Prep003 - Biology

Learning objective 2:

• Structure of the Cell

- 2.1: Comparative study on Prokaryotes and Eukaryotes
 The Cell
• In the 1830s, Matthias Schleiden
stated that all plants are composed of
cells
• Theodor Schwann stated that all
animals are composed of cells
• These scientists based their ideas not
only on their own work but on the
work of all who had studied tissues
under microscopes
 The Cell

• Today, we recognize that the organisms we see around us are

made up of cells

• In our daily lives we observe whole organisms, but if it were

possible to view them internally with a microscope, we
would see their cellular nature

• So, a cell is the smallest unit of living matter

 Organisms and Cells
• Unicellular organisms are quite prevalent, but plants and
animals, including ourselves, are multicellular

• A cell is not only he structural unit, it is also the functional

unit of organs, and therefore, of organisms
• All organisms, whether plants or animals are composed
of cells
• A microscope is needed to see the cells
 Examples of Cells
Amoeba Proteus

Plant Stem

Bacteria

Red Blood Cell

Nerve Cell
 The Cell Theory

• Cell reproduce, once a growing cell gets to a certain size, it

divides
• Unicellular organisms reproduce themselves when they divide
• Multicellular organisms grow when their cells divide

• Cells are also involved in the reproduction of multicellular

organisms, therefore, there is always a continuity of cells
from generation to generation
 Cell theory
• So, the cell theory states that:

1. All living things are

composed of one or more
cells
2. Cells are the smallest units of
living organisms
3. New cells come only from
pre-existing cells by cell
division
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 Types of Cells

• Two different types of cells exist:

• Prokaryotic cells (pro: before, karyon: kernel, nucleus): are

so named because they lack a membrane-bounded
nucleus

• Eukaryotic cells: has a nucleus

Comparing Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic Cells
 Prokaryotic cells
• Prokaryotic cells are simpler and much smaller than eukaryotic cells

• Prokaryotic cells are present in great numbers in the air, in bodies of

water, in the soil, and even in you

• Lack a membrane-enclosed nucleus

• They are divided into bacteria and archaea:

• Both small
• Bacteria- abundant, most not harmful
• Archaea- less common, often found in extreme environments
 Typical bacterial cell
• Bacteria are quite small – an average size is 1.1 to 1.5 micrometer wide
and 2 to 6 micrometer long

• Bacteria have the following structure:

• Plasma membrane- barrier

• Cytoplasm - contained inside plasma membrane
• Nucleoid - region where genetic material found
• Ribosomes - involved in protein synthesis

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 Typical bacterial cell

• Many structures are located outside the plasma membrane:

• Cell wall- support and protection

• Glycocalyx- traps water, protection
• Appendages- pilli (attachment), flagella (locomotion)

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 Eukaryotic cells
• Organisms with eukaryotic cells, namely: protists, fungi, plants and animals
• Unlike prokaryotic cells, eukaryotic cells do have a membrane-bounded
nucleus which houses the DNA
• Eukaryotic cells are compartmentalized; they have small structure called
organelles that are specialized to perform specific functions
• Eukaryotic cells, like prokaryotic cells, have a plasma membrane that
separates the contents of the cells from the environment and regulate
passage into and out of the cytoplasm
• Shape, size, and organization of cells vary considerably among different
species and even among different cell types of the same species
Animal Cell
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Plant Cell
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 What is Cytosol?
• It is a region of a eukaryotic cell that is outside the cell
organelles but inside the plasma membrane

• Cytoplasm on the other hand includes everything

inside the plasma membrane
• Cytosol, the endomembrane system and the
semiautonomous organelles

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 What is Cytosol?

• Cytosol is central coordinating region for many

metabolic activities of eukaryotic cells
• These activities are called (metabolism):
• Catabolism- breakdown of a molecule into smaller
components
• Anabolism- synthesis of cellular molecules and
macromolecules

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 Cytoskeleton
• Network of three different types of protein filaments extends from the
nucleus to the plasma membrane in eukaryotic cells
• Cytoskeleton maintains the shape and assist movement of its part
1. Microtubules
• Dynamic instability
• Centrosome or microtubule-organizing center in animals
2. Intermediate filaments
• Tend to be more stable than microtubules and actin filaments, which readily
polymerize and depolymerize
3. Actin filaments
• Also known as microfilaments
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How is cytoskeleton involved in the movement of
the cell and its organelles?

• They interact with motor molecules, which are proteins that can
attach, detach, and reattach farther along the cytoskeleton
 Motor Proteins
• Category of cellular proteins that use ATP as a source of energy to
promote movement
• Three domains called the head, hinge, and tail
• Walking analogy
• Ground is a cytoskeletal filament, your leg is the head of the motor protein, and
your hip is the hinge
• Three different kinds of movements
• Motor protein moves the cargo from one location to another
• Motor protein can remain in place and cause the filament to move
• Motor protein attempting to walk (both the motor protein and filament restricted
in their movement) exerts a force that causes the filament to bend

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Flagella and cilia involved in the movement of cells
• Flagella usually longer than cilia and present singly or in pairs

• Cilia are often shorter than flagella and tend to cover all or
part of the surface of a cell
• Share the same internal structure
• Microtubules, dynein, and axoneme

• Movement involves the propagation of a bend, which begins

at the base of the structure and proceeds toward the tip
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 Endomembrane system

• Network of membranes enclosing the nucleus, endoplasmic

reticulum, Golgi apparatus, lysosomes, and vacuoles, that
work together and communicate by means of transport
vesicles

• Also includes plasma membrane

• May be directly connected to each other or pass materials

via vesicles

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 Endomembrane system

• The organelles in the endomembrane system work together to carry out the
functions noted
• Plant cells do not have lysosomes
 Nuclear envelope

• Double-membrane structure enclosing nucleus

• Outer membrane of the nuclear envelope is continuous with

the endoplasmic reticulum membrane

• Nuclear pores provide passageways

• Materials within the nucleus are not part of the

endomembrane system

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 Nucleus

• Contains chromosomes
• Composed of DNA and protein
• Chromatin
• Primary function involves the protection, organization,
and expression of the genetic material
• Ribosome assembly occurs in the nucleolus

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 Endoplasmic reticulum (ER)
• Network of membranes that form flattened, fluid-filled tubules or
cisternae
• ER membrane encloses a single compartment called the ER lumen
• Rough endoplasmic reticulum (rough ER)
• Studded with ribosomes
• Involved in protein synthesis and sorting
• Smooth endoplasmic reticulum (smooth ER)
• Lacks ribosomes
• Detoxification, carbohydrate metabolism, calcium balance, synthesis and
modification of lipids
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 Golgi apparatus

• Also called the Golgi body, Golgi complex, or simply

Golgi
• Stack of flattened, membrane-bounded
compartments, which are not continuous with the ER
• Vesicles transport materials between stacks
• Three overlapping functions
• Secretion, processing, and protein sorting

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 Lysosomes

• Contain acid hydrolases that perform hydrolysis

• Many different types of acid hydrolases to break down
proteins, carbohydrates, nucleic acids, and lipids
• Autophagy
• Recycling of worn-out organelles through endocytosis

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 Vacuoles

• Functions of vacuoles are extremely varied, and they differ

among cell types and even environmental conditions
• Central vacuoles in plants for storage and support
• Contractile vacuoles in protists for expelling excess water
• Phagocytic vacuoles in protists and white blood cells for
degradation

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 Plasma membrane

• Boundary between the cell and the extracellular

environment
• Membrane transport in and out of cell
• Selectively permeable
• Cell signaling using receptors
• Cell adhesion

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 Semiautonomous organelles

• Can grow and divide to reproduce themselves, but they are

not completely autonomous because they depend on other
parts of the cell for their internal components

• Mitochondria, chloroplasts, and peroxisomes

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 Mitochondria

• Outer and inner membrane

• Intermembrane space and mitochondrial matrix
• Primary role is to make energy in the for of ATP
• Also involved in the synthesis, modification, and
breakdown of several types of cellular molecules
• Can also generate heat in brown fat cells

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 Chloroplasts
• Photosynthesis
• capture light energy and use some of that energy to
synthesize organic molecules such as glucose
• Found in nearly all species of plants and algae

• Outer and inner membrane with an intermembrane space

• Third membrane, the thylakoid membrane, forms flattened

tubules that stack to form a granum (plural, grana)
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 Peroxisomes
• Relatively small organelles found in all eukaryotic cells
• Origin remains controversial
• General function to catalyze certain chemical reactions,
typically those that break down molecules by removing
hydrogen or adding oxygen
• Reaction by-product is hydrogen peroxide (H2O2)
• Catalase breaks down H2O2 without forming dangerous free
radicals

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 Extra resources and videos
(Prokaryotes and eukaryotes)

https://www.khanacademy.org/science/ap-biology/cell-structure-and-
function/cell-compartmentalization-and-its-origins/v/prokaryotic-and-
eukaryotic-cells