TOPICS

MODULE
RESEARCH
6 DESIGNS
Definition of Research Designs;
Validity of Research;
Types of Research Designs;
Historical Research Design;
Descriptive Research Design;
Correlation Research Design;
Causal-Comparative Research Design;
Experimental Research Design Sampling and Sampling Designs
Importance of Sampling
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LO1: Distinguish the appropriate research design for a
research problem
LO2: Explain the threats to validity of results of various
research designs
LO3: Explain when to use and how to conduct historical
research
LO4: Explain the various types of descriptive research
designs and their respective suitability to research problems
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Definition of Research Design
- It is the framework of research methods and techniques chosen by a
researcher. The design allows researchers to hone in on research methods that
are suitable for the subject matter and set up their studies up for success.
- It is the arrangement of conditions for collection and analysis of data in a
manner that aims to combine relevance to the research purpose with
economy in procedure
- It is the conceptual structure within which research is conducted; it constitutes
the blueprint for the collection, measurement and analysis of data.
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Definition of Research Design
- It includes an outline of what the researcher will do from writing the
hypothesis and its operational implications to the final analysis of data.
The design decisions happen to be in respect of:
1. What is the study about?
2. Why is the study being made?
3. Where will the study be carried out?
4. What type of data is required?
5. Where can the required data be found?
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6. What periods of time will the study include?

7. What will be the sample design
8. What techniques of data collection will be used?
9. How will the data be analysed?
10. In what style will the report be prepared?
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Validity of Research
- It refers to how accurately a method measures what it is
intended to measure. If research has high validity, that means it
produces results that correspond to real properties,
characteristics, and variations in the physical or social world.
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Types of Validity
1. Construct validity – does the test measure the concept that it’s
intended to measure?
- it is about ensuring that the method of measurement matches
the construct you want to measure.

Construct – refers to a concept or characteristic that can’t be directly

observed, but can be measured by observing other indicators that
are associated with it.
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Types of Validity
Construct – can be characteristics of individuals, such as intelligence,
obesity, job satisfaction, or depression; they can also be broader
concepts applied to organizations or social groups, such as gender
equality, corporate social responsibility, or freedom of speech.
2. Content validity – is the test fully representative of what it aims to
measure?
- To produce valid results, the content of a test, survey or measurement
method must cover all relevant parts of the subject it aims to measure.
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Types of Validity
3. Face validity – does the content of the test appear to be suitable
to its aims?
- Similar to content validity, but face validity is a more informal
and subjective assessment.
- It’s often considered the weakest form of validity however, it can
be useful in the initial stages of developing method.
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6 DESIGNS
Types of Validity
4. Criterion validity – do the results correspond to a different test of
the same thing?
- To evaluate criterion validity, you calculate the correlation between
the results of your measurement and the results of the criterion
measurement. If there is a high correlation, this gives a good
indication that your test is measuring what it intends to measure.
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Research Design Parts
1. Sampling design – which deals with the method of selecting items to be
observed for the given study
2. Observational design – which relates to the conditions under which the
observations are to be made
3. Statistical design – which concerns with the question of how many items
are to be observed and how the information and data gathered are to be
analysed; and
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6 DESIGNS
4. Operational design – which deals with the techniques by which the
procedures specified in the sampling, statistical and observational designs
can be carried out.

Need for Research Design

It facilitates the smooth sailing of the various research operations, thereby
making research as efficient as possible yielding maximal information with
minimal expenditure of effort, time and money.
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6 DESIGNS
Historical Research Design
- It is analyzing the past events and develops the present concept and
conclusion.
- Analyzing the previous information or events minutely and testing their
validity.
- Its purpose is to collect, verify, and synthesize evidence from the past to
establish facts that defend or refute a hypothesis.
- Describes what occurred in the past.
- Depends upon data observed by other rather than investigator.
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Characteristics of Historical Research Design
- Involves the careful study and analysis of data about past events.
- It is a critical investigation of events, their development, experiences of
past.
- The purpose is to gain a clearer understanding of the impact of past on
present and future events related to life process.
- Involves the review of written materials but may include oral
documentation as well.
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Characteristics of Historical Research Design
- Typically relies on available data which are in form of diaries, letters,
newspaper, reports and so on.
- It covers categories such as historical legal, documentary,
bibliographical, biographical, institutional, ideational and organizational.
- Important existing sources for nurse researchers are hospital records,
order sheets, nursing charts, physicians and care plan statements.
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Steps of Historical Research Design
1. FIRST STEP: data collection
Comprehensive gathering of data is undertaken. Historical sources of data
are usually classified into two main categories:
a. Primary sources - first hand information that include: remains or relic
associated with persons, groups, periods or events such as fossils,
skeletons, tools, weapons, utensils, clothing, furniture, pictures, painting,
coins and art objects that were not deliberately intended for use in
transmitting information or to be used as a record.
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Steps of Historical Research Design
- Oral or testimony or the records kept and written by actual participants
in an event or actual witnesses of the same.
- Constitutions, characters, laws, official records, deeds, wills, licenses,
newspapers, magazine, etc.
b. Secondary sources - these are the reports of people who related the
testimony of an actual witness of an event or actual participants in the
same. For example: most of the history books and Encyclopaedia.
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Steps of Historical Research Design
2. SECOND STEP: criticism of the data
- The second step necessitates a comprehensive review of gathered
materials.
a. External criticism - the establishment of validity by determining
the authenticity of the source.
- is covered basically with the authenticity and genuineness of data.
- It primarily deals with data relating to form and appearance rather
than meaning of contents
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Steps of Historical Research Design
b. internal criticism - weighs the testimony of document in relation to truth.
Evidence bearing on the accuracy of historical data might include one of the ff.:
1) Comparison with other people’s accounts of the same event to determine
degree of agreement.
2) Knowledge of time at which the document was produced.
3) Knowledge of the points of view or biases of the written and oral documents.
4) Knowledge of the degree of competence of the writer to record events
authoritatively and accurately.
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Steps of Historical Research Design
3. THIRD STEP: presentation of the facts
- After evaluating the authenticity and accuracy of historical data, the researcher must
bring the material together to analyze it and to test the research hypotheses.
- Historical researchers must be extremely careful at this point since the analysis of
historical data involves logical processes rather than statistical ones and therefore
possibility of subjectivity arises.
- Historical composition is a synthetic and constructive process that involves the
mechanical problem of documentation, logical problem of arrangement of topics and
subtopics and philosophical problem of interpretation.
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Descriptive Research Design
- It aims to accurately and systematically describe a population, situation or
phenomenon. It can answer what, where, when and how questions, but not
why questions.
- It can use a wide variety of research methods to investigate one or more
variables unlike in experimental research, the researcher does not control or
manipulate any of the variables, but only observes and measures them.
- It is an appropriate choice when the research aim is to identify characteristics,
frequencies, trends, and categories.
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Correlation/Correlational Research Design
-the main interest is to determine whether two or more variables covary and, if so,
to establish the directions, magnitudes, and forms of the observed relationships
Applications:
1. Gathering Data in the Early Stages of Research – its ability to identify potential
causal relationships can provide a rich source of hypotheses that later may be
tested experimentally
2. Inability to Manipulate Variables
3. Relating Naturally Occurring Variables
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6 DESIGNS
Correlation/Correlational Research Design
- Is a type of research method that involves observing two variables in
order to establish a statistically corresponding relationship between
them.
- The aim of correlational research is to identify variables that have some
sort of relationship do the extent that a change in one creates some
change in the other.
- is descriptive, unlike experimental research that relies entirely on
scientific methodology and hypothesis
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6 DESIGNS
Types of Correlation/Correlational Research Design
1. Positive Correlational Research – is a method involving 2 variables
that are statistically corresponding where an increase or decrease in 1
variable creates a like change in the other.
2. Negative Correlational Research – is a research method involving 2
variables that are statistically opposite where an increase in one of
the variables creates an alternate effect or decrease in the other
variable.
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6 DESIGNS
Types of Correlation/Correlational Research Design
3. Zero Correlational Research – is a type of correlational research that
involves 2 variables that are not necessarily statistically connected.
- A change in one of the variables may not trigger a corresponding or
alternate change in the other variable.
- Caters for variables with vague statistical relationships
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6 DESIGNS
Characteristics of Correlation/Correlational Research Design
1. Non-experimental – it does not involve manipulating variables using
scientific methodology in order to agree or disagree with a
hypothesis. It simply observe and measures the natural relationship
between 2 variables without subjecting either of the variables to
external conditioning.
2. Backward-looking – it doesn’t take the future into considerations as it
only observes and measures the recent historical relationship that
exists between 2 variables.
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6 DESIGNS
Characteristics of Correlation/Correlational Research Design
1. Dynamic – statistical patterns between 2 variables that result from
correlational research are ever changing. The correlation between 2
variables changes on a daily basis and such, it cannot be used as a
fixed data for further research.
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6 DESIGNS
Causal-Comparative Research Design
- Is a research design that seeks to find relationships between independent and
dependent variables after an action or event has already occurred.
- The researcher’s goal is to determine whether the independent variable
affected the outcome, or dependent variable, by comparing two or more groups
of individuals.
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Experimental Research Design
- Experimental research incorporates a high degree of control over the variables of
your study.
Two defining characteristics:
1. Manipulation of one or more independent variables - participants must
be expose to at least two levels of that variable; changes in the level of the
independent variable may cause changes in the behavior being recorded.
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Terms:
Independent variable – is a variable whose values are chosen and set by the
experimenter
Treatments – the specific conditions associated with each level
Dependent variable/Dependent measure – the variable whose value you
observe and measure in experimental designs
Experimental group – the group receiving the treatment
Control group – the other group not exposed to the experimental treatment
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2. Control over extraneous variables
Two ways to control the effects of extraneous variables:
a. Hold extraneous variables constant – then cannot cause uncontrolled
variation in your dependent variable
b. Randomize their effects across treatments – deals with the effects of
extraneous variables that cannot be held constant; the idea is to distribute
the effects of these differences across treatments in such a way that they
tend to even out and thus cannot be mistaken for effects of the
independent variable
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Three crucial element in an experiment:
1. Manipulation of at least one independent variable
2. Measuring a dependent variable
3. Control over extraneous variables
Terms:
Extraneous variables – are those that may affect the behaviour you wish to
investigate but are not of interest for the present experiment
Random assignment – assign participants to treatments randomly by
means of a table of random numbers or a computer’s random number
generator.
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6 DESIGNS
PRINCIPLES OF EXPERIMENTAL DESIGNS
1. Principle of Replication – the experiment should be repeated more than
once.
2. Principle of Randomization – provides protection, when we conduct an
experiment, against the effect of extraneous factors by randomization.
3. Principle of Local Control – the extraneous factor, the known source of
variability, is made to vary deliberately over as wide a range as necessary
and this needs to be done in such a way that the variability it causes can be
measured and hence eliminated from the experimental error.
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Strengths of Experimental Approach
1. Ability to identify and describe causal relationships

Limitations of Experimental Approach

1. Not applicable if the hypothesized causal variables can’t be manipulated
2. Tight control over extraneous factors required to clearly reveal the
effects of the independent variable.
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6 DESIGNS
Sampling Designs Importance of Sampling
A sample design is a definite plan for obtaining a sample from a given population.
It refers to the technique or the procedure the researcher would adopt in selecting
items for the sample.
It may as well lay down the number of items to be included in the sample i.e., the
size of the sample.
It is determined before data are collected.
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6 DESIGNS
Sampling Designs Importance of Sampling
The importance of sampling:
1. Save time – contacting everyone in a population takes time and random
sampling is much faster than surveying everyone in a population
2. Save money – the number of people a researcher contacts is directly related to
the cost of a study
3. Collect richer data – the goal is to collect a lot of information from just a few
people
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6 DESIGNS
STEPS IN SAMPLE DESIGN:
1. Type of universe – clearly define the set of objects, technically called universe
2. Sampling unit – a decision has to be taken concerning sampling unit before
selecting sample
3. Source list – also known as sampling frame from which sample is to be drawn
4. Size of sample – the number of items to be selected from the universe to
constitute a sample
5. Parameters of interest – in determining the sample design, one must consider
the question of the specific population parameters which are of interest.
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6 DESIGNS
6. Budgetary constraint – cost considerations, from practical point of view, have a
major impact upon decisions relating to not only the size of the sample but also to
the type of sample.
7. Sampling procedure – Finally, the researcher must decide the type of sample he
will use i.e., must decide about the technique to be used in selecting the items for
the sample.
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6 DESIGNS
CHARACTERISTICS OF A GOOD SAMPLE DESIGN
1. It must result in a truly representative sample.
2. It must be such which results in a small sampling error.
3. It must be viable in the context of funds available for the research study.
4. It must be such so that systematic bias can be controlled in a better way.
5. It should be such that the results of the sample study can be applied, in
general, for the universe with a reasonable level of confidence.
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TYPES OF SAMPLE DESIGNS
A. Representation basis
1. Non-probability sampling – non-random sampling
2. Probability sampling – is based on the concept of random selection
B. Element selection basis
1. Unrestricted – when each sample element is drawn individually from
the population at large
2. Restricted – all other forms of sampling