1.

1 BIOMES

Environments are made up of the 2 components:

Biotic: Living Abiotic: Non-Living

Plants, animals, fungi, bacteria Temperature, Rainfall

 Large Region
BIOME  Similar BIOTIC FACTORS: Plants, Animals
DIVERSE
 Similar ABIOTIC FACTORS: Rainfall & Temperature
 Contain MANY ecosystems and habitats

ECOSYSTEM  Smaller Region

 Abiotic components interact with biotic components
 Contain many habitats

HABITAT  Smallest Region

 Place where a specific organism (species) lives
 May be the home to a population of the same species
SPECIFIC

Biomes
There are 8 land (terrestrial biomes):

BIOMES are found across the world but they are found in SPECIFIC places since they share similar
ABIOTIC and BIOTIC factors

 Temperature and Precipitation are the 2 most important ABIOTIC factors that define a biome and
where it will be located on Earth.
 A third ABIOTIC FACTOR of a biome is LATTITUDE, which is the distance north or south from the
equator.
 Rain Forest Biomes are located near coast lines since WARM, MOIST air is found here.
 To measure the CLIMATE (weather pattern over 30 years) of a biome, scientists use a
CLIMATOGRAPH to measure rainfall and temperature
1. Find Temperature on X-axis
Reading a Climatograph 2. Move up until you are at the
Biome Graph
right rainfall on Y-axis

Read here for

Read here monthly
for average
monthly temperature
rainfall (day & night)
 Biome Name Characteristics Climatograph (Rain and Temp)
Boreal Forest -found in Northern hemispheres
-temperatures very cold in the winter
-trees are mainly coniferous (cone-
bearing)
-animals have thicker coats to
prevent heat loss
-very few reptiles/amphibians
Desert -very little rainfall
-temperatures fluctuate greatly
between night and day
-salty soils
-very few plants, plants have “waxy”
leaves to prevent water loss
- cacti do a special form of
photosynthesis that requires less
water

Grassland -known as the prairies in Canada

-very rich soil in temperate regions,
but less rich for grasslands in tropical
regions (because of soil erosion from
heavy rain)

Permanent Ice -found in Arctic, Antarctica,

Greenland
-very cold temperatures
-mainly lichens and moss
-animals have blubber and coats to
minimize heat loss

Temperate Deciduous Forest -found mainly in E. Canada

-trees shed their leaves in fall
-large amount of biodiversity

Temperate Rainforest -found near coastlines in less warm

climates than tropical rainforests
-very tall trees
-lichens can line tree branches since
light is too little at forest floor
-animals live mainly on forest floor
since they are protected from wind
and rain
Tropical Rainforest -located near the equator
-very little soil nutrients (heavy
rainfall washes away nutrients)
-trees are tall to maximize sunlight
exposure
-Leaves are narrow to allow rain to run
off
-greatest biodiversity of all biomes
-found near coastlines

Tundra -Layer of permafrost

-no trees
-short grasses, lichens, moss
-animals reproduce less

Adaptations

Structural Adaptation: physical feature of an organism that allows it to better survive or reproduce in its
environment
e.g: Arctic fox has a white coat in the winter and a brownish-grey goat in the summer

Physiological Adaptation: physical or chemical event inside an organism that allows it to better survive in its
environment
e.g. Cacti have a slightly different type of photosynthesis that only needs half the amount of water needed
in regular photosynthesis

Behavioural Adaptation: a unique behaviour shown by an organism that improves its survival or chance for
mating
e.g. Burrowing owl lines its underground nests with cow dung to hide the scent of its young from predators

1.2 ECOSYSTEMS

Ecosystems
ABIOTIC COMPONENTS INTERACT WITH BIOTIC COMPONENTS

There are many Habitat is a specific

Habitat Habitat Habitat Habitat
habitats in an 1 2 3 4
place where an
ecosystem organism lives
Abiotic Interactions

The amount of abiotic components in an ecosystem influences what kind of organisms will be
able to live in that ecosystem:

 Amount of water
 Nutrients (Nitrogen, Phosphorus) For plant/animal growth
 Light levels For photosynthesis

Biotic Interactions

BIOME
ECOSYSTEM A

SPECIES POPULATION
ECOSYSTEM B ECOSYSTEM C
Organisms that All the members of
can reproduce ONE species in ONE
with one another ecosystem

NICHE
COMMUNITY ECOSYSTEM D ECOSYSTEM E
The way an
organism fits All the populations
into an in ONE ecosystem
ecosystem; its that interact
job or role

Symbiotic Relationships

Mutualism: both species benefit

Competition: When two organisms compete for
For example, a bee gathering the SAME resources (FOOD, HABITAT)
nectar from a flower
COMPETITION IS NOT A SYMBIOTIC RELATIONSHIP
Commensalism: one species benefits,
Both organisms are harmed by competition
one is not affected

For example, the barnacles on a whale

Parasitism: one species benefits,

the other is harmed
Biodiversity: large variety of organisms
For example, hookworm living in dogs
Predation

Predation is the term use to describe the interactions

between: Predators = Prey
Predators: carnivores (meat eaters) that hunt prey
-have adaptations to help catch prey: claws, excellent
eyesight, smell

Prey: animals that are food for predators

-have adaptations to help escape or hide from
predators: spines, camouflage

Prey leads to a in predators because now there is

little food available to the predator

2.1 ECOSYSTEMS
Core Ideas: Carnivores: eat only other animals
Biomass: total mass of all living and dead organic material (kg/m ) Herbivores: eat only plants
2
Ominivores: eat a variety of plants and animals

Energy Flow: energy that moves from an ecosystem to an organism or between

organisms

Producers VS Consumers

 Produce their own food through  Cannot produce their own food
photosynthesis  Must eat other organisms (plants and/or
 Convert sun’s energy into stored animals for energy)
carbohydrate (glucose)

Biodegradation

Decomposers VS Detrivores
 Breakdown wastes and dead organisms  Eat wastes and dead organisms
to allow nutrients to re-used in the to allow nutrients to re-used in the
ecosystem ecosystem
 Secrete enzymes to breakdown material  They eat dead organic matter
and then absorb; they DO NOT EAT  More complex organisms
 Simple organisms  e.g. Earthworm and beetles
 e.g. Bacteria and fungi
Both feed at every trophic level. Without decomposers or detrivores, energy would be lost from an
ecosystem once an organism died. Soil would have little to no nutrients as well
Food Chain, Webs, Energy Pyramids

Food Chain Food Web

4th Tropic Level

3nd Tropic Level

2nd Tropic Level

1st Tropic Level

Animals are really part of more than one FOOD CHAIN eat more than one kind of
organism. These interactions of multiple FOOD CHAINS is called a FOOD PYRAMID.

Food Pyramid Pyramids can be 3 types:

1. Biomass
2. Numbers of organisms
3. Energy (one shown to left)

90% of energy is lost moving up each

TROPIC LEVEL:

LOST AS HEAT TO THE ENVIRONMENT

2.2 NUTRIENT CYCLES IN ECOSYSTEMS

Carbon Cycle

Carbon is stored 2 ways:

Short Term: Long Term:

 Living Animals and Plants  Fossil fuels: gas, oil, coal

 Decaying Organic Material  Sedimentation layers that eventually
 Dissolved CO2 in top layer of the form rock (limestone)
ocean  Dissolved CO2 in top layer of the
ocean
 As marine shells (carbonate)
Carbon Cycling:
Carbon dioxide Water Glucose Oxygen
Sun’s Energy CO2 H2O C6H12O6 O2
1. Photosynthesis

Carbon dioxide + water Glucose + oxygen Performed ONLY by:

Plants & some Bacteria

Energy released to
organisms for use
2. Cellular Respiration
Performed by BOTH:
Plants & Animals (& bacteria)
Glucose + oxygen Carbon dioxide + water

SOURCE Atmosphere:
CO2 Decomposers break
SINK down material released
as CO2 Stored in top layer of
Photosynthesis ocean
Cellular Respiration

Deep stores in soil and earth’s crust

Sediments, Fossil Fuels

Nitrogen Cycle N2 = Nitrogen Gas

Nitrogen Fixation VS Nitrification NH4+ =
Ammonium
N2 NO2- = Nitrite
NO3- = Nitrate

-
NO3 is taken
up and used to Decaying
make proteins plant/animal
matter broken
down by
+
NH4 taken NH4+ Soil Bacteria NO3- 2 NO2- 1 NH4+ decomposer
up by plant OR
Nitrogen-fixing bacteria Nitrification Nitrification
on plant roots bacteria bacteria

Nitrogen fixation can occur also in the atmosphere Nitrates are needed by plants for proteins.
during lightning storms
-
Denitrification: NO3 converted back to N2
 Nitrogen STORES (sinks) Nitrogen SOURCES

 NO3- and NH4+ used by plants  Dentrification bacteria: NO3- to N2

 Unused NO3- and NH4+ eventually  Volcanoes (as NO2)
form rocks

Excess Nitrogen

 Industry has doubled the amount of available nitrogen (nitrogen not trapped in rocks or proteins)
 Excess NO2 leads to acid rain
 Excess fertilizers increase amount of NO3- and NH4+ leaches into water systems
 This results in EUTRIPHICATION: excess nutrients lead to increased unwanted plant growth such as ALGAE
BLOOMS:
Algae = O2 use = O2 for other plants & animals

Leads to plant and animal death; some blooms can release neurotoxins that kill animals

Phosphorus Cycle

Phosphorus STORES (sinks) Phosphorus SOURCES

 Stored as PHOSPHATES (PO4-3) in  Weathering of rocks

rocks and sediments  Decomposition of dead organisms

Phosphorus is NOT stored in the atmosphere. It is stored in rock and sediments.

Excess Phosphorus

 Loss of forested areas increases erosion and leaching leading to more phosphorus entering
water systems
 Excess use of fertilizers increases phosphorous levels in an ecosystem
 Excess phosphorous can kills certain organisms and harm plants

2.3 EFFECT OF BIOACCUMULATION ON ECOSYSTEMS

Core Concepts
Keystone Species: species that can greatly affect population numbers and health of an
ecosystem (e.g. salmon in BC forest ecosystems)
Biomagnification: chemicals accumulate but become more concentrated at each tropic level

Chemical from environment + animals from #3 + animals from #2 + any

4 plants from #1
Chemical
3 Chemical from environment + animals from #2 + any plants from #1
becomes more
concentrated up There can be a 5th
2 Chemical from environment + any plants from level #1
each trophic level:
level Chemical from environment only Top consumer
1
Biomagnification from PCBs: Orcas in BC

1. Store PCB toxins LONG-TERM in their fat

called BLUBBER
2. Orcas do not use this BLUBBER for energy
unless food is scarce (salmon).
3. If salmon levels are low then orcas will
burn their BLUBBER releasing PCBs into
their bloodstream
4. PCBs in the bloodstream lowers immune
function making the orca more likely to get
sick

Other toxins

11. POPs: include organic toxins such as DDT and PCBs.

These stay in the environment for many years
2. Heavy metals: Lead, Cadmium, Mercury
Cannot be broken down. Affect nervous system, immune function, red blood cell function

Bioremediation: using living organisms to clean up toxins

e.g. certain trees that soak up toxins from soil, bacteria that breakdown chemical spills

3.1 How Changes Occur Naturally in Ecosystems

How organisms change over time: Natural Selection

Natural Selection: the environment selects FOR and AGAINST certain traits.
This means some organisms will have an ADVANTAGE to SURVIVE and REPRODUCE.
Over time the characteristics (or traits) of a population of a species may change. The environment
creates this change. THE ANIMAL DOES NOT WILLINGLY CHANGE ITSELF

Environment 1 Environment 1a

Environment
changes; much less snow

 Snowy environment  Rocky environment; little snow

 White rabbit has an advantage:  Black rabbit has an advantage:
blends in with the environment blends in with the environment
 Black rabbit is at a disadvantage  White rabbit is at a disadvantage
 There will be more white rabbits  There will be more black rabbits
than black: more white rabbits than white: more black rabbits
will survive and reproduce will survive and reproduce
Adaptive Radiation

Adaptive Radiation: similar to natural selection but it involves the PRODUCTION OF A NEW SPECIES
FROM ONE ORIGINAL POPULATION:

1. Original population is split up and isolated in DIFFERENT ENVIRONMENTS

2. Different environments have different selective pressures
3. Over time each sub-population will change depending on the environment it is in (natural selection)
4. Over a long period of time each sub-population may become a new species (two organisms that no
longer can reproduce with one another)

e.g. Finches in the Galapagos islands; Stickleback fish in North America

6 Mainland
Ocean
C2 D

2
5 1
B A2 A
3
C B2

4
1. Part of Pop. A gets stranded on an island. This population is called A2
2. Pop. A2 is exposed to a new environment than the mainland. There are different selective
pressures leading to the production of a new species called B.
3. Part of the population from Species B gets separated onto another island. This new
population is called B2
4. Population B2 is exposed to new selective pressures on the new island, leading to the
production of a new species called C.
5. Part of the population from Species C gets separated onto another island. This new
population is called C2
6. Population C2 is exposed to new selective pressures on the new island, leading to the
production of a new species called D.

Started with one species: A Ended up with 3 new species B C D

None of the 4 species reproduce with one another

Core ideas: Ecosystem changing over time (the bigger picture)

Ecological Succession: changes that place over time in ALL the organisms that live in area

Two types: Primary (new ecosystem) and Secondary (rebuilding an old ecosystem)
Primary versus Secondary Succession

Primary VS Secondary
1. Starts with bare rock 1. Starts with soil and some plants
2. Pioneer species (lichen) first organisms in present
area. 2. Result of a damaging event to the
3. Lichens are involved in breaking down rock ecosystem (e.g. forest fire)
into soil 3. New seeds of plants will blow in and
4. Soil allows plants to survive begin to rebuild the ecosystem
5. Slowly over time different plant species
survive FAST: decades (tens of years)
6. Animal species begin to move in to the area

SLOW: Hundreds of Years

Insect Infestations

Mountain Pine Beetle

 Mountain pine beetles remove  WARM temperatures allows  Extra beetles overwhelm healthy
old or dying trees from more beetles to survive winter young trees too
ecosystem.  Pine tree population starts to die
 YOUNG TREES fight off beetles

Pine beetles have a SYMBIOTIC relationship (mutualistic) with a fungus that lives in their mouth:
Fungus inhibits the production of RESIN by Pine trees. RESIN is needed to flush away beetle
invaders and allow a tree to survive.

3.2 How Humans Influence Ecosystems

Core Ideas
Sustainability: choices or decisions that do not affect the biodiversity or health of an ecosystem. In
other words, sustainability is decisions that don’t reduce the amount of different organisms in an
ecosystem or lead to the destruction of an ecosystem.
 Habitat Loss: habitats that are lost usually due to human activity

Habitat Fragmentation: breaking up a habitat into smaller sections. This affects the ability of
plants and animals to reproduce. Also, more established plants will not survive at the edges.

Deforestation: forests cleared or logged for human use

Deforestation = Soil Degradation (loss of topsoil which is a layer of rich nutrient-dense
layer of organic materials)
* Topsoil is lost due to wind and water erosion

Soil Compaction: Farm animals and machines cause soil to be squished together reducing the
amount of air that is available to plant roots (plant roots need OXYGEN to survive!)

Overexploitation: The overuse of a resource until it is depleted; this can lead to the extinction of a
species.

Extinction: the dying out of a species (gone for good).

Traditional Ecological Knowledge: using knowledge about the environment to make better
decisions about every day activities and to think of ways to support an ecosystem.
e.g. controlled burning of forest litter (branches, dead grass) recycles nutrients back into soil as ash; also
improves the growth of plants that grow in the understory (shaded region under trees)

3.3 How Introduced Species Affect Ecosystems

Core Ideas

NATIVE SPECIES INTRODUCED (FOREIGN) SPECIES INVASIVE SPECIES

Plants or animals that Harmless or beneficial to their Take over new habitats from
naturally live in an area new environment native species OR take over
e.g. loosestrife-eating beetle bodies of native species (as
parasites)
e.g. purple-loosestrife

In BC Eurasian milfoil Lives in contaminated waters, brought in from boats visiting

a lake, forms dense mats on surface of the water, blocks off
sunlight to organisms below.
Norway Rat Large amount of offspring, eat almost any food, steal sea-
bird eggs causing a reduction in their population numbers.
American Bullfrog Brought to BC as food for restaurants, breed rapidly, eat
other frogs leading to some becoming endangered, even
attack birds and small mammals.
European Starling Outcompete native bird species for nest space, eat a large
amount of crops needed by other animals