SPRING

2022
Course Code: 8601
General Methods of
Teaching

Student Name: M. Farhan

Student ID: 0000237611
Program Name: B.Ed. (1.5 years)
Semester: 1st
Assignment No: 02
Spring 2022

ALLAMA IQBAL OPEN UNIVERSITY

ISLAMABAD
 Q.1 Identify Advantages And Disadvantages of Discussion Method.
Analyze the Rules to Organize Classroom Discussion.
Answer:
A whole class discussion is a pedagogical strategy that involves having all members of the class
discusses a topic as a group. It can be beneficial for providing all students in the class with the
same information and encouraging students to speak up in a democratic forum.
Critics of a whole class approach see it as being too teacher-centered and overly intimidating to
shy students who might benefit from smaller discussion groups. These critics usually emphasize
the importance of student-centered over teacher-centered learning environments.
Definition of Whole Class Discussion
A whole class discussion is a discussion which involves the participation of all members of the
class. It is commonly used at the beginning and ending of lessons to orient students to a topic or
gather the opinions of students after completion of individual or small-group tasks.

10 Best Whole Class Discussion Strategies

1. The Conch
In The Lord of the Flies, the characters solve the problem of everyone talking over one another
by using a conch (shell). The student with the conch is the only one allowed to speak.
You can use anything you want as a conch alternative – a tennis ball works well, or a simple
Once the student with the conch has finished speaking, the other students who have something
to say can put their hands up and the conch can be passed along.
2. Traffic Lights
The traffic light system is a good way to encourage participation from shy students. Give all
students a green, amber and red piece of paper. Pose an intriguing discussion question and have
the students hold up their card – red, green or amber depending on if they agree disagree or are
unsure. Give students turns to share their thoughts, but alternate between red, green and amber
students to get the students debating different perspectives.
An extension of this is to get the red and green students to try to convince the amber students to
change their minds.
3. Pre-Teaching
Pre-teaching involves presenting students with information before the class so they can prepare.
This is very common in university seminars where the teacher will set assigned weekly
readings. The students are expected to come to class with information prepared so they’re ready
to contribute.
In elementary schools and ESL classrooms, pre-teaching is most commonly found in reading
lessons. New vocabulary is presented to the students who learn it before their lesson so they can
successfully read the paragraphs presented to them in class.
4. Fishbowl
The fishbowl method involves having the class sits in a circle around watch a group of students
in the middle. These students may do a performance, speech or experiment. They are like fishin
a fishbowl because they can be seen from all angles. After their performance, the class discusses
what they saw.
5. Socratic Seminar
The Socratic seminar has been used in universities for centuries. It involves a roundtable
discussion of a text that was read before class. Critical thinking and challenging one another’s
half-formed hypotheses are encouraged in these group sessions. To minimize defensiveness, it
should be set up so students are asked to present hypotheses that are malleable rather than hard-
and-fast opinions.
6. The Hot Seat
The hot seat puts one student in the middle of the whole class with their classmates looking
inward ad them. This student puts on the persona of a book character or historical figure being
studied in your class.
The students in the class quiz the student on the hot seat and the hot seat student responds.
Afterwards, you can open up to a more free-flowing discussion and take the student off the hot
seat.
7. Student-Led Hot Topics
A student-led hot topic discussion involves getting two or three students to become the
‘discussion leaders’ for a session. This often works well at the end of a unit of work where
groups of students have gone off to do research on their own topics. The students then pose a
series of questions to the class that they came across in their research to start off the whole class
discussion.
8. Show And Tell
This is a good activity for younger students. Have the student come to class, stand in front of
their peers, and show something they have from home that they cherish. With older students,
you can try to link it to the topics being studies in the class. After the student has shown the
item, have their classmates ask questions to open up the discussion to the class.
9. Think-Pair-Share
A think-pair-share discussion involves three steps:
 Steps 1 – Think: The students are asked to individually brainstorm answers to a
discussion prompt.
 Step 2 – Pair: The student’s pair up and compare answers. As a pair they need to come up
with an amalgamated response to the discussion prompt.
 Step 3 – Share: The pairs take turns to share their thoughts about the discussion prompt to
the whole class.
Think-pair-share is a great activity to do with classes that are shy because it warms them up and
helps them come to the discussion prepared.
10. The Yarning Circle
This Indigenous Australian pedagogical strategy involves everyone in the class sitting in a
circle so there is no head of the group. This is to promote democracy and equality. The teacher
poses a prompt and people are free to speak up when they want. An interesting twist in this
approach, though, is that silence is embraced. If no one has anything to contribute, everyone is
encouraged to think about their responses and only speak up once they have got a fully-formed
idea in their head.

Advantages of Whole Class Discussions

1. Enhanced Teacher Control
One of the biggest benefits of whole class discussions for teachers is that they can maintain
strong control and oversight over the class. They can moderate all the discussion and assess
what all the students’ knowledge is by looking at which students are able to contribute ideas to
the discussion.
However, critics of whole class discussions also say that the problem with them is precisely that
the teacher has too much control and they rarely involve free flowing student interaction
(Reisman et al, 2018). This can decrease student engagement and critical thinking.
2. Shared Experience
If the class all conduct the lesson as a whole group, it will ensure all students get the same
information and experience. This can help prevent gaps in knowledge or the ‘dumbing down’ of
information for some students in small groups.
The shared experience may, furthermore, help foster sense of community within the classroom.
3. Encourages Democratic Participation
Discussions that do not feature a ‘head of the table’ and position all students as equals can help
students develop participation skills.
Furthermore, it can teach students the values of democracy, such as: ensuring all voices are
heard, voting, accepting majority decisions (even when they were not your preference), and
listening to and respecting minority views on issues.

Disadvantages of Whole Class Discussions

1. Students Are Often Intimidated To Speak Up
It can be difficult to get some groups to engage in lively discussion. Students who are
uncomfortable around one another, shy, scared of saying the wrong thing, or intimidated by
large groups will often sit in silence. This is more often the case toward the beginning of a
lesson.
Teachers need to use strategies to break the ice in these situations such as setting clear ground
rules that embrace half-formed decisions, or use think-pair-share strategies to lead-up to the full
group discussion. Teachers should try to find space where it is okay to make mistakes.
2. Not All Students Get A Voice
Many whole group sessions involve a small number of loud students who are willing to share
their points of view and a larger group of more quiet students who fade into the walls. Teachers
need to moderate the whole groups to ensure that every student gets a chance to speak up in a
safe, welcoming environment.
3. Differentiation Is Difficult
Differentiation of instruction involves changing how (and sometimes what) is taught to cater to
the needs of students. A differentiated lesson will have different students learning in different
ways depending on their needs.
Some students may learn better from visual than oral instruction, for example. In other
situations, some students might require more scaffolding than other students.

Unfortunately, in whole class discussions, differentiation is difficult. You can’t break students
off to get them to learn in different ways or give them individualized support.
Key Debates
Proponents of democratic education embrace a horizontally-structured whole class discussion
that involves all students participating in the discussion in a free-flowing manner with the
teacher moderating from the sidelines.
Commonly, however, whole class discussions involve too much teacher intervention. In these
situations, the teacher takes a central role at the head of the classroom and intervening between
each student’s statements to have more control.
Reisman et al (2018), for example, state that novice teachers will often pivot the discussion to
close-ended yes or no questions instead of open-ended productive talk.
Is This Active Or Passive Learning?
Whole class discussions are often criticized as creating passive learners. It’s seen as overly
teacher-centered. However, it differs from a fully teacher-centered approach because the teacher
encourages dialogue between students.
O’Connor et al (2017), for example, argue that when executed correctly, a whole class dialogue
can be “academically productive talk” that benefits students.
Conclusion
Whole class discussion is a pedagogical strategy that has its time and place. I often use it at the
beginning and ending of my lessons. I find a whole class reflection can help students to
compare their experiences at the end of a lesson, but small groups tend to be better in my
classrooms for the middle of a lesson.
Overall, teachers need to be careful to use this as one of many strategies in their pedagogical
toolbox, but can use this strategy regularly when the situation suits their students’ needs.

REFERENCES
Larrain, A., Howe, C., & Cerda, J. (2014). Argumentation in whole-class teaching and science
learning. Psykhe, 23(2), 1-15.
Myhill, D. (2006). Talk, talk, talk: Teaching and learning in whole class discourse. Research
papers in education, 21(1), 19-41.
O’Connor, C., Michaels, S., Chapin, S., & Harbaugh, A. G. (2017). The silent and the vocal:
Participation and learning in whole-class discussion. Learning and Instruction, 48, 5-13.
Reisman, A., Kavanagh, S. S., Monte-Sano, C., Fogo, B., McGrew, S. C., Cipparone, P., &
Simmons, E. (2018). Facilitating whole-class discussions in history: A framework for preparing
teacher candidates. Journal of teacher Education, 69(3), 278-293.

Q.2
(a) Explain cooperative learning principles.
Answer:
Cooperative learning is an educational approach which aims to organize classroom activities
into academic and social learning experiences. There is much more to cooperative learning than
merely arranging students into groups, and it has been described as "structuring positive
interdependence." Students must work in groups to complete tasks collectively toward academic
goals. Unlike individual learning, which can be competitive in nature, students learning
cooperatively can capitalize on one another's resources and skills (asking one another for
information, evaluating one another's ideas, monitoring one another's work, etc.). Furthermore,
the teacher's role changes
 General Cooperative Learning Principles
Instead of a noun, think of cooperative learning as a verb.
Sometimes called collaborative learning, it is delivering instruction through small groups,
empowering students to work together to build their understanding of topics and concepts.
There are five aspects of cooperative learning that drive its success, according to a
frequently-
Referenced review from the journal of theory into Practice:

Positive Interdependence: Students must see that each group member’s efforts are important
to both individual and team success.
Promotive Interaction: Students must empower each other by offering help, praise, feedback
and resources.
Accountability: Each student must accept responsibility for fulfilling his or her role, helping
the team reach its learning goals.
Soft Skills Instruction: Because students need to develop interpersonal skills to effectively
work together, you should give lessons and activities about teamwork.
Group Processing: As a group, students should strategize how to meet their learning goals.
These aspects work slightly differently depending on which type of cooperative learning you
use. There are strategies for each of the three types, which are outlined below.
1. Formal Cooperative Learning Strategies
Formal cooperative learning involves grouping students for a timeframe that lasts between a
single class and a few weeks.
Your role as a teacher focuses on designing the goals of the ongoing exercise, such as
completing an assignment. This involves structuring groups by selecting students who work
well together, yet have the range of strengths needed to reach objectives.
Here are four strategies to try:
a. Address Deviant Norms
It’s easy for unfavorable group norms -- unwritten rules -- to develop and spread, according to a
study from the Journal of Personality and Social Psychology.
Specifically, group norms continuously change as team members interact with one another,
potentially opening the door for bad habits. You may, for example, instruct students how to give
constructive feedback. But if one student begins to criticize others, his or her group members
may copy the behavior.
To facilitate positive interdependence, you must monitor group activity. When spotting the
development of harmful norms explain why they hurt cooperative learning and demonstrate a
solution.
In doing so, students will grow into supportive group members.
b. Assess Teamwork
Because cooperative learning requires clear communication and active collaboration between
group members, grading teamwork can motivate students to act properly.
When creating a product in groups, consider monitoring student activity to give marks for:
 Openly communicating
 Actively helping each other
 Frequently giving constructive feedback
 Consistently working to complete individual tasks
Placing this level of importance on proper group behaviour, your class should quickly learn the
processes needed to complete team tasks. If you're not familiar with them, consider different
formative assessment strategies to reinforce your approach.
c. Play a Trust Game
Playing trust games teaches the importance of teamwork and accountability -- essential
elements to the success of long-term learning groups.
For example, a variation of the trust fall activity can help each student build a connection with
his or her group members. Dividing the class based on their formal cooperative learning teams,
ask them to create a circle with one student standing in the middle. Once you give a signal, that
student must fall towards any group member, who will then catch him or her.

You can supplement these games by explaining important elements of group work, such as
active listening.
Such activities are not only fun, but allow group members to bond in a stress-free setting -- a
benefit frequently seen in classrooms where learning is gasified.
d. Use Relevant Scenarios when Applicable
When students tackle real-world problems that affect them, there’s clear potential for
engagement.
Classes that feature this kind of problem-based learning see higher attendance and better
attitudes, according to a medical education study. Although conducted with post-secondary
students, you can see similar enthusiasm from younger students as they collaboratively solve
relevant issues.
Plus, this approach can:
 Benefit students who struggle to grasp abstract concepts
 Save your time, as you won’t have to design and present artificial scenarios
 “Allow learning to become more profound and durable,” according to a 2015 book about
the pedagogy
Used selectively and when there’s a connection with curriculum topics, problem-based
instruction elements can create a more memorable cooperative learning experience.
2. Informal Cooperative Learning Strategies
This style of cooperative learning involves creating groups that, between a few minutes and an
entire class, work to achieve a shared and straightforward learning goal.
Due to inherent time constraints, your role is to give clear instruction and assign the completion
of a product, such as a written or spoken answer.
Here are four strategies to try:
a. Ask Divergent Questions
As students with diverse learning styles fill the classroom, you can mold cooperative learning
activities to their distinct aptitudes.
An oft-cited paper from Kansas State University indicates you should ask divergent questions.
These are questions with multiple answers that encourage creative responses, allowing students
to learn from each other’s perspectives. For example, “what’s the best way to study for a math
test?”
Based on each group's preference, the resulting product can be a:
 Short essay
 Lab assignment
 Concise slideshow or presentation
 Series of answers to different problems
This way, informal cooperative learning becomes a differentiated instruction strategy as well as
a way to build collaboration skills.
b. Use the Jigsaw Method
A favorite technique for many teachers, the jigsaw strategy encourages social interaction
between groups and gives each student a defined role within his or her team.
The method consists of dividing a task into subtasks, assigning one to each group member.
Students then work to become experts about the topics their subtasks cover. They can do so
through guided research, or holding discussions with students from other groups handling the
same subtask. They then return to their original groups to share new knowledge.
This approach teaches students how important individual contributions are to meeting group
goals.
c. Supplement and Expand New Concepts
Launch an informal learning exercise to reinforce key concepts in your lessons.
This tactic works especially well as a way of dividing long presentations, podcasts or movies.
Right after the lesson has introduced a new or interesting idea, divide students into groups.
Present them with problems to explore and questions to address that explicitly relate to the idea.
After, hold a class-wide discussion to present and process findings.
d. Hold Three Discussions per Activity
Due to the sometimes-sporadic nature of informal cooperative learning activities, holding three
discussions at set points can provide structure and keep students focused.
These discussions are:
Introductory-focused -- After dividing students into groups of two, three or four, explain what
questions they should answer or products they should produce. Then, state elements of
collaboration they should focus on, such as frequent feedback or finding resources for each
other to use.
Intermittent-focused -- For longer activities, designate 15-minute segments for each group
member to work alone. For example, they can each read a different primary source. At the end
of the segment, they can share their findings with each other and work to answer guiding
questions.
Closure-focused -- Either in groups or as an entire class, give students a discussion topic that
brings together seemingly-separate lesson elements. For example, students can spend five
minutes discussing key takeaway points, applying them to past lessons.
Keeping students on track with these three types of discussions, they should have a clear
understanding about how to achieve the activity's learning goals.
3. Cooperative Base Group Strategies
These groups last longer than formal cooperative learning teams, as members support each
other while striving to reach ambitious learning goals over the academic year.

Your role consists of creating groups of three or four, scheduling consistent meeting times and
detailing specific agendas for them. Filling knowledge gaps and helping students smoothly
collaborate is also involved.
Here are four strategies to try:
a. Introduce Technology that Streamlines Collaboration
Of the many ways to use technology in the classroom, some solutions bolster group
productivity.
To help base groups make the most of their time, consider giving brief tutorials about:
Online brainstorming -- There are websites students can use, such as MindMeister, to create
clear and detailed mind maps faster than written ones.
Cloud-based word processing -- Instead of exchanging documents for edits, students can use
online word processing tools -- such as Google Docs -- to craft collaborative written
assignments.
Educational games -- There are many games focused on engaging students and addressing
their trouble spots. For example, more than 100 million students use Prodigy Math -- a fun,
curriculum-aligned math game.
With digitally-savvy students, introducing these technologies shouldn’t be an issue.
b. Designate Roles
Working with students to designate unique roles ensures each group member has a purpose.
Throughout the year, base groups can have members who manage certain aspects of the
collaboration process. For example, one student can moderate discussions, one can collect
questions to address and another can present research findings.

Similar to the Jigsaw Method, you can also designate roles based on subject matter expertise.
When handling math, for example, the math expert will lead discussions and help group
members by answering questions and reviewing concepts.
By doing so, you’ll ensure each student plays an important role in helping each other reach
learning goals throughout the year.
c. Give a Pre- and Post-Task Test
To gauge how well base groups are doing, give a each student a test before and after working
together.
For example, students can complete a short quiz focusing on a specific group of math skills.
They can then meet with their base groups, focusing on those skills and the overarching topic.
After, give a similar quiz of equal difficulty.
Marks should improve. If not, consider spending more time with struggling base groups or
rearranging groups altogether.
The quantitative evidence you find will guide your approach to working with different base
groups, giving insight as to what successful and unsuccessful teams are doing differently.
d. Limit Scaffolding
Adjust the feedback and scaffolding you provide depending on where a base group is in a given
project, allowing for greater student control and responsibility. This approach underpins
experiential learning and active learning strategies.
 As a facilitator, closely monitor students when they start a project and:
 Offer directions
 Fill knowledge gaps
 Recommend supplementary resources
 Make yourself available to answer questions
As students become comfortable with the subject matter and are comfortably working towards
their learning goals, your focus should be to:

 Encourage them to initiate new ideas

 Ensure they are fulfilling their role requirements
 Allow them to take on leadership responsibilities, as in peer teaching
This approach will help you fulfill one of cooperative learning’s underlying purposes: having
students successfully take ownership of their academic development.

Final Thoughts about Using Cooperative Learning in Your Class

The principles and strategies in this guide can inform your approach to each type of cooperative
learning and help you manage your classroom. As a result, you should see students build
collaboration skills as they work to reach learning benchmarks.
You can anticipate seeing results outside of group scenarios, too.
Refined discussions, increased accountability and improved critical thinking skills are benefits
to which you can look forward.
Create or log into your teacher account on Prodigy — a fun and adaptive curriculum-aligned
math game that adjusts content to accommodate player trouble spots and learning speeds. And
it’s used by more than 2.5 million teachers and 100 million students.
Everyone succeeds when the group succeeds. Ross and Smyth (1995) describe successful
cooperative learning tasks as intellectually demanding, creative, open-ended, and involve higher
order thinking tasks. Cooperative learning has also been linked to increased levels of student
satisfaction.
Five essential elements are identified for the successful incorporation of cooperative learning in
the classroom:
 positive interdependence
 individual and group accountability
 promotive interaction (face to face)
 teaching the students the required interpersonal and small group skills
 group processing.
Five Basic Principles of Cooperative Learning
There are five fundamental elements involved in cooperative learning. In fact, these five
elements distinguish cooperative learning from other forms of group learning. These elements
can be thought of as pieces in a puzzle. When all of these elements are present in a learning
situation, the result is a cooperative learning group. The five basic elements of cooperative
learning are:
 Positive interdependence
 Individual and group accountability
 Interpersonal and small group skills
 Face-to-face promotive interaction
 Group processing

(b) Discuss different strategies of cooperative learning.

Answer:
According to Johnson and Johnson's meta-analysis, students in cooperative learning settings
compared to those in individualistic or competitive learning settings, achieve more, reason
better, gain higher self-esteem, like classmates and the learning tasks more and have more
perceived social support.
Cooperative Learning Strategies to Try Today
Let’s face it; there are a lot of cooperative learning strategies out there to choose from. The
most popular and most-utilized of the cooperative learning strategies is probably the Think-
Pair-Share technique. This is where students think about a topic or question, then pair up with a
classmate and share their thoughts about it. Educators use these types of cooperative learning
strategies in their classrooms because first, they get the students to work together in a team, and
second because they are an effective way for students to learn. However, it’s always a good idea
to try out a new strategy or two to change things up a bit. Here are five cooperative learning
strategies you probably haven’t tried yet.
1. Focused Listing Cooperative Learning Strategy
If you’re looking for a new brainstorming strategy then you’re going to love this one. The
focused listing strategy is designed for students to generate words to define or describe
something. For example, you would give the students a main topic, then ask them to create a list
of words or phrases that describe that topic. From there, you can put students into small groups
to discuss their lists or you can first put them into groups to generate the lists. Once the lists are
completed, you can use the list to help facilitate a small group or whole-group discussion. If you
are using the focused listing as a gateway to your lesson, then you can choose one list that all
students agree upon and use that.
2. One-Minute Papers
This strategy can be used to gather feedback from you students after a lesson is taught. First,
write the following questions on the front board and have students answer them by themselves.
 What was the most important thing you learned from the lesson?
 What is still unclear about the lesson? What questions do you still have?
 What is one thing about the topic that you want to know more about?
Next, put students together into groups to facilitate a discussion. Have students do a Round
Robin (take turns talking) and discuss each of their answers to the questions listed on the board.
Once students have all answered the questions, then have students figure out which answers
they have in common. They can then take this information and come up with the most popular
answer to each question, which they then can discuss with the class as a whole.

3. Uncommon Commonalities
If you are looking for a strategy that will help your students become more cohesive, then this is
a great one to try. Group students into teams of four and have them come up with a team name.
Give each team member a piece of paper and have them fold it the long way in fours and label
each section, 1, 2, 3, and 4 at the top.
Next, write a question on the front board, such as “How many siblings do you have?” The
teams’ goal is to discuss the question with their group and figure out what they all have in
common. If all four team members have one brother, then they will write that in column four, if
all three of them have one brother then they will write that in column three and so on. The
activity continues with each new question that is put on the board.
4. Forced Debate
This strategy requires students to use their communication skills to work within a group. Here’s
how it works: The teacher writes a proposition on the front board, such as “Should there be a
vending machine in the school cafeteria?” then the students who agree move to one side of the
classroom and the students who disagree move to other side. Once students are on one side of
the classroom, that is now their group. The teacher then forces them to debate the opposing side
that they have chosen.
This strategy really utilizes students’ critical thinking skills and forces them to really think
about the question as a whole in order to argue for the opposing side rather than what they
really feel about the question.
5. Cooperative Graffiti
Another great brainstorming technique to try is cooperative graffiti. This strategy requires
students to think about a topic and write down as many ideas as possible using different-colored
pens. To start, divide students into small groups and give each group a large, butcher block
piece of paper and a variety of colorful pens.

Write down a broad topic on the front board, and on your command “Go!”, instruct students to
write down as many ideas as they can that correlate with the topic you wrote on the board. Once
the time is up (about 5-10 minutes), then have students try and organize their colorful ideas into
categories.

Q.3
(a) Explain the importance and different types of set induction.
 Answer:
Set induction is about preparation, usually for a formal lesson. When the students are set, they
are ready to learn ('are you set?'). Set induction is thus about getting them ready, inducing them
into the right mind-set.
Sets are used before any new activity, from introduction of a new concept to giving homework.
It is important in each set both to create clarity about what is expected happen (both what you
will do and what they should do), and to create motivation for this to occur, with students being
fully engaged in the learning.
Set induction can be done by such as:
 Explaining potential benefits to the learner.
 Giving clear instructions.
 Describing what is going to happen.
The STEP acronym may be used to help remember what to do:
 Start: Welcome the students, settle them down and gain attention.
 Transact: Understand their expectations and explain yours. Link with previous learning.
 Evaluate: Assess the gap between their expectations and current reality. Clarify any
discrepancies for them.
 Progress: Move on to the main body of learning.
Perrott (1982) identified four purposes of set induction.
1. Focusing attention on what is to be learned by gaining the interest of students.
2. Moving from old to new materials and linking of the two.
3. Providing a structure for the lesson and setting expectations of what will happen.
4. Giving meaning to a new concept or principle, such as giving examples.
So if you are teaching, think about and prepare carefully for getting your students in the right
state of mind to be ready to understand and learn.

(b) Discuss the process of identifying learning difficulties of students.

Answer:
Many children have trouble reading, writing, or performing other learning-related tasks at some
point. This does not mean they have learning disabilities. A child with a learning disability
often has several related signs, and they don’t go away or get better over time. The signs of
learning disabilities vary from person to person.
Please note that the generally common signs included here are for informational purposes only;
the information is not intended to screen for learning disabilities in general or for a specific type
of learning disability.
Common signs that a person may have learning disabilities include the
following
 Problems reading and/or writing
 Problems with math
 Poor memory
 Problems paying attention
 Trouble following directions
 Clumsiness
 Trouble telling time
 Problems staying organized1
A child with a learning disability also may have one or more of the following
 Acting without really thinking about possible outcomes (impulsiveness)
 “Acting out” in school or social situations
 Difficulty staying focused; being easily distracted
 Difficulty saying a word correctly out loud or expressing thoughts
 Problems with school performance from week to week or day to day
 Speaking like a younger child; using short, simple phrases; or leaving out words in
sentences
 Having a hard time listening
 Problems dealing with changes in schedule or situations
 Problems understanding words or concepts
These signs alone are not enough to determine that a person has a learning disability. Only a
professional can diagnose a learning disability.
Each learning disability has its own signs. A person with a particular disability may not have all
of the signs of that disability.
Children being taught in a second language may show signs of learning problems or a learning
disability. The learning disability assessment must take into account whether a student is
bilingual or a second language learner. In addition, for English-speaking children, the
assessment should be sensitive to differences that may be due to dialect, a form of a language
that is specific to a region or group.

Q.4 Critically discuss different techniques of students' evaluation.

Answer:
Evaluation is the process of determining the worth of a program. A plan must be made to
accurate evaluate any type of program, whether it is a training course or concerns the
effectiveness of and customer satisfaction with a new product. Many different types and
methods of evaluation are available depending on the information that needs to be assessed.
Formative Evaluations
Formative evaluations are evaluations that occur during the process. These evaluations are used
to measure how well the process is proceeding overall and if changes are necessary. For
example, in an educational setting, a teacher may ask the students to write a short paper
reflecting on the topic just presented. The teacher can look at these reflections to determine if
the students understand the material and make changes in their instruction to help students as
they progress in the classroom.
Summative Evaluations
The summative evaluation occurs at the end of the program. The evaluation considers the
effectiveness of the program as a whole and makes suggestions to improve it. Businesses, for
example, may ask that consumers complete surveys and questionnaires after services have been
rendered to gather information. This information can help businesses learn if additional training
of its employees needs to be completed or if the products and services it offers meet the needs
of its clients.
Process Evaluation
Process evaluations focus on how a program was implemented and how it operates. The goal of
the process evaluation is to see if the program is meeting its intended goals. The evaluation
includes looking at how the program is delivered, the services it delivers and how it was carried
out. Process evaluation can determine why a program was successful or unsuccessful and
provides information such as whether the program can be replicated.
Impact Evaluation
Impact evaluations measure the program's effects and the overall effectiveness of realizing the
goals of the program. The most effective impact evaluations are those that occur over longer
periods of time as opposed to those programs that evaluate the immediate before and after of a
program. Long-term evaluations give a broader, more complete view of the outcomes of the
program. Impact evaluations tend to be more expensive due to the time frames involved,
according to the Minnesota Department of Health.
Outcome Evaluations
Outcome evaluations measure the short-term impact of implementing programs. The evaluation
gives information on how well the program is reaching its target audience. This can help gauge
the initial impact a program has and how the program is being received. The outcome
evaluation is able to assess the changing attitudes and knowledge of the target audience.

Q.5
(a) Discuss the use of different kinds of projected and non-projected aids
during lecture.
 Using non-projected visuals
Answer:
Teachers can use these for learners of all ages. They can involve groups to work collaboratively
to prepare a presentation, with drawings and charts.
There are many types of different charts: Organization charts, Classification charts, Time lines,
Tabular charts, and Flowcharts.
There are many types of graphs: Bar graphs, Pictorial graphs, Circle graphs, Line graphs.
Posters
Posters are easy to produce .They are used to catch and hold the viewer’s attention at least long
enough to communicate a brief message quickly for a new topic or a special event.

Cartoons
Cartoons are very popular and familiar visual design. Cartoons are also easily and quickly read
and appeal to learners of all ages. You can use cartoons to reinforce a point of instruction.
Limitation
-Durability: It is easy to damage with regular learner use it.
There is a problem to keep non-projected visuals- Storage.
-May be too small for group viewing: non-projected visuals are not suitable for use for group
because they are small.
Using non projected visuals in the classroom
1. Use visuals whenever possible to demonstrate ideas.
2. Present a single idea in each visual. Break down complex visuals into simpler ones or build
them up step-by-step.
3. Minimize text on each visual; maximum of six words per line and six lines per visual.
4. Cover irrelevant material with plain paper.
5. Use just one visual at time.
6. Teach your learners to understand visuals
7. Provide written cues to highlighted important information contained in the visuals.
 Advantages
* Readily available
* Inexpensive
* No equipment required
* Easy to use
* Available for all levels of instruction
* Available for all disciplines
* Simplification of complex ideas.
Non-projected media can make your instruction more realistic and engaging Posters, cartoons,
charts, pictures and graphs and what students produced by themselves can provide powerful
visual support for learning abstract ideas. The non-projected media can be presented in the
classroom or used as part of classroom activity. No need to use equipment for observation so
non-projected visual are easy to use.
Projected visual are detained as media design in which still images are enlarged and displayed
on a screen .The types of projected visuals that we can use in the classroom are software, digital
visuals and document cameras.
** Some general guidelines for using projected visuals
* Use visual variety.
* Rehearse your narration.
* Keep it moving and limit your discussion.
* Pause for discussion.
* Avoid irrelevant images.
* Test it visually.

The advantages for using projected visuals

· Easy to create and use
· Not projected for you and your students: It helps you on track
· Supports inclusion of multimedia
· Supports interactivity: it easy to go to any slide in the presentation
Or link one to included multimedia files
· Fields multiple formats: Using the mouse to create handouts,
Notes pages, and outlines.
** Limitation
* Just words: Many students are visual learners, so they may not
learn if there are not any visuals.
* Too much on one slide: Limit the number of words on each slide
up to 36 words.
* Too many “bells and whistles”: Irrelevant sounds can be
distracting.
Educational technology is often considered, erroneously, as synonymous with instructional
innovation. Technology, by definition, applies current knowledge for some useful purpose.
Therefore, technology uses evolving knowledge (whether about a kitchen or a classroom) to
adapt and improve the system to which the knowledge applies (such as a kitchen’s microwave
oven or educational computing). In contrast, innovations represent only change for change sake.
Given this distinction, it is easy to argue that educators are correct to resist mere innovation, but
they should welcome educational technology. Unfortunately, the history of educational
technology does not support this hypothesis.
Finally, non-projected media and materials is this time is very useful into the rural area which is
not been reach into the advancement of our technology and it is very important indeed only
seldom uses the projected media and materials.
On the other hand, projected media and material very often uses by rich and advance in
technology countries it’s important to them.

(b) Write down the advantages and disadvantages of multimedia.

Answer:
According to Burton. These are sensory objectives and images which stimulate and emphasis on
learning process. Carter V. Good. It is a trainable (motivation, classification and stimulation)
process of learning.
Objectives of Teaching Aids
1. To enhance teachers skills which help to make teaching-learning process effective
 2. Make learners active in the classroom
3. Communicate them according to their capabilities
4. Develop lesson plan and build interest
5. To make students good observer
6. Develop easy and understandable learning material
7. Follow child cornered learning process
8. Involve intimation in objectives
9. To create interest in different groups
10.To make teaching process more effective
Types
It can be classified simply on the bases of sensory experience. Because human beings derive
their experiences mainly through direct sensory contact. Keeping this in view, it can be
classified in to three main groups:
1. Audio Aids examples are Radio, Tape-recorder, Gramophone, Linguaphone, Audio
cassette player, Language laboratory
2. Visual Aids examples are Chart, Black and while board, Maps, Pictures, Models, Text-
books, Slide projector, Transparency, Flash-cards, Print materials etc.
3. Audiovisual Aids examples are LCD project, Film projector, TV, Computer, VCD player,
Virtual Classroom, Multimedia etc.
Advantages
1. Its helps to make learning process more effective and conceptual.
2. Its helps to grab the attention of students
3. It builds interest and motivation teaching students learning process
4. It enhance the energy level of teaching and students
5. It is even better for over burden classrooms
6. It provides students a realistic approach and experience
Disadvantages
1. Technical Problems
2. Students Distractions
 3. Expensive
4. Time consuming
5. Need Space
6. Convenience
Characteristics
1. Relevancy
2. Useful and purposeful teaching
3. Accuracy
4. Interest
5. Minimize verbalism
6. Comprehensibility
7. Motivation
8. Realism
Who can take benefit from Visual Aids
Though every children can take benefit while using visual aids for learning. But it is more
helpful for those students:
 Having Language Disorder
 Autism Spectrum Disorder
 Down Syndrome
 Those who have Learning Disabilities
 Student who have English as a secondary Language
 Those having Oppositional Defiant Disorder
 Personality Development Delay
 Have the problem of Hearing Impairment
 Have the symptoms of Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder ADHD
References:
1. Bloom B. S., Engelhart M. D., Furst E. J., Hill W. H., Krathwohl D. R. (1956).
Taxonomy of educational objectives: The classification of educational goals. New York,
NY: David McKay.
2. Brown, A.H., & Green T.D., (2015). The essentials of instructional design: Connecting
fundamental principles with process and practice. Routledge.
3. McIver, D., Fitzsimmons, S., Flanagan, D. (2016). A Knowledge-in-practice approach to
choosing instructional methods. Journal of Management Education Vol 40 Issue 1.
4. Nilson, L. (2016). Teaching at its best: A research-based resource for college instructors.
Jossey-Bass.
5. Barnes, Louis B., C. Roland Christensen, Abby J. Hansen, Teaching and the Case
Method: Text, Cases, and Readings Boston: Harvard Business School Press; 3rd edition,
1994