Detection of Radioactivity

Characteristics of the Three Types of Emission

Nuclear Reactions
Half-Life
Uses of Radioactive Isotopes Including Safety Precautions

Radioactivity 1
Describe the detection of alpha-particles, beta-particles and gamma-rays
by appropriate methods.

Radioactivity 2
 Radioactivity is the process whereby unstable
atomic nuclei release energetic subatomic
particles.
 Radioactivity was first discovered in 1896 by
the French scientist Henri Becquerel, after
which the SI unit for radiation, the Becquerel,
is named.

Radioactivity 3
 Radiation can not be detected with our five
senses, special detectors are therefore needed.
 Several devices have been developed to detect
radioactivity, with the earliest being an
unexposed photographic plate placed in the
vicinity of a source being detected.
 Other devices include:
 the cloud chamber,
 electroscopes,
 the Geiger-Müller tube

Radioactivity 5
 It was named for Hans Geiger who invented the device in 1908 and Walther
Müller who collaborated with Geiger in developing further in 1928

Radioactivity 6
Radioactivity 7
State and explain the random emission of radioactivity in direction and
time.

Radioactivity 8
 Most nuclei are stable, but some are unstable
which will emit a tiny particle called nuclear
radiation.
 The emission occurs spontaneously and
randomly over space and time.
State, for radioactive emissions, their nature, relative ionising effects and
relative penetrating powers.

Radioactivity 10
 Alpha particles are a highly ionising form of
particle radiation. In cloud chamber they
produce thick straight tracks.
 They consist of two protons and two neutrons
bound together into a particle identical to a
helium nucleus; hence, it can be written as He2+.
 As its ionising power is so high it does not
penetrate very deeply into matter before its
energy has been used up. Its penetrating power
is therefore very low (absorbed by 10 cm of air,
0.01 mm lead or a sheet of paper).

Radioactivity 11
 Beta particles are high-energy, high-speed
electrons emitted by certain types of
radioactive nuclei such as potassium-40.
 The beta particles emitted are a form of
ionising radiation also known as beta rays.
 The high energy electrons have greater range
of penetration than alpha particles, but still
much less than gamma rays.

Radioactivity 12
 Gamma rays are forms of electromagnetic
radiation (EMR) or light emissions of a specific
frequency produced from sub-atomic particle
interaction and radioactive decay.
 Gamma rays are generally characterized as
EMR, having the highest frequency and energy,
and also the shortest wavelength, within the
electromagnetic radiation spectrum.
 Its ionising power is so low it penetrates very
deeply into matter before its energy has been
used up.

Radioactivity 13
Describe the deflection of radioactive emissions in electric fields and
magnetic fields.

Radioactivity 14
 The products of radioactivity could be
analyzed into three distinct species by either
a magnetic field or an electric field.

Radioactivity 15
type of radiation alpha particles (α) beta particle (β) gamma rays (γ)
each particle is 2 each particle is an electromagnetic
protons + 2 neutrons electron (created waves similar to X-
(it is identical to a when the nucleus rays
nucleus of helium-4) decays)
relative charge +2 –1 0
compared with
charge on proton
ionising effect strong weak very weak
penetrating effect not very penetrating, but very penetrating,
penetrating: stopped by a few never completely
stopped by a thick millimetres of stopped, though
sheet of paper, by aluminium or other lead and thick
skin or by a few metal concrete will reduce
centimetres of air intensity
effect of field deflected by deflected by not deflected by
magnetic and magnetic and magnetic or electric
electric field electric field fields
Radioactivity 16
Explain what is meant by radioactive decay.

Radioactivity 17
 It is process of spontaneous transformation of a
radionuclide by the emission of nuclear
radiation.
 The emission of the nuclear radiation is a purely
random event. It cannot be predicted exactly
when an atom will decay, only that a certain
number will decay in a given time.
 The rate of decay depends on the number of
undecayed nuclei present, so with each decay
event there is a decrease in the activity of a
radioactive sample.

Radioactivity 18
Use the nuclide notation 𝐴𝑍𝑋 to construct equations where radioactive
decay leads to changes in the composition of the nucleus.

Radioactivity 19
 Nuclear equations can be used to show the decay process.
 These must balance for nucleon number and proton
number.
 Alpha decay
 When alpha decay occurs a group of two protons and two
neutrons (helium nucleus) comes out of the nucleus. Therefore
the proton number decreases by 2 but the nucleon number
decreases by 4. The resulting daughter nucleus is of an element
2 positions to the left of the 'parent' in the periodic table.
238
92 U23490Th  42 He
 Look at the numbers on the top line (the nucleon numbers).
▪ 238 = 234 + 4. Therefore the nucleon numbers balance
 Look at the numbers on the bottom line (the proton numbers).
▪ 92 = 90 + 2. Therefore the proton numbers balance
Radioactivity 20
 Beta decay
 When beta decay occurs a neutron within the nucleus emits the
particle and changes into a proton. Therefore the proton
number increases by one but the nucleon number stays the
same. The resulting daughter nucleus is of an element 1 position
to the right.
14
6 C N  β
14
7
0
-1
 Look at the numbers on the top line (the nucleon numbers).
▪ 14 = 14 + 0 Therefore the nucleon numbers balance
 Look at the numbers on the bottom line (the proton numbers).
▪ 6 = 7 + (-1) Therefore the proton numbers balance

Radioactivity 21
 Gamma Emission
 Sometimes, after its emission of an alpha, beta or
positron particle, the nucleus is still in an excited
state, called a metastable state.
 In order to get to a lower energy state it emits a
quantum of energy in the form of a gamma ray.

Radioactivity 22
Explain the processes of fusion and fission.

Radioactivity 25
 Nuclear fusion is the process by which
multiple atomic nuclei join together to form a
heavier nucleus. It is accompanied by the
release or absorption of energy.
 Nuclear fission is a process in nuclear physics
in which the nucleus of an atom splits into
two or more smaller nuclei as fission
products, and usually some by-product
particles.
Radioactivity 26
Describe, with the aid of a block diagram, one type of fission reactor for
use in a power station.

Radioactivity 27
 A nuclear reactor produces and controls the
release of energy from splitting the atoms of
uranium.
 Uranium-fuelled nuclear power is a clean and
efficient way of boiling water to make steam
which drives turbine generators.
 In the reactor core the
uranium-235 isotope
fissions or splits, producing
a lot of heat in a continuous
process called a chain
reaction.
 The process depends on the
presence of a moderator
such as water or graphite,
and is fully controlled.
 Fuel produces heat,
which is used to boil
water to make steam.
 Steam spins a turbine.
 Turbine drives a
generator and the
generator makes
electricity.
 Electricity goes to the
transformers to produce
the correct voltage.
Discuss theories of star formation and their energy production by fusion.

Radioactivity 31
 Stars are the most widely recognized
astronomical objects, and represent the most
fundamental building blocks of galaxies.
 Stars form when enough dust and gas clump
together because of gravitational forces.
 Gravity pulls the dust and gas together.
 As the gas falls together, it gets hot.
 A star forms when it is hot enough for nuclear
reactions to start.
 This releases energy, and keeps the star hot.
 The Sun and other stars use nuclear fusion to
release energy.
 During most of a star's lifetime, hydrogen nuclei
fuse together to form helium nuclei.
1. Which line in the table describes the nature
of an α-particle and of a γ-ray?

A
2. What is a β-particle and from which part of a
radioactive atom is it emitted?

A
3. Which row describes the properties of α-
particles?

B
4. Which is the correct comparison of the
penetrating power and ionising power of
alpha-particles and gamma radiation?

C
5. The diagram shows the paths of three
different types of radiation, X, Y and Z.
1. Which row in the table correctly identifies X,
Y and Z?

B
6. A student investigates a radioactive source
that emits only alpha-particles. Without any
source nearby, the detector shows a low
reading.
7. The source and thick cardboard are placed
near the detector, as shown.
1. What is the reading on the detector now,
and why?

A
7. S is a radioactive source emitting α-
particles, β-particles and γ-rays. A detector
is placed 5 cm away from S. A thin sheet of
paper is placed as shown in the diagram.
1. Which radiations can be detected?
A. α-particles and β-particles only
B. α-particles and γ-rays only
C. β-particles and γ-rays only
D. α-particles, β-particles and γ-rays
8. Which travels in a straight line across a
magnetic field?
A. alpha-particle
B. electron
C. gamma-ray
D. proton
9. A radioactive source emits alpha-particles,
beta-particles and gamma-rays. A Geiger-
Müller tube and counter detect the
emissions, which pass through a thin sheet
of paper and a strong magnetic field.
1. What is detected by the Geiger-Müller tube?
A. alpha-particles and beta-particles
B. alpha-particles only
C. beta-particles and gamma-rays
D. beta-particles only
10. A student investigates the emission from an
unknown radioactive source. The source is
10 cm in front of a detector. A strong
magnetic field between the source and the
detector is then switched on.
1. The results are shown.
1. Which radioactive source produced these
results?

C
11. Which statement is true for all three types of
radioactive emission (alpha-particles, beta-
particles and gamma-rays)?
A. They are completely absorbed by a thin
aluminium sheet.
B. They are deflected by electric fields.
C. They emit light.
D. They ionise gases.
12. The diagram shows five atoms in a
radioactive substance. The atoms each give
out an α-particle.
1. Atom 1 is the first to give out a particle.
Atom 3 is the second to give out a particle.
2. Which atom will give out the next particle?
A. atom 2
B. atom 4
C. atom 5
D. impossible to tell
13. What occurs in the decay of a radioactive
nucleus?
A. The nucleus absorbs another nucleus.
B. The nucleus absorbs at least one form of
radiation.
C. The nucleus always splits into two equal
fragments.
D. The nucleus emits at least one form of radiation.
14. A uranium nucleus emits an α-particle.
15. What are the new nucleon and proton
numbers?

D
15. A nucleus is represented by . It emits one
alpha-particle and then one beta-particle.
16. What is the resulting nucleus X?

C
16. In one radioactive decay, radium (Ra) gives
rise to radon (Rn) as shown.
1. What particle is also produced?
A. an alpha-particle
B. a beta-particle
C. both an alpha-particle and a beta-particle
D. no particle but only gamma-rays
Explain what is meant by the term half-life.

Radioactivity 62
 Half-life is the time taken for half of
radioactive nuclei to decay.
 It is also define as the time taken for the
count rate to fall to half of its original reading.
Make calculations based on half-life which might involve information in
tables or shown by decay curves.

Radioactivity 64
1. A radioactive element has a half-life of 40 minutes.
The initial count rate was 1000 per minute. How long
will it take for the count rate to drop to (a) 250 per
minute and (b) 125 per minute?
2. A radiation counter is set up and a background count
of 20 counts per minute is recorded. A radioactive
sample is placed less than a centimetre from the
detector and the counter then records 820 counts per
minute. After 20 min, the count rate falls to 420
counts per minute. What would you expect the count
rate to be 60 min after placing the radioactive sample
in front of the detector.
Radioactivity 66
3. The half-life of a radioactive element is 4 days. How
long does it take for 20 g for a sample of the
radioactive element to decay to 5 g.
4. A radioactive element has a half-life of 5 days. If the
mass of a sample of the element is 32 g, what mass of
the element is left after 20 days?
5. The table below shows how the activity of a
radioactive source varies with time as recorded using
a G-M tube and ratemeter.
Time (minute) 0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Counts per minute 4000 2800 2000 1440 1000 720 500

6. Determine the half-life of the radioactive source.

Radioactivity 67
6. Radioisotopes Y has a half-life of 2000 years.
How long will it take the activity of a sample
Y to decrease to one-eight of its initial
value?
7. A sample radioactive substance contains
200 undecayed atoms. How many will
remain after 3 half-lives?
8. A radioactive source has a half-life of 30
minutes. What fraction is left after 2 hours?
Radioactivity 68
9. The graph shows the rapid decay of a very
unstable radioactive isotope in terms of
count rate per minute (cpm) versus minutes.
From the graph
determine the
time it takes for
half of the
radioactive atoms
to decay.
10. Determine the half-life of a nuclide from a
decay curve.
Describe how radioactive materials are moved, used and stored in a safe
way.

Radioactivity 71
 We cannot do much to reduce our exposure
to natural background radiation, but great
care is needed when handling radioactive
materials. Precautions include:

Radioactivity 72
 wearing protective clothing

Radioactivity 73
 keeping as far away as is practicable - for
example, by using tongs or robotic arms.

Radioactivity 74
 keeping radioactive materials in lead-lined
containers, labelled with the appropriate
hazard symbol.

Radioactivity 75
 keeping your exposure time as short as
possible

Radioactivity 76
Discuss the way in which the type of radiation emitted and the half-life
determine the use for the material.

Radioactivity 77
 A radioactive isotope is introduced into a living
system, where it flows along the bloodstream,
following the path of chemical processes
therein.
 It is easily detected using a scanner or Geiger
counter. The scanner take pictures and are run
together in rapid succession, giving physicians a
movie-like view of the isotope's path.
 When the procedure is finished the isotope is
flushed out of the body along with other waste
products.

Radioactivity 78
 A common procedure is the injection of iodine-
131 for the observation of the thyroid gland.
 A healthy thyroid will accumulate any iodine
entering the body.
 When a physician scans the patient, if iodine-131
is present in the thyroid, the gland is working
properly.
 However, if the trace element has not collected
in the thyroid, the physician knows the gland is
failing.

Radioactivity 80
Radioactivity 81
 A method for determining the position of a leak
in a conduit or pipeline.
 Short-lived radioisotope is inserted into the
conduit or pipeline and is caused to move along
it by pressuring up the conduit or pipeline from
one or both ends thereof with fluid, for example
water.
 The carrier body travels to the leak but no
further and its location is detected from outside
the conduit or pipeline using a radiation
detector.

Radioactivity 82
Radioactivity 83
 A source of beta radiation is used to pass beta
particles through the paper.
 A detector on the other side of the paper detects the
beta particles that pass through.
 The detector is connected to a hydraulic control via a
processor unit.
 If the radiation level detected drops it means the
paper is too thick so the hydraulic control pushes
rollers closer together in order to reduce the paper
thickness.
 If the radiation level detected increases it means the
paper is too thin so the hydraulic control pulls the
rollers apart so the paper thickness can be increased.
Radioactivity 84
Radioactivity 85
Discuss the origins and effect of background radiation.

Radioactivity 86
Discuss the dating of objects by the use of 14C.

Radioactivity 87
 Radiocarbon dating uses the amount of Carbon 14
(C14) available in living creatures as a measuring stick.
 All living things maintain a content of carbon 14 in
equilibrium with that available in the atmosphere,
right up to the moment of death. When an organism
dies, the amount of C14 available within it begins to
decay at a half life rate of 5700 years
 Comparing the amount of C14 in a dead organism to
available levels in the atmosphere, produces an
estimate of when that organism died.

Radioactivity 88
Carbon-14 has a half-life of 5700 years.
1. Cro-Magnon man is one of our ancestors. Five adult
skeletons were found near Les Eyzies in France. A 1 g
sample of charcoal from this site produced a radioactive
count of 0.5 counts per minute. A modern sample of
charcoal of same mass produces a count rate of 32
counts per minute. Both counts were corrected for
background radiation. How long ago did Cro-Magnon
man live?
2. A 10-g sample of wood cut recently from a living tree has
an activity of 160 counts/minute. A piece of charcoal
taken from a prehistoric campsites also weighs 10 g but
has an activity of 40 counts/minute. Estimate the age of
the charcoal.

Radioactivity 89
3. A wooden post from an archaeological dig produces
150 counts per minute. Wood from an identical
species of tree currently alive gives 600 counts per
minute. How long ago did the wood from the
archaeological dig die?
4. In a carbon-dating experiment a sample of wood
from an object was burnt and the carbon dioxide
produced was collected. The activity of the carbon
dioxide was equivalent to 2.25 count per minute per
gram of carbon. When the same experiment was
repeated using wood from a modern source, the
corrected counts was 18 count per minute per gram
of carbon. What is the likely age of the find?
 Carbon dating can be used on anything which
used to be alive.
 Examples are
 Animal (or human) remains, including skin, fur and
bone.
 Plant remains, including wood, natural fibres
(cotton, silk, wool, cloth, rope), seeds and pollen
grains.
 Some fossils can be dated this way if they still contain
some of the original carbon of the plant or animal.
Radioactivity 91
 Carbon dating cannot be used on things which have
never lived.
 Examples are brick, rock and metal.
 The amount of carbon-14 in samples is very small and
after 9 or 10 half-lives the amount of radioactivity
which is emitted by the sample is too tiny for an
accurate count rate to be measured.
 Therefore carbon dating cannot be used to date samples
which are more than 50,000 to 60,000 years old.
 The method of carbon dating uses an assumption
that the amount of carbon-14 present in the past
is the same as that present in the environment today.
Radioactivity 92
1. A sample of radioactive isotope is decaying.
2. The nuclei of which atoms will decay first?
A. impossible to know, because radioactive decay is
random
B. impossible to know, unless the age of the
material is known
C. atoms near the centre, because they are
surrounded by more atoms
D. atoms near the surface, because the radiation
can escape more easily
2. The activity of a radioactive source is
measured over a period of time. The graph
shows the decay curve.
1. Why is the curve not smooth?
A. Background radiation has not been subtracted.
B. Radioactive decay is a random process.
C. The half-life is not constant.
D. The temperature is changing.
3. Which statement explains the meaning of
the half-life of a radioactive substance?
A. half the time taken for half the substance to
decay
B. half the time taken for the substance to decay
completely
C. the time taken for half the substance to decay
D. the time taken for the substance to decay
completely
4. A sample of radioactive uranium has mass 1
g. Another sample of the same material has
mass 2 g.
5. Which property is the same for both
samples?
A. the amount of radiation emitted per second
B. the half-life
C. the number of uranium atoms
D. the volume
5. A powder contains 400 mg of a radioactive
material that emits α-particles.
6. The half-life of the material is 5 days.
7. What mass of that material remains after 10
days?
A. 0 mg
B. 40 mg
C. 100 mg
D. 200 mg
6. A radioactive substance has a half-life of 2
weeks. At the beginning of an investigation the
substance emits 3000 β-particles per minute.
7. How many β-particles will it emit per minute
after 6 weeks?
A. 0
B. 375
C. 500
D. 1500
7. The half-life of a radioactive material is 24
years.
8. The activity of a sample falls to a fraction of
its initial value after 72 years.
9. What is the fraction?
A. 1/3
B. 1/4
C. 1/6
D. 1/8
8. The half-life of a radioisotope is 2400 years.
The activity of a sample is 720 counts / s.
9. How long will it take for the activity to fall to
90 counts / s?
A. 300 years
B. 2400 years
C. 7200 years
D. 19 200 years
9. The half-life of a radioactive substance is 5
hours. A sample is tested and found to contain
0.48 g of the substance.
10. How much of the substance was present in the
sample 20 hours before the sample was tested?
A. 0.03 g
B. 0.12 g
C. 1.92 g
D. 7.68 g
10. A radioactive element has a half-life of 70 s.
11. The number of emissions per second, N, of a
sample of the element is measured at a certain
time.
12. What was the number of emissions per second
70 s earlier?
A. 0
B. N/2
C. N
D. 2N
11. The count-rate from a radioactive source
falls from 400 to 50 in 3.0 minutes.
12. What is the half-life?
A. 0.75 minutes
B. 1.0 minutes
C. 2.7 minutes
D. 8.0 minutes
12. A detector is used to measure the count-rate
near a radioactive source. The reading is 4000
counts per minute. After 30 minutes the count-
rate has fallen to 500 counts per minute.
13. What is the half-life of the radioactive source?
You may ignore the effects of background
radiation.
A. 3 minutes
B. 5 minutes
C. 6 minutes
D. 10 minutes
13. The count rates of four radioactive sources
were measured at the same time on three
consecutive days.
14. Which source has a half-life of two days?

B
14. The table shows details of two samples of
radioactive nuclides X and Y.
1. After how many days will the number of
atoms of nuclide X be equal to the number
of atoms of nuclide Y?
A. 2 days
B. 4 days
C. 6 days
D. 8 days
15. The graph shows the decay curve for one
particular radioactive nuclide.
1. What is the half-life of this nuclide?
A. 1.0 day
B. 1.5 days
C. 2.0 days
D. 2.5 days
16. Which row is correct for fission and for
fusion?

C
17. Which equation shows a nuclear fission
reaction?

D
18. Which material is commonly used as a lining
for a box for storing radioactive samples?
A. aluminium
B. copper
C. lead
D. uranium
19. When dealing with radioactive substances
there are possible dangers.
20. Which statement is correct?
A. Beta-particles can pass through skin and damage
body cells.
B. Gamma-radiation is more dangerous than alpha or
beta because it has a longer half-life.
C. Materials that emit only alpha-particles must be
kept in thick lead containers.
D. Radioactive materials are safe to handle after two
half-lives.
20. In the treatment of brain cancer, a patient’s
head is enclosed in a helmet containing a
number of radioactive sources. The radiation
from each source is directed towards the
cancer.
21. Which nuclide is the most suitable for these
sources?
A