CE 106 Construction Materials and Testing Module No.

c CHAPTER 8

CONCRETE
OVERVIEW

Civil and Construction Engineers are directly responsible for the quality control of concrete and the
proportions of the components used in it. The quality of the concrete is governed by the chemical
composition of the Portland cement, hydration and development of the microstructure, admixtures
and aggregate characteristics.

OBJECTIVES

At the end of this module, you will be able to;

1. Learn the proportioning of Concrete Mixes

2. Know the different basic steps for determining concrete mix design
3. Learn the process Mixing and Handling fresh concrete
4. Understand the importance of concrete curing
5. Classify some of the known testing methods to evaluate a hardened concrete

DEFINITION

How a concrete structure performs throughout its service life is largely affected by the methods
of mixing, transporting, placing and curing the concrete in the field. In fact, the ingredients of “good”
concrete may be the same as those of a “bad” concrete. However, the difference is the expertise of
the engineer and technicians who are handling the concrete during construction.

Because of advances made in concrete technology in past few decades, concrete can be
used in many more applications. There are alternatives to conventional concrete, such as lightweight
concrete, high-strength concrete, polymer concrete, fiber-reinforced concrete, and roller-
compacted concrete. This chapter covers basic principles of conventional concrete: proportioning,
mixing, handling, curing, and testing.

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CE 106 Construction Materials and Testing Module No. 8

PROPORTIONING OF CONCRETE MIXES

The properties of concrete depend on the mix proportions and the placing and curing methods.
Designers generally specify or assume a certain strength or modulus of elasticity of the concrete when
determining structural dimensions.

The proportioning of the concrete mix affects its properties in both the plastic and solid states.
During plastic state, the engineer is concerned with the workability and finishing characteristics of
concrete. Properties of the hardened concrete important to the engineer are the strength, modulus
elasticity, durability, and porosity. Strength is generally the controlling design factor.

These three qualities are required for properly proportioned concrete mixtures:

1. Acceptable workability of freshly mixed concrete

2. Durability, strength, and uniform appearance of hardened concrete
3. Economy

The engineer must determine the proportions of cement, water, fine and coarse aggregates, and
the use of admixtures. The Weight method provides relatively simple techniques for estimating mix
proportions using an assumed or know unit weight of concrete. The Absolute volume method uses the
specific gravity of each ingredient to calculate the unit volume will occupy in a unit volume of
concrete.

STEPS FOR WEIGHT/ABSOLUTE VOLUME METHODS

1. Evaluate strength requirements

2. Determine the water-cement ratio required.
3. Evaluate coarse aggregate requirements
a. Maximum aggregate size of the coarse aggregate
b. Quantity of coarse aggregate
4. Determine air entrainment requirements
5. Evaluate workability requirements of plastic concrete
6. Estimate the water content requirements of the mix
7. Determine the cement content and type needed.
8. Evaluate the need and application rate of admixtures
9. Evaluate fine aggregate requirements
10. Determine moisture corrections
11. Make and test trial mixes

MIXING AND HANDLING FRESH CONCRETE

The proper batching, mixing and handling of fresh concrete are important pre-requirements for strong
and durable concrete structures.

Batching is measuring and introducing the concrete ingredients into the mixer. Batching by
weight is more accurate than batching by volume since weight batching avoids the problem created
by bulking of damp sand. On the other hand, batching by volume is commonly used with continuous
mixers and when hand mixing.

Concrete should be mixed thoroughly either in a mixer or by hand until it becomes uniform in
appearance. Hand mixing usually limited to small jobs or where mechanical mixers are not available.
Mechanical mixers include on-site mixers and central mixers in ready mix plants. The capacity of these
mixers varies from 1.5m3 to 9m3.

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Mixing time and number of revolutions vary with the size and type of the mixer. Specifications
usually require a minimum of 1 minute of mixing for stationary mixers of up to 0.75m 3 of capacity, with
an increase of 15 seconds for each additional 0.75m3 of capacity.

READY MIXED CONCRETE. Ready mixed concrete is mixed in a central plant, and delivered to the job
site in mixing trucks ready for placing. Three methods can be used for ready mixed concrete:

 Central mixed concrete is mixed completely in a stationary mixer and delivered in a truck
(2rpm-6rpm)
 Shrink mixed concrete is partially mixed in a stationary mixer and completed in a mixer truck
 Truck-mixed concrete is mixed completely in a mixer truck (4rpm-16rpm)

Truck manufacturers usually specify the speed of

rotation for their equipment. Also, specifications
limit the number of revolutions in a truck mixer in
order to avoid segregation. Furthermore, the
concrete should be discharged at the job site
within 90mins from start of mixing, even if retarders
are used (ASTM C94).

MOBILE BATCHER MIXED CONCRETE. Concrete can

be mixed in a mobile batcher mixer at the job site.
Aggregates, cement, water and admixtures are
fed continuously by volume, and the concrete is
usually pumped into the forms.

PUMPED CONCRETE. It is frequently used for large construction projects. Special pumps delivered the
concrete directly into the forms. Careful attentions must be exercise to ensure well-mixed concrete
with proper workability. The slump should be between 40mm to 100mm (1 ½ in to 4 in) before pumping.
During the pumping, the slump decreases by about 12mm to 12mm (½ in to 1 in) due to partial
compaction.

VIBRATION OF CONCRETE. Quality concrete requires thorough consolidation to reduce the entrapped
air in the mix. On small jobs, consolidation can be accomplished manually by ramming and tamping
the concrete. For large jobs, vibrators are used to consolidate the concrete. Internal vibrators are the
most common type used on construction projects. Although over-vibration causes segregation as the
mortar migrates to the surface.

MEASURING AIR CONTENT. Air content can be measured with pressure, volumetric, gravimetric, or
Chace air indicator methods.

The pressure method (ASTM C321) is widely used since it takes less time than the volumetric
method. This method is based on Boyle’s law, which relates pressure to volume. The applied pressure
in a calibrated cylinder compresses the air in the voids of concrete. The volume of air voids is
determined by measuring the amount of volume reduced by the pressure applied.

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The volumetric method (ASTM C173) can be used for concrete made with
any type of aggregates. The accuracy of this method depends on
agitating the sample enough to remove all the air from it.

The gravimetric method (ASTM C138) compares the unit weigh of freshly
mixed concrete to the theoretical maximum unit weight of the mix. This
method requires very accurate specific gravity measurements and thus is
more suited to the laboratory than the field.

The Chace air indicator test (AASTHO T199) is a

quick method used to determine air content of freshly
mixed concrete. This test can be used to rapidly monitor
air content, but it is not precises, nor does It have the
repeatability required for specification control.

CURING OF CONCRETE

Curing is the process of maintaining satisfactory moisture content and temperature in the concrete
for a definite period of time. Once curing stops, the concrete dries out, and the strength gain stops as
indicated in figure.

Curing should start after the final set of cement. If concrete is

not cured after setting, concrete will shrink, causing cracks.
Curing can be performed by:

1. Maintaining the presence of water in the concrete

during early ages. Methods to maintain the water pressure
include pounding or immersion, spraying or fogging and wet
coverings
2. Preventing loss of mixing water from the concrete by
sealing the surface. Methods to prevent water loss include
impervious papers or plastic sheets, membrane-forming
compounds, and leaving forms in place.

3. Accelerating the strength gain by supplying heat and additional moisture to the concrete.
Accelerated curing methods include steam curing, insulating blankets or covers, and various
heating techniques.

Note that preventing loss of mixing water from the concrete by sealing the surface is not as effective
as maintaining the pressure of water in the concrete during early stages. The choice of the specific
curing method depends on the availability of curing materials, size and shape of structure, in place
versus plant production, economics and aesthetics.

PONDING OR IMMERSION. Ponding involves covering the exposed surface of the concrete structure
with water. It can be achieved by forming earth dikes around the concrete surface to retain water.
This method is suitable for flat surfaces such as floors and pavements especially for small jobs.
Immersion is used to cure test specimens in the laboratory, as well as the other concrete members, as
appropriate.

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SPRAYING OR FOGGING. A system of nozzles or sprayers can be used to provide continuous spraying
or fogging. This method requires a large amount of water and could be expensive. It is most suitable
in high-temperature and low humidity environments.

WET COVERINGS. Moisture-retaining fabric coverings saturated with water, such as burlap, cotton
mats, and rugs are used in many applications. The fabric can be kept wet either by periodic watering
or covering the fabric with polyethylene film to retain moisture.

IMPERVIOUS PAPERS OR PLASTIC SHEETS. Evaporation of moisture from concrete can be reduced using
impervious papers, such as kraft papers or plastic sheets, such as polyethylene film. Impervious papers
are suitable for horizontal surfaces and simply shaped concrete structures, while plastic sheets are
effective and easily applied to various shapes.

MEMBRANE-FORMING COMPOUNDS. These can be used to cure fresh concrete, as well as hardened
concrete, after removal of forms or after moist curing. Curing compounds can be applied b hand or
by using spray equipment. Curing compounds should not be used when subsequent concrete layers
are to be placed since the compound hinders the bond between successive layers.

FORMS LEFT IN PLACE. Loss of moisture can be reduced by leaving the forms in place as long as
practical, provided that the top concrete exposed surface is kept wet. If wood forms are used, the
forms should also be kept wet. After removing the forms, another curing method can be used.

STEAM CURING. It is used when early strength gain in concrete is required or additional heat is needed
during cold weather. Steam curing can be attained with or without pressure. Steam at atmospheric
pressure is used for enclosed cast-in-place structure and large precast members. High-pressure steam
in autoclaves can be used at small manufactured plants.

INSULATING BLANKETS OR COVERS. When temperature falls below freezing, concrete should be
insulated using layers of dry, porous material such as hay or straw. Insulating blankets manufactured
of fiber glass, cellulose fibers, sponge rubber, mineral wool, vinyl foam or open-cell polyurethane can
be used to insulate formwork.

ELECTRICAL, HOT OIL AND INFRARED CURING. Precast concrete sections can be cured using electrical,
oil, or infrared curing techniques. Electrical includes electrically heated steel forms, and heated
blankets. Reinforcing steel can be used as heating element, and concrete can be used as the
electrical conductor. Steel forms can also by heated by circulating hot oil around the outside of
structure. Infrared rays have been used for concrete curing on a limited basis.

CURING PERIOD

The curing period should be as long as is practical. The minimum time depends on several factors,
such as type of cement, mixture proportions, required strength, ambient weather, size and shape of
structure. For most concrete structures, the curing period at temperatures above 400F should be a
minimum of 7 days or until 70% of specified compressive or flexure strength is attained. The curing
period can be reduced to 3 days if high early strength concrete is used and temperature is above
50oF.

PROPERTIES OF HARDENED CONCRETE

It is important for the engineer to understand the basic properties of hardened Portland cement
concrete and to be able to evaluate these properties. The main properties of hardened concrete
that are interest to civil engineers include the early volume change, creep, permeability and stress-
strain relation.

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CE 106 Construction Materials and Testing Module No. 8

EARLY VOLUME CHANGE

When the cement paste is still plastic, it undergoes a slight decrease in volume of about 1%. This
shrinkage is known as plastic shrinkage and is due to the loss of water from the cement paste either
from evaporation or from suction by dry concrete below the fresh concrete. Plastic shrinkage may
cause cracking; it can be prevented or reduced by controlling water loss.

In addition to the possible decrease in volume when the concrete is still plastic, another from of volume
change may occur after setting, especially at early ages. If concrete is not properly cured and
allowed to dry, it will shrink. This shrinkage is referred to as drying shrinkage, and also causes cracks.
On the other hand, if concrete is cured continuously in water after setting, concrete will swell dry very
slightly due to the absorption of water. Since swelling, if it happens, is very small, it does not cause
significant problems. Swelling is accompanied by a slight increase in weight.

CREEP PROPERTIES

Creep is defined as the gradual increase in strain, with time, under sustained load. Creep of concrete
is a long-term process, and it takes place over many years. Although the amount of creep in concrete
is relatively small, it could affect the performance of structures. The effect of creep varies with the type
of the structure. In simply supported reinforced concrete beams, creep increases the deflection and,
therefore increases the stress in the steel. In reinforced concrete columns, creep results in a gradual
transfer of load from concrete to steel.

PERMEABILITY

Permeability is an important factor that largely affects the durability of hardened concrete.
Permeable concrete allows water and chemicals to penetrate, which in turn, reduces the resistance
of the concrete structure to frost, alkali-aggregate reactivity, and other chemical attacks.
Furthermore, impervious concrete is a prerequisite in watertight structures, such as tanks and dams.

Increasing the water-cement ratio in fresh concrete has a sever effect on permeability. The figure
shows the typical reaction between the water-cement ratio and the coefficient of permeability of
mature cement paste.

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Stress-Strain Relation

Typical stress-strain relations of 28-day old concrete with different water-cement ratios are shown
below. It can be seen that increasing the water-cement ratio, decreases both strength and stiffness
of the concrete. The figure also shows that the stress-strain relation is close to linear at low stress levels,
then becomes nonlinear.

The elastic limit is defined as the largest stress that does not cause a measurable permanent strain.
Since concrete is no perfectly elastic, the rate of loading effects the stress-strain relation to some
extent. Therefore, a specific rate of loading is required for testing concrete.

Poisson’s ratio can be determined and used in advanced structural analysis of shell-roofs, flat-plate
roofs, and mat foundations. Poisson’s ratio of concrete varies between 0.11 and 0.21, depending on
aggregate type, moisture content, concrete age and compressive strength. A value of 0.15 to 0.20 is
commonly used.

The modulus of elasticity of concrete is commonly used in designing concrete structures. It increases
when the compressive strength increases, as demonstrated to the figure above. For normal weight,
the modulus of elasticity is being calculated as:

Ec = 𝟒𝟕𝟎𝟎 𝒇′𝒄 (for SI) Where: Ec = modulus of elasticity

F’c = compressive strength

TESTING OF HARDENED CONCRETE

Many tests are used to evaluate the hardened concrete properties either in the laboratory or in the
field. Some of these tests are destructive, while others are non- destructive. They are mostly conducted
to control the quality of concrete and to check specification compliance.

Compressive Strength Test

This test is most commonly performed on hardened concrete. The compressive strength f’c of normal-
weight concrete is between 21 MPA to 34 MPA (3000 psi – 5000 psi). The test is performed on cylindrical
specimens and being prepared either in lab or field, respectively. Using a testing machine, specimens
are tested by applying axial compressive load with a specific rate of loading unit failure. The
compressive strength of specimen is determined by diving the maximum load carried by the
specimen during the test by the average cross-sectional area. The number of specimens and the
number of test batches depend on established practice and the nature of the test program. Usually,
three or more specimens are tested for each test age and test condition. Test ages often used are 7
and 28 days.

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Split-Tension Test

The split-tension test measures the tensile strength of concrete. In this test, a 0.15m by 0.30m concrete
cylinder is subjected to a compressive load at a constant rate along the vertical diameter until failure.
Failure of the specimen occurs along its vertical diameter due to tension developed in the transverse
direction. The split tensile strength is computed as

𝟐𝑷
T=
𝝅𝑳𝒅

Where: T = tensile strength MPA (psi)

F = load at failure, N (psi)
L = length of specimen, mm (in)
d = diameter of specimen, mm (in)

Flexure Strength Test

The flexure strength test is important for design and construction of road and airport concrete
pavements. The specimen is prepared in the lab or field, respectively. The sample must have a square
cross-section and a span of three times the specimen depth. Typical dimensions are 0.15m by 0.15m
CA and 0.45m span. The flexure strength (modulus of rupture) is calculated as:

𝑷𝑳
R=
𝒃𝒅𝟐

Where: R = flexure strength MPA (psi)

P = maximum load applied, N (psi)
L = span length, mm (in)
b = average width of specimen, mm (in)
d = diameter of specimen, mm (in)

Rebound Hammer Test

The rebound hammer test, also known as Schmidt

hammer test, a nondestructive test performed on
hardened concrete to determine the hardness of
the surface. The hardness of the surface can be
correlated to some extent to the concrete strength.
The rebound hammer is commonly used to get an
indication of the concrete strength. The device is
about 0.3m long and encloses a mass and a spring.
The spring-loaded mass is released to hit the
surface of the concrete. The mass rebounds and
the amount of rebound is read on a scale
attached to the device. The larger the rebound,
the harder the concrete surface, and therefore, the
greater the strength.

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Rebound hammer results are also affected by several other factors such as local vibrations, the
existence of coarse aggregate particles at the surface, and the existence of voids near the surface.
To reduce the effect of these factors, it is desirable to average only 10 to 12 readings from different
points in the test area.

Penetration Resistance Test

This test is also known as the Windsor Probe test. The instrument is a gun-like device that shoots probes
into the concrete surface in order to determine its strength. The amount of penetration of probe in the
concrete is inversely related to the strength of concrete. The test is almost nondestructive sine It
creates small holes in the concrete surface.

The device is equipped with a special template with three holes, which is placed on the concrete
surface, the test is performed in each of the holes. The average of the penetrations of the three probes
through these holes is determined using a scale and a special plate. The penetration resistance test is
expected to provide better strength estimation than the rebound hammer, since the penetration
resistance measurement is made not just at the surface but also in the depth of the sample.

Ultrasonic Pulse Velocity Test

The ultrasonic pulse velocity test measures the velocity of an ultrasonic wave passing through the
concrete. In this test, the path length between transducers is divided by the travel time to determine
the average velocity of wave propagation. This test is used to detect cracks, discontinuities, or internal
deterioration in the structure of concrete.

Maturity Test

Maturity of concrete mixture is defined as the degree of

cement hydration, which varies as a function of both time
and temperature. Therefore, it is assumed that for a
particular concrete mixture, strength is a function of
maturity. Maturity meters have been developed to provide
an estimate of concrete strength by monitoring the
temperature of concrete with time. This test is performed on
fresh concrete and continued for several days. This test must
be calibrated for each concrete mix.

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REFERENCES

Kenneth N. Derucher, et al. Materials for Civil and Highway Engineers, 1994, 3rd Edition,
Prentice Hall International

Moore & Moore, Materials for Engineering, International Edition

Michael S. Mamlouk, Materials for Civil and Construction Engineers

Raymond Higgins, Materials for Engineers and Technicians

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