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Capítulo 4

Wind is caused by uneven heating of the Earth's surface and powers wind turbines. Wind speed increases with height and follows Hellmann's law. Most wind turbines are horizontal axis designs with two or three blades. The Betz limit states that wind turbines can extract at most 59% of the kinetic energy from wind. Wind power available is proportional to air density, turbine area, and cube of wind speed.

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0% found this document useful (0 votes)
48 views30 pages

Capítulo 4

Wind is caused by uneven heating of the Earth's surface and powers wind turbines. Wind speed increases with height and follows Hellmann's law. Most wind turbines are horizontal axis designs with two or three blades. The Betz limit states that wind turbines can extract at most 59% of the kinetic energy from wind. Wind power available is proportional to air density, turbine area, and cube of wind speed.

Uploaded by

Marisa Camacho
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
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Wind energy

Tecnologías del Medio Ambiente y Sostenibilidad II


Grado en Ingeniería Mecánica
2

Wind turbines https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=DILJJwsFl3w


3

The wind
Source of power

Wind is a moving mass of air that arises as a result of uneven warming of the Earth's
surface. It is the source of wind energy, through which we convert the kinetic energy of the
wind into mechanical energy to later generate electricity.

The main causes of the origin of the wind are:

‐ Solar radiation, which is more important in the Equator than at the poles

‐ Earth's rotation

‐ Atmospheric disturbances
4

The wind
5

Wind potential assessment


The characteristics of the wind to take into account are:
‐ Speed: collect historical data for at least one year with an anemometer.
‐ Predominant direction: collect historical data with a weather vane.
The compass Rose tells us how often the wind blows in a given direction and its average
velocity.
6

Wind potential assessment


The distribution or histogram of wind speeds in a place usually follows the Weibull
distribution. This equation is used to estimate the histogram of wind speed frequencies
when we only have the average wind speed in one place.

https://visor.grafcan.es/visorweb/

𝑘 𝑣 𝑣
𝑓 𝑣 𝑒𝑥𝑝
𝐴 𝐴 𝐴

f(v): probability of finding wind speed v


k: Form factor. If k = 2 we have the Rayleigh distribution, which can be used for rough estimates when we only
have the average wind speed.
v: Wind speed
A: scale factor. It is related to the average wind speed.
7

Wind speed
Hellmann’s Law
Wind speed varies with height, following Hellmann's Law. Anemometers are usually
installed 10 or 20 meters high, but wind turbines are usually placed 80 meters high or
more. Therefore, this equation allows us to calculate the wind speed at the height at which
we intend to install a wind turbine.

Vi: wind speed at height Zi


Vo: wind speed at height Zo
Zi: height at which we want to estimate the wind
speed
Zo: reference height
α: roughness of the terrain
8

Wind speed
Hellmann's law

α Description α Description
0,09 Open sea 0,16 Areas with few obstacles: 6‐8 m
0,12 Open agricultural areas 0,20 Areas with many obstacles: 6‐8m
0,30 Urban areas and forests
9

Technical datasheet of a wind turbine


Characteristic wind speeds
Cut‐in speed: 2‐4 m/s. It is the wind speed above which energy is generated.
Rated speed: is the wind speed for which the wind turbine reaches its rated power. Above
this speed the power extracted from the wind is kept constant.
Cut‐out speed: 25‐30 m/s. It is the speed above which the wind machine is disconnected
for safety. It is usually 25 m/s on land and 30 m/s at sea.
10

Types of wind turbines


Vertical axis Horizontal axis
1% of the total 99% of the total
Savonius 2 Blades
Daerrius 3 Blades
Daerrius‐Savonius Multiblade

Savonius: Daerrius: Daerrius‐Savonius:


Low noise
Greater efficiency than Savonius Combination of the other types
Slow
Low power Ground‐level generator
Suitable for areas with Need to control speed to achieve
mild wind adequate performance
It doesn't start or stop alone
11

Types of wind turbines


Horizontal axis
Windward: Higher efficiency
because there is no interaction
of the wind with the tower, but it
needs a directional fin or
orientation system because it
cannot autonomously align with
the wind.

Lenta

2 Blades 3 Blades
Lower cost Higher aerodynamic force compensation
Easier to install More uniform torque
Needs tilting bushing Greater mechanical stability
+ Rotation speed
+ Noise
12

Wind power
The wind power available through an area of section A perpendicular to the wind flow v is
given by the flow of kinetic energy per unit time:

- 𝑚 is the mass flow rate of air (can also be expressed as Qm)


‐ ρ is the density of the air. Normally 1,225 kg/m3 (at 15 ºC and 1 atm).
‐ Pd is the available power of the wind
‐ A is the surface on which the wind strikes (m2)
‐ v is the wind speed (m/s)

Notice: air density varies as a function of pressure and temperature according to the Law
of Perfect Gases. Since pressure and temperature vary with altitude, the density of air can
be calculated as follows (equation valid up to 6000 m height):
𝜌 𝜌 1,194 10 𝐻
13

Wind power

The useful wind power (Pa or Pu) is the wind


power that can be extracted or captured
from the wind by a wind turbine.
Wind turbines cannot extract all the kinetic
energy contained in the wind. The reasons
are:
‐ Because this would involve stopping the
wind completely. According to the Betz
Limit, at most, a wind turbine can extract
59% of the energy from the wind.
‐ Because part of the energy is lost in the
process of transforming the energy in the
wind turbine (machine performance).
14

Betz limit

For a current tube like the one schematized in the figure. It shall be assumed that windward of
the propeller, the wind has a speed v1 (undisturbed wind speed) in the cross section A1, while
the speed v2 corresponds to the cross section A2 leeward of the area in which the propeller is
located. In the plane containing the propeller, the cross section beaten by the propeller (rotor
area) is an imaginary disk of area A, where v is the wind speed at it (useful speed).
We assimilate the helix to an A‐area disk that captures part of the energy of the moving air that
reaches it, that is, v2 < v < v1.
The mass flow rate (Qm o 𝑚) is constant (conservation of mass), that is:

This explains why the current tube widens behind the


turbine, as v2 < v < v1, then A2 > A >A1

Note: The air mass: m = ρ∙A∙d, being d the distance


travelled. Remember that v = d/t
15

Betz limit
We can express the useful power transferred by the wind to the turbine in two ways:
1. Loss, per unit of time, of the kinetic energy of the wind as it passes through the propeller:
1 1
𝛥𝐸 𝐸 𝐸 𝑚 𝑣 𝑣 𝜌 𝐴 𝑑 𝑣 𝑣 1
𝑃 2 2 𝜌 𝐴 𝑣 𝑣 𝑣 1
𝛥𝑡 𝛥𝑡 𝛥𝑡 Δ𝑡 2

2. Work generated, per unit of time, by the force of the wind over area A. According to Newton's
Law, F = m∙a, where a = v/t:

𝑃 F 𝑣 𝑣 𝑚 𝑎 𝑣 𝑣 𝜌 𝐴 𝑑 𝑣 𝑣 =𝜌 𝐴 𝑣 𝑣 𝑣 2

Equalizing equations 1 and 2:

To ensure that equality is fulfilled:

3
16

Wind power: Betz’s Law


We know that v2 = b∙v1, where b is a number between 0 and 1, since v2 must be lower tan
v1. Substituting in, for example, equation 1:

1 1 𝑣 𝑏𝑣
𝑃 𝜌 𝐴 𝑣 𝑣 𝑣 𝜌 𝐴 𝑣 𝑏 𝑣
2 2 2
1 4
𝜌 𝐴 𝑣 1 𝑏 1 𝑏
4
The maximum power value will be obtained for dPutil/db = 0. Then:

𝑏 1 It doesn't make physical sense


3𝑏 2𝑏 1 0
𝑏 1/3

Remember. To find the roots of a second‐degree polynomial:

Substituting the value of b into equation 4:

The ideal theoretical maximum


coefficient of a wind turbine is:
17

The power coefficient


The wind power extracted or captured from the wind by the rotor of the machine is
known as Useful Power (Pa or Pu).
The conversion performance is described by a Power Coefficient (Cp) defined as the ratio
of the extracted power and that available (Cp = Pa/Pd). It is the fraction of the kinetic
energy of the wind converted into rotational kinetic energy in the rotor of the wind
turbine.
A wind turbine can convert into mechanical energy a maximum of 59% of the kinetic
energy of the wind that impacts on it.
The power coefficient of the wind turbine is the result of multiplying the maximum power
coefficient described by Betz (59% or 16/27) by the mechanical and electrical
performances of the system.
𝐶 𝐶 𝜂 𝜂
Therefore, Pu It is calculated as follows:

𝟏 𝑩𝒆𝒕𝒛 𝟏
𝑷𝒖 𝑪𝒑 𝝆 𝑨 𝒗𝟑 𝜼𝒆 𝜼𝒎 𝑪 𝒑 𝝆 𝑨 𝒗𝟑
𝟐 𝟐
Being v the wind speed before the wind turbine and A the area swept by the wind turbine
blades (A = πD2/4).
18

Energy generated by the wind turbine


The annual productivity of a wind turbine can be
calculated as follows:

Where:
‐ 8760 are the hours in a year
‐ P(v) is the power (kW) produced
by the wind turbine at wind speed
v obtained from the power curve
provided by the wind turbine
manufacturer
‐ f(v) is the Weibull statistical
distribution function of wind speed
frequency at the installation site.
19

Other parameters
Capacity factor, CF or FC
It is the percentage of energy actually produced in a period of time compared to the
theoretically producible energy if the wind turbine had been working at rated power
throughout the period. For an average zone it is ≈ 28%.

Equivalent hours or equivalent time, te


It is the number of hours that a wind turbine would have to work at the rated power,
Pn, to produce the same amount of energy in the considered period. It is the energy
obtained divided by the nominal power. For an average zone it is ≈ 2500 equivalent
hours/year.
20

Legislation
Regulation of the installation and operation of wind farms in the
Canary Islands
https://www3.gobiernodecanarias.org/juriscan/ficha.jsp?id=72109

Article 29.‐ Distances from wind turbines to homes or other wind turbines.

1. As a general rule, the minimum distance between two wind turbines on the same line shall not be less than
two (2) rotor diameters and the distance between two lines of the same wind farm shall be at least five (5)
rotor diameters.

2. When the applicable planning does not impose greater separations, the distance between a wind turbine
and an inhabited nucleus shall not be less than 250 meters for wind turbines with a power of less than 900 kW
and 400 meters for wind turbines with a higher power.

Article 31.‐ Energy efficiency and energy quality.

The machines that are installed in the Canary Islands must have certification, from an entity that has
accreditation granted by ENAC or another accrediting entity according to the UNE EN 45011 standard, of the
conformity of wind installations, in compliance with the general criteria for the protection of electrical systems.
21

Energía eólica
Ejercicios
Ejercicio 1: Un constructor ofrece un aerogenerador eléctrico de 3,2 metros de diámetro, que
según las especificaciones desarrolla una potencia de 400 W bajo un viento de 7m/s. Durante el
funcionamiento nominal, el rendimiento del generador utilizado es de 80% y el del engranaje de
transmisión de 95%. ¿Con qué factor de potencia trabaja el rotor durante el funcionamiento
nominal si prescindimos de las demás pérdidas del sistema?

Ejercicio 2: Disponemos comercialmente de un aerogenerador que tiene una altura de buje de


60 m y un diámetro de 25 m. En el lugar donde se va a instalar, la velocidad del viento medida a
15 m sobre el nivel del terreno es 8,1 m/s y el terreno presenta una rugosidad de 0,2. Calcular la
velocidad del viento a 60 m.

Ejercicio 3: Queremos conocer la potencia eléctrica de un aerogenerador cuyo rendimiento


global es del 90% con una velocidad del viento de 5 m/s y diámetro de 5 m.

Ejercicio 4: Un aerogenerador de 300 kW de potencia nominal tiene un coste aproximado de


900 €/kW. Suponemos que la vida útil de la instalación es de n = 20 años y la tasa de retorno TIR
= i/(1‐(1+i)‐n). Calcular los costes de capital por cada kWh, sabiendo además que la tasa de
interés, i, es del 7%, y que el factor de capacidad es 0,25. Calcular los costes de operación y
mantenimiento que corresponden al 2% de la inversión inicial. Indicar si es viable o no la
inversión.
22

Energía eólica
Ejercicios
Ejercicio 5: Un aerogenerador está ubicado en una zona de vientos dominantes del noroeste con
velocidades medias de 40 km/h. El radio de las palas es de 7 m y el coeficiente de
aprovechamiento es Cp= 0 3.
a) Determinar la potencia total incidente en las palas.
b) Determinar la potencia eléctrica generada.
Dato: densidad del aire = 1,293 kg/m3

Ejercicio 6: Un aerogenerador sitúa sus paletas a una altura de 25 m donde el viento sopla con
una velocidad media de 45 km/h. El radio de las palas es de 7 m y el coeficiente de
aprovechamiento es Cp = 0 4. Calcular:
a) La potencia generada si las hélices tienen un radio de 5m.
b) El radio de las hélices necesario para generar una potencia de 50kW.
Dato: densidad del aire = 1,293 kg/m3
23

Energía eólica
Ejercicios
Ejercicio 7: Disponemos de los siguientes datos anuales de un anemómetro ubicado a 5 metros
de altura:
‐ Velocidad del viento: 20 km/h
‐ Dirección predominante del viento: N
‐ Coeficiente de rugosidad: 0,16
‐ Frecuencia del viento: 75%

Se pretende instalar un aerogenerador que presenta las siguientes características:


‐ Diámetro 50 metros
‐ Alturas 78 90 ó 100 metros
‐ Rendimiento 0,95

a) ¿Qué altura del aerogenerador sería a la que obtendremos más energía? ¿Y cuánto sería la
energía que podemos obtener en un año?

b) Si la velocidad del viento fuera 25 m/s, ¿que cantidad de energía obtendríamos?


24

Energía eólica
Ejercicios
Ejercicio 8: Se pretende instalar un aerogenerador que presenta las siguientes características:
‐ Diámetro: 97 m
‐ Altura: 78 m
‐ Coeficiente de potencia: 0,48

Se puede ubicar en dos zonas:


Zona 1: tiene 10 días de viento continuo a una velocidad de 10 m/s
Zona 2: tiene 5 días de viento continuo a una velocidad de 15 m/s y 5 días sin viento

a) ¿Qué potencia y energía se obtendría en cada zona?

b) Existe una tercera zona con los siguientes datos:


‐ Velocidad del viento durante 3 días 25 m/s
‐ Velocidad del viento durante 5 días 10 m/s
‐ Días sin viento: 2 días

c) ¿Qué cantidad de energía obtendríamos?

d) ¿Cuál de las tres zonas es la idónea para ubicar el aerogenerador?

Dato: en las tres zonas el coeficiente de rugosidad es 0,16.


25

Energía eólica
Ejercicios
Ejercicio 9: En cuánto habría que aumentar el diámetro de un rotor ideal para obtener la doble
potencia bajo un mismo viento?

Ejercicio 10: ¿Qué diámetro mínimo deberá tener el rotor de un aerogenerador que desarrolle 5
kW de potencia bajo un viento de 8 m/s? Suponer que el coeficiente de potencia de la máquina
eólica es de 0,5.

Ejercicio 11: Un aerogenerador trabaja


según la curva de potencia bajo las
condiciones de viento dadas por la gráfica
adjunta.
¿Cuál es el diámetro del aerogenerador?
Cuando se alcanza la potencia nominal, el
factor de aprovechamiento es del 38%.
26

Energía eólica
Ejercicios
Ejercicio 12: Queremos ubicar un parque eólico en un emplazamiento del cual disponemos
datos de velocidad, datos correspondientes a un año de medición, y son las siguientes:
Velocidad (m/s) Frecuencia (%)
1 8,51
5 20,96
10 45,35
15 9,82
20 0,86
25 4,5
30 10,0

El aerogenerador a instalar es ENERCOM E 82 2 MW cuyo precio de referencia (ficticio) es


1680000 €/ud.

a) ¿Cuál es el coste por kWh?

b) Calcular el factor de carga, las horas equivalentes, la potencia media desarrollada y tiempo
parado.
27

Energía eólica
Ejercicios
28

Energía eólica
Ejercicios
Ejercicio 13: Un promotor eólico quiere ubicar un parque eólico en una zona cuya velocidad
media anual es de 12,80 m/s a la altura del rotor, según el mapa eólico de la zona El
aerogenerador que quiere instalar el promotor es un Ecotecnia 80 2 MW, que tiene una
potencia nominal de 2,0 MW y un diámetro de 80 m. La curva de potencia de este
aerogenerador se muestra en la gráfica a continuación:
29

Energía eólica
Ejercicios
Ejercicio 13:

a) Calcular la producción de energía anual del aerogenerador.

b) Para conseguir datos más fiables, el promotor decide poner una torre anemométrica en la
zona y medir durante un año. Esta campaña de mediciones da como resultado los siguientes
datos de velocidad del viento a la altura del rotor en esa ubicación:
Velocidad (m/s) Frecuencia (%)
5 21
10 32
15 37
20 10

Con estos nuevos datos, calcular la producción de energía anual y compara razonadamente los
resultados de ambos apartados.

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