IF. Sometimes they are called 'if clauses'.

Types of Conditionals

For Future Conditions

If + subject + simple present tense + subject + will/can/may/must + verb in base form. . .

Subject + will/can/may/must + verb in base form. . . + if + subject + simple present tense
 Example:

o If I have the money, I will buy a new phone.

o I can make you cry if you keep doing that.
o If he goes there, he may get robbed.
o If you go outside, you must wear heavy clothes.

For Habitual Conditions

If + subject + simple present tense + subject + simple present tense. . .

Subject + simple present tense + if + subject + simple present tense. .

Example:

o If I have the money, I always buy the necessary things.

o If Alex gets a break, he usually calls me.
o He works hard if the payment is good.

There are mainly two types of conditionals:

• The Real Conditionals and
• The Unreal Conditionals

The real conditionals

The real conditionals express factual or habitual conditions which have the possibility to occur in the future or generally
occur in the present.
Example:
o I’ll go if you give me the ball.
o If I feel better, I’ll certainly play.
o If you do well in the exams, I’ll buy you a gift.

Structures of the Real Conditionals:

For Commands

If + subject + simple present tense + command form (simple present) . . . . .

Command form (simple present). . . . . + if + subject + simple present tense.
 Example:
The
unreal
o If you have the money,
For Present/Future Conditions use it wisely.
o Please call me if you get a chance.

conditionals
If + subject + simple past tense + subject + would/could/might + verb in base form. . .
subject + would/could/might + verb in base form + if + subject + simple past tense The unreal conditionals express
hypothetical conditions which have
no possibility to occur in the past,
present or future but describe what
Example: could/might have occurred
supposedly.
o If I had the money, I would buy a new phone. Example:
o If I were the president, I would not support war policies. o If I were rich, I would travel my
o If he were not ill, he could come with us.
o If I could play tomorrow, I would definitely win the match. whole life.
o If I had a car, I could go
anywhere.
o If we had not missed the train, we would have reached the city.

Structures of Unreal Conditionals:

For Past Conditions

If + subject + past perfect tense + subject + would/could/might + have+ verb in past

participle form
Subject + would/could/might + have + verb in past participle form + if + subject +
simple past tense

Example:

o If I had played well, we would have won the match.

o I could have caught you if you had been a little closer.
o If he had written well, I could have given him a better mark.

Note: There is another structure of unreal conditional which does not use the conjunction if. Had replaces if and creates a
conditional sentence.

Had + subject + verb in past participle + subject + would/could/might + have + verb in past
participle

Example:

o Had I reached earlier, I could have caught the train.

o Had she found the watch, she would have told me.

Article: Definition & Types

There is no doubt that articles are adjectives since they modify the nouns after them. But articles have some special
significance as determiners. Articles determine the standard of nouns.
There are two types of articles:
1. Definite Article - the
They make the noun something particular and definite.
Example:
o Give me the ball.

(Here, the speaker is telling someone to give him/her a particular ball about which the speaker and the listener both are
aware. There is no possibility of the ball to be anything else rather than the speaker and the listener’s idea of that ball.)
2. Indefinite Article - a & an
A & an - make the noun something general and indefinite.
Example:
o Give me a ball.

(Here, the speaker is telling someone to give him/her a random ball about which the listener is not particularly aware of, and
s/he might ask ‘which/what kind of ball you want?’.)
o Give me an egg. (It can be any kind of egg – the possibility is open.)
Rules of Using Articles

READ MORE

• How to Use "Therefore" in Sentences Avoiding Common Mistakes

• How to Use "Whereas" with Examples and Avoid Common Mistakes
• When and How to Use "Thus" Correctly Without Common Mistakes
• How to Use "On the Contrary" Properly with Meaning and Examples
• When and How to Use "Either/Or" with Examples and Common Mistakes to Avoid
• How to Use "On the Other Hand" Effectively without Mistakes
• How to Use "Respectively" with Example and Common Errors to Avoid
• How and When to Use "Moreover" Without Mistakes
• How to Use "Likewise" in Sentences Based on Context & When not to Use
• When & How to Use "Although" in Sentences to Avoid Mistake