Chapter 12

Fundamentals of Thermal Radiation

※ Introduction

The theoretical foundation of radiation was established in 1864 by physicist James

Clerk Maxwell, who postulated that accelerated charges or changing electric currents
give rise to electric and magnetic fields. These rapidly moving fields are called
electromagnetic waves or electromagnetic radiation, and they represent the energy
emitted by matter as a result of the changes in the electronic configurations of the
atoms or molecules. Electromagnetic waves transport energy just like other waves,
and all electromagnetic waves travel at the speed of light in a vacuum, which is c0 =
2.9979×108 m/s. Electromagnetic waves are characterized by their frequency ν or
wavelength λ. These two properties in a medium are related by

c



where c is the speed of propagation of a wave in that medium which is related to the
speed of light in a vacuum by c = c0/n (n is the index of refraction of that medium).

It has proven useful to view electromagnetic radiation as the propagation of a

collection of discrete packets of energy called photons or quanta, as proposed by Max
Planck in 1900 in conjunction with his quantum theory. In this view, each photon of
frequency ν is considered to have an energy of

hc
e  h 


where h  6.6256 1034 J·s is Planck’s constant.

1
※ Thermal Radiation

Ref: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spectrum

The electromagnetic radiation encountered in practice covers a wide range of

wavelengths, varying from less than 10−10 μm for cosmic rays to more than 1010 μm
for electrical power waves. The electromagnetic spectrum also includes gamma rays,
X-rays, ultraviolet radiation, visible light, infrared radiation, thermal radiation,
microwaves, and radio waves.

The type of electromagnetic radiation that is pertinent to heat transfer is the thermal
radiation emitted as a result of energy transitions of molecules, atoms, and electrons
of a substance. Thermal radiation is also defined as the portion of the electromagnetic
spectrum that extends from about 0.1 to 100 μm, since the radiation emitted by bodies
due to their temperature falls almost entirely into this wavelength range. Thus,
thermal radiation includes the entire visible and infrared (IR) radiation as well as a
portion of the ultraviolet (UV) radiation.

A body that emits some radiation in the visible range is called a light source. The sun
is obviously our primary light source. The electromagnetic radiation emitted by the
sun is known as solar radiation, and nearly all of it falls into the wavelength band
0.3 – 3 μm. Almost half of solar radiation is light. The ultraviolet radiation includes
the low-wavelength end of the thermal radiation spectrum and lies between the
wavelengths 0.01 and 0.40 μm.

※ Blackbody Radiation

2
A blackbody is defined as a perfect emitter and absorber of radiation. At a specified
temperature and wavelength, no surface can emit more energy than a blackbody. A
blackbody absorbs all incident radiation, regardless of wavelength and direction. Also,
a blackbody emits radiation energy uniformly in all directions per unit area normal to
direction of emission. That is, a blackbody is a diffuse emitter. The term “diffuse”
means “independent of direction.”

The radiation energy emitted by a blackbody per unit time and per unit surface area is
known as the Stefan–Boltzmann law and Eb is called the blackbody emissive power

Eb T    T 4

where   5.67 108 W/m2·K4 is the Stefan–Boltzmann constant and T is the

absolute temperature of the surface in K.

The Stefan–Boltzmann law gives the total blackbody emissive power Eb, which is the
sum of the radiation emitted over all wavelengths. We also need to know the spectral
blackbody emissive power, which is the amount of radiation energy emitted by a
blackbody at an absolute temperature T per unit time, per unit surface area, and per
unit wavelength about the wavelength λ. The relation for the spectral blackbody
emissive power Eb𝜆 was developed by Max Planck in 1901 in conjunction with his
famous quantum theory. This relation is known as Planck’s law

C1 C1  2 hc02
Eb   , T   with 
 5  eC / T  1
2
C2  hc0 / k

where k  1.38065 1023 J/K is Boltzmann’s constant. This relation is valid for a
surface in a vacuum or a gas. For other mediums, it needs to be modified by replacing
C1 by C1/n2, where n is the index of refraction of the medium. Note that the term
spectral indicates dependence on wavelength. As the temperature increases, the peak
of the curve shifts toward shorter wavelengths. The wavelength at which the peak
occurs for a specified temperature is given by Wien’s displacement law as

 T max power  2897.8 μm  K

Integration of the spectral blackbody emissive power Eb𝜆 over the entire wavelength
spectrum gives the total blackbody emissive power Eb


Eb T    Eb   , T  d    T 4
0

3
Example: Consider a 20-cm-diameter spherical blackbody ball at 800 K suspended in
air. Determine (a) the total blackbody emissive power, (b) the total amount of
radiation emitted by the ball in 5 min, and (c) the spectral blackbody emissive power
at a wavelength of 3 μm.

(a) The total blackbody emissive power is

Eb T    T 4  5.67  10 8 W/m 2 ·K 4   800 K   23.2 kW/m 2

4

(b) The total amount of radiation emitted by the ball in 5 min is

Q  AtEb T     0.2 m   300 s  23.2 kW/m 2  875 kJ

2

(c) The spectral blackbody emissive power at a wavelength of 3 μm is

3.743 108 W  μm 4 /m 2
Eb   , T    3848 W/m2  μm
5  1.438710 μmK  /  3 μm800 K  
4

 3 μm  e 1



※ Blackbody Radiation Function

We are often interested in the amount of radiation emitted over some wavelength band
instead of simply the total amount of heat radiation. A dimensionless quantity fλ is
defined as the blackbody radiation function


Eb   , T  d 
f T   0

T 4

which represents the fraction of radiation emitted from a blackbody at temperature T

in the wavelength band from 0 to λ (Table 12-2). The fraction of radiation energy
emitted by a blackbody at temperature T over a finite wavelength band from λ1 to λ2 is
determined from

f 1  2 T   f 2 T   f 1 T 

Example: Consider daylight (5800 K) and incandescent light (2800 K) as blackbodies.

Determine the fraction of the radiant energy emitted within the visible range from 0.4
μm to 0.76 μm for each light source.

For the sun (5800 K),

4
 1T  0.4 μm  5800 K  2320 μm  K

2T  0.76 μm  5800 K  4408 μm  K

From Table 12-2,

 f 1  5800 K   0.124509
  f 2  5800 K   f 1  5800 K   0.426  42.6%
f
 2  5800 K   0.5500015

For the incandescent light (2800 K),

1T  0.4 μm  2800 K  1120 μm  K


2T  0.76 μm  2800 K  2128 μm  K

From Table 12-2,

 f 1  2800 K   0.001409
  f 2  2800 K   f 1  2800 K   0.087  8.7%
f
 2  2800 K   0.088590

※ Solid Angle

Ref: "Heat and Mass Transfer: Fundamentals and Applications" by Yunus A. Çengel
and Afshin J. Ghajar, 4th Ed. in SI Units, McGraw-Hill, 2011 (ISBN
78-007-131112-0).

Consider a watermelon, and let us attempt to quantify the size of a slice. We can do it
by specifying the outer surface area of the slice (the green part), or by working with
angles for generality. Connecting all points at the edges of the slice to the center in
this case will form a three-dimensional body (like a cone whose tip is at the center),

5
and thus the angle at the center in this case is properly called the solid angle. The solid
angle is denoted by ω, and its unit is the steradian (sr). This can be shown easily by
considering a differential surface area on a sphere and integrating it.

dS  r 2 sin  d d

where  is the zenith angle (天頂角) and  is the azimuth angle (方位角). For
example, from   0 to    and from   0 to   2 gives the area of a
sphere

2  
S  r 2 sin  d d  2 r 2  sin  d  4 r 2
 0  0  0

The differential solid angle dω subtended by a differential area dS on a sphere of

radius r can be expressed as

dS
d   sin  d d     sin  d d
r2

For example, the solid angle of a hemisphere is

2  /2
  sin  d d   2 sr
 0 0

Note that the area dS is normal to the direction of viewing since dS is viewed from the
center of the sphere. In general, the differential solid angle dω subtended by a
differential surface area dA when viewed from a point at a distance r from dA is
expressed as

dAn dA cos  A A cos 

d  2
 2
   2n 
r r r r2

where 𝜃 is the angle between the normal of the surface and the direction of viewing,
and thus dAn = dA cos 𝜃 is the normal (or projected) area to the direction of viewing.


dAn  dA cos 

6
Ref: "Radiative Heat Transfer" by Michael F. Modest, 3rd Ed., Academic Press, 2013
(ISBN 978-012-386944-9).

For example, the solid angle subtended by a 5 cm2 plane surface when viewed from a
point at a distance of 80 cm along the normal of the surface is

An 5 cm 2
   7.81 104 sr
r 2  80 cm 2

If 𝜃 = 60°,

An 5 cm  cos  / 3
2

 2   3.905  10 4 sr
80 cm 
2
r

※ Intensity of Emitted Radiation

Radiation is emitted by all parts of a plane surface in all directions into the
hemisphere above the surface, and the directional distribution of emitted (or incident)
radiation is usually not uniform (unlike blackbodies). Therefore, we need a quantity
that describes the magnitude of radiation emitted (or incident) in a specified direction
in space. This quantity is radiation intensity, denoted by I.

The radiation intensity for emitted radiation I e  ,   is defined as the rate at which

radiation energy dQ e is emitted in the  ,   direction per unit area normal to this

direction and per unit solid angle about this direction.

dQ e dQ e
I e  ,    
dA cos   d  dA cos  sin  d d
 W/m 2
 sr 

The radiation flux for emitted radiation is the emissive power E (the rate at which
radiation energy is emitted per unit area of the emitting surface), which can be
expressed in differential form as

dQ e
dE   I e  ,   cos  sin  d d
dA

Noting that the hemisphere above the surface will intercept all the radiation rays
emitted by the surface, the emissive power from the surface into the hemisphere
surrounding it can be determined by integration as

7
 dQ e
   I e  ,   cos  sin  d d  W/m 2 
2  /2
E dE 
Hemisphere dA  0  0

The intensity of radiation emitted by a surface, in general, varies with direction

(especially with the zenith angle). But many surfaces in practice can be approximated
as being diffuse. For a diffusely emitting surface, the intensity of the emitted radiation
2  /2
is independent of direction and thus Ie = constant. With  
0 0
cos  sin  d d  = ,

E   I e  W/m 2  for diffusely emitting surfaces

Therefore, for blackbodies which are diffuse emitters,

T 4
Eb   I b  I b 

 W/m 2
 sr 

※ Radiosity

Surfaces emit radiation as well as reflecting it, and thus the radiation leaving a surface
consists of emitted and reflected components. Therefore, we need to define a quantity
that represents the rate at which radiation energy leaves a unit area of a surface in all
directions. This quantity is called the radiosity J, and is expressed as the following for
diffuse surfaces

 W/m 
2  /2
J  dJ    I e r  ,   cos  sin  d d = I e  r 2
Hemisphere  0  0

※ Incident Radiation

All surfaces emit radiation, but they also receive radiation emitted or reflected by

other surfaces. The intensity of incident radiation I i  ,   is defined as the rate at

which radiation energy dG is incident from the  ,   direction per unit area of the

receiving surface normal to this direction and per unit solid angle about this direction.

The diffuse radiation flux incident on a surface from all directions is called irradiation
G, and is expressed as

I i  ,   cos  sin  d d = I i  W/m 2 

2  /2
G dG   
Hemisphere  0 0

8
※ Spectral Quantities

The spectral radiation intensity I    ,  ,   is simply the total radiation intensity

I  ,   per unit wavelength interval about  . The spectral intensity for emitted

radiation I  ,e   ,  ,   can be defined as the rate at which radiation energy dQ e is

emitted at the wavelength  in the  ,   direction per unit area normal to this

direction, per unit solid angle about this direction, and it can be expressed as

dQ e dQ e
I  ,e   ,  ,    
dA cos   d   d  dA cos  sin  d d  d 
 W/m 2
 sr  μm 

Then the spectral emissive power becomes

I  ,e   ,  ,   cos  sin  d d  W/m 2  μm 

2  /2
E   
 0  0

Similar relations can be obtained for spectral radiosity J  and spectral irradiation

G by replacing I  ,e in the equation by I  ,e r and I  ,i , respectively. Again for

diffuse surfaces/incident radiation

E   I  ,e , J    I  ,e  r , and G   I i

The total intensity and radiation flux of emission can be determined by integration
over the entire wavelength spectrum as

 
Ie   I  ,e d  and E   E d 
 0  0

and same for radiosity and irradiation. Thus with Planck’s black body emission law

2hc02
I b   , T   where Eb   I b
 5  ehc /  kT  1
0

9
※ Radiative Properties

Radiation is considered to be a surface phenomenon for materials opaque to thermal

radiation while radiation through semitransparent materials obviously cannot be
considered to be a surface phenomenon. Furthermore, materials can exhibit different
behavior at different wavelengths such as glass and water are practically opaque to
infrared radiation. Therefore, dependence on wavelength of radiative properties such
as emissivity, absorptivity, reflectivity, and transmissivity is very important.

※ Emissivity

The emissivity of a surface represents the ratio of the radiation emitted by the surface
at a given temperature to the radiation emitted by a blackbody at the same temperature
which is denoted by  ( 0    1 ).

The emissivity of a real surface is not a constant and varies with the temperature of
the surface as well as the wavelength and the direction of the emitted radiation. The
most elemental emissivity of a surface at a given temperature is the spectral
directional emissivity

I  ,e   ,  ,  , T 
  ,   , ,  , T  
I b   , T 

The total directional emissivity is defined in a like manner by using total intensities
(intensities integrated over all wavelengths) as

I e  ,  , T 
   ,  , T  
I b T 

The integral of the rate of radiation energy emitted at a specified wavelength per unit
surface area over the entire hemisphere is spectral emissive power; thus the spectral
hemispherical emissivity can be expressed as

E   , T 
  ,T  
Eb   , T 

Total hemispherical emissivity is defined in terms of the radiation energy emitted over
all wavelengths in all directions as

10
 
E T       , T  Eb   , T  d 
 T    0

Eb T  T 4

Therefore, the average emissivity can be determined by breaking the integral into
parts and utilizing the definition of the blackbody radiation function as

2 
 2  Eb   , T  d   n  Eb   , T  d 
1
1  Eb   , T  d 
 T   
1 n
0
 or
Eb T  Eb T  Eb T 

 T    1 f 0   T    2 f     T      n f 
1 1 2 n 
T 

For example, the spectral emissivity function of an opaque surface at 800 K is

1  0.3, 0    3  m

approximated as  2  0.8, 3    7  m . Find the emissive power.
  0.1, 7      m
 3

 T  3 μm  800 K  2400 μm  K  f   800 K   0.140256

For  1 and  1 ,
2T  7 μm  800 K  5600 μm  K  f 2  800 K   0.701046

 T   1 f 0 T    2 f   T    3 f   T 
1 1 2 2

 0.3  0.140256  0.8   0.701046  0.140256   0.1 1  0.701046 

 0.521

The emissive power of the surface is

E   T 4  0.521 5.67  10 8 W/m 2  K 4   800 K   12.1 kW/m 2

4

※ Diffuse and Gray Assumptions

The gray and diffuse approximations are often utilized in radiation calculations. A
surface is said to be diffuse if its properties are independent of direction, and gray if
its properties are independent of wavelength.

Although real surfaces do not emit radiation in a perfectly diffuse manner as a

blackbody does, they often come close. The variation of emissivity with direction for
both electrical conductors and nonconductors is shown in the below figure on the left
where  remains nearly constant for about   40 for conductors such as metals
11
and for   70 for nonconductors such as plastics.

Ref: "Heat and Mass Transfer: Fundamentals and Applications" by Yunus A. Çengel
and Afshin J. Ghajar, 4th Ed. in SI Units, McGraw-Hill, 2011 (ISBN
78-007-131112-0).

A gray surface should emit as much radiation as the real surface it represents at the
same temperature. Therefore, the areas under the emission curves of the real and gray
surfaces must be equal like the above figure on the right.

※ Absorptivity, Reflectivity, and Transmissivity

When radiation strikes a surface, part of it is absorbed, part of it is reflected, and the
remaining part, if any, is transmitted. The fraction of irradiation absorbed by the
surface is called the absorptivity  , the fraction reflected by the surface is called the
reflectivity  , and the fraction transmitted is called the transmissivity  . That is,

 Absorbed radiation Gabs

  Incident radiation  G , 0    1

 reflected radiation Gref
   , 0   1
 Incident radiation G
 Transmitted radiation Gtr
  Incident radiation  G , 0    1


The first law of thermodynamics requires that the sum of the absorbed, reflected, and
transmitted radiation energy be equal to the incident radiation.

Gabs  Gref  Gtr  G       1

where

12
     1  opaque

    1  zero reflection
  1  blackbody


These definitions are for total hemispherical properties, since G represents the
radiation flux incident on the surface from all directions over the hemispherical space
and over all wavelengths. Thus,  ,  , and  are the average properties of a
medium for all directions and all wavelengths. The spectral directional properties can
be expressed at a specified wavelength in a specified direction

 I  ,abs   ,  ,  
  ,   ,  ,   
 I, i  
 I  ,ref   ,  ,  

   ,   ,  ,   
 I , i  

  ,   , ,     ,tr 
I  , ,  
 I , i   

Likewise, the spectral hemispherical properties of a surface are defined as

 G ,abs   
     
 G   
 G ,ref   

     
 G   
 G  
       ,tr
 G   

which can be used for the calculations of total hemispherical properties

 

  0  
 G d
 

 0
G d 
 

      
0  G d 


0 G d 



     0  
 G d
  

 0
G d 

The reflectivity differs somewhat from the other properties in that it is bidirectional in
13
nature. That is, the value of the reflectivity of a surface depends not only on the
direction of the incident radiation but also the direction of reflection. For simplicity,
surfaces are assumed to reflect in a perfectly specular or diffuse manner. In specular
(or mirrorlike) reflection, the angle of reflection equals the angle of incidence of the
radiation beam (smooth and polished surfaces). In diffuse reflection, radiation is
reflected equally in all directions (rough surfaces). In radiation analysis, a surface is
said to be smooth if the height of the surface roughness is much smaller than the
wavelength of the incident radiation.

Unlike emissivity, the absorptivity of a material is practically independent of surface

temperature but depends strongly on the temperature of the source at which the
incident radiation is originating. Notice that in general, the absorptivity of metals
increases with the source temperature and that of electric nonconductors decreases
with source temperature. This decrease is most pronounced for surfaces that appear
white to the eye.

※ Kirchhoff’s Law

Consider a small body of surface area As, emissivity  , and absorptivity  at

temperature T contained in a large isothermal enclosure at the same temperature. A
large isothermal enclosure forms a blackbody cavity regardless of the radiative
properties of the enclosure surface, and assume the body in the enclosure is too small
to interfere with the blackbody nature of the cavity. Therefore, the radiation incident
on any part of the surface of the small body is equal to the radiation emitted by a
blackbody at temperature T under thermal equilibrium (net rate of heat transfer to the
body must be zero)

Gabs   G   T 4
 and therefore As T 4  As T 4
 Eemit   T
4

Thus, we conclude that the total hemispherical emissivity of a surface at temperature

T is equal to its total hemispherical absorptivity for radiation coming from a
blackbody at the same temperature (Kirchhoff’s law, Gustav Kirchhoff, 1860)

 T    T  (diffuse + gray or ∆T→0)

The derivation above can also be repeated for radiation at a specified wavelength to
obtain the spectral form of Kirchhoff’s law when the irradiation or the emitted
radiation is independent of direction

14
   T      T  (diffuse)

The form of Kirchhoff’s law that involves no restrictions is the spectral directional
form

  , T     , T  (no restriction)

That is, the emissivity of a surface at a specified wavelength, direction, and

temperature is always equal to its absorptivity at the same wavelength, direction, and
temperature. Note that, care should be exercised when there is considerable difference
between the surface temperature and the temperature of the source of incident
radiation.

For example, consider a surface exposed to solar radiation ( Gsolar  676 W/m 2 ). The

surface temperature is observed to be 320 K at that time. Assuming an effective sky

temperature of 260 K, determine the net rate of radiation heat transfer for these cases

  0.9,   0.9 (gray absorber surface)

  0.1,   0.1 (gray reflector surface)


  0.9,   0.1 (selective absorber surface)
  0.1,   0.9 (selective reflector surface)

The net rate of radiation heat transfer for each of the four cases is determined from

q net rad   Gsolar   Tsky

4
 Ts4 

q net rad  0.9  676 W/m 2   0.9  5.67  10 8 W/m 2  K 4   260 K    320 K  
4 4

(a)  
 307 W/m 2

q net rad  0.1 676 W/m 2   0.1 5.67  10 8 W/m 2  K 4   260 K    320 K  
4 4

(b)  
 34 W/m 2

q net rad  0.9  676 W/m 2   0.1  5.67  108 W/m 2  K 4   260 K    320 K  
4 4

(c)  
 575 W/m 2

15
 q net rad  0.1 676 W/m 2   0.9  5.67  10 8 W/m 2  K 4   260 K    320 K  
4 4

(d)  
 234 W/m 2

※ The Greenhouse Effect

Glass has a transparent window in the wavelength range 0.3 μm < λ < 3 μm in which
over 90 percent of solar radiation is emitted. On the other hand, the entire radiation
emitted by surfaces at room temperature falls in the infrared region where glass is
practically opaque. Consequently, glass allows the solar radiation to enter but does not
allow the infrared radiation from the interior surfaces to escape. This nongray
characteristic of glass causes a rise in the interior temperature which is known as the
greenhouse effect.

The combustion gases such as CO2 and water vapor in the atmosphere transmit the
bulk of the solar radiation but absorb the infrared radiation emitted by the surface of
the earth. Thus, there is concern that the energy trapped on earth will eventually cause
global warming and thus drastic changes in weather patterns.

In humid places such as coastal areas, there is not a large change between the daytime
and nighttime temperatures, because the humidity acts as a barrier on the path of the
infrared radiation coming from the earth, and thus slows down the cooling process at
night. In areas with clear skies such as deserts, there is a large swing between the
daytime and nighttime temperatures because of the absence of such barriers for
infrared radiation.

※ Atmospheric and Solar Radiation

The energy coming off the sun (in the form of electromagnetic waves) is called solar
energy after experiencing considerable interactions with the atmosphere. The
radiation energy emitted or reflected by the constituents of the atmosphere form the
atmospheric radiation.

The solar energy reaching the earth’s atmosphere is called the total solar irradiance Gs

Gs  1373 W/m 2

which represents the rate at which solar energy is incident on a surface normal to the
sun’s rays at the outer edge of the atmosphere when the earth is at its mean distance
from the sun. It is also used to estimate the effective surface temperature of the sun,
5778 K

16
  4 L  G   4 r  T
2
s
2 4
sun

where L is the mean distance between the sun’s center and the earth and r is the radius
of the sun. The left-hand side of this equation represents the total solar energy passing
through a spherical surface whose radius is the mean earth–sun distance, and the
right-hand side represents the total energy that leaves the sun’s outer surface.

※ Air Mass

Solar radiation undergoes considerable attenuation as it passes through the

atmosphere as a result of absorption and scattering. The several dips on the spectral
distribution of radiation on the earth’s surface are due to absorption by the gases O2,
O3 (ozone), H2O, and CO2. Absorption by oxygen occurs in a narrow band about 0.76
μm. The ozone absorbs ultraviolet radiation at wavelengths below 0.3 μm almost
completely, and radiation in the range 0.3–0.4 μm considerably. As a result of these
absorptions, the solar energy reaching the earth’s surface is weakened considerably, to
about 950 W/m2 on a clear day and much less on cloudy or smoggy days.

Another mechanism that attenuates solar radiation as it passes through the atmosphere
is scattering or reflection by air molecules and the many other kinds of particles such
as dust, smog, and water droplets suspended in the atmosphere. Scattering is mainly
governed by the size of the particle relative to the wavelength of radiation. The
oxygen and nitrogen molecules primarily scatter radiation at very short wavelengths,
comparable to the size of the molecules themselves (Rayleigh scattering). Therefore,
radiation at wavelengths corresponding to violet and blue colors is scattered the most.
This molecular scattering in all directions is what gives the sky its bluish color. The
same phenomenon is responsible for red sunrises and sunsets. Early in the morning
and late in the afternoon, the sun’s rays pass through a greater thickness of the
atmosphere than they do at midday, when the sun is at the top. Therefore, the violet
and blue colors of the light encounter a greater number of molecules by the time they
reach the earth’s surface, and thus a greater fraction of them are scattered.

Question: In this case, why is sunset more reddish than sunrise? Because dust
particles settle during night time so less scattering plus the Doppler Effect.

In order to describe how thick of the atmosphere did the solar radiation gone through
before reaching Earth’s surface, air mass is refined as

AM 1/cos 

17
where  is the zenith angle of the sun. AM0 (zero atmospheres), AM1 (one
atmosphere thickness, normal incidence) and AM1.5 (1.5 atmosphere thickness,
corresponds to a solar zenith angle of 48.2°) are most commonly used. For the
characterization of solar cells, the standard spectrum at the Earth's surface is called
AM1.5G, (the G stands for global and includes both direct and diffuse radiation) or
AM1.5D (which includes direct radiation only). The intensity of AM1.5G radiation
can be approximated by reducing the AM0 spectrum by 28% (18% due to absorption
and 10% to scattering). This gives approximately 970 W/m2 for AM1.5G. However,
the standard AM1.5G spectrum has been normalized to give 1k W/m2 due to the
convenience of the round number and the fact that there are inherently variations in
incident solar radiation.

Ref: https://www.pveducation.org/pvcdrom/properties-of-sunlight/air-mass

With the zenith angle of the sun, the total solar energy incident on the unit area of a
horizontal surface on the ground can be defined by the direct solar radiation
component GD and the diffuse solar radiation component Gd (assumed uniformly from
all directions)

GSolar  GD cos  Gd

※ Effective Sky Temperature

The atmospheric emission is primarily due to the CO2 and H2O molecules and is
concentrated in the regions from 5 to 8 μm and above 13 μm. It is found convenient in
radiation calculations to treat the atmosphere as a blackbody at some lower fictitious
temperature that emits an equivalent amount of radiation energy. This fictitious
temperature is called the effective sky temperature Tsky. Then the radiation emission
from the atmosphere to the earth’s surface is expressed as

Gsky   Tsky
4

The value of Tsky depends on the atmospheric conditions. It ranges from about 230 K
for cold, clear-sky conditions to about 285 K for warm, cloudy-sky conditions. As the
effective sky temperature does not deviate much from the room temperature. Thus, in
the light of Kirchhoff’s law, we can take the absorptivity of a surface to be equal to its
emissivity at room temperature,    . Then the sky radiation absorbed by a surface
can be expressed as

18
 Esky, absorbed   GSky   Tsky
4
  Tsky
4

The net rate of radiation heat transfer to a surface exposed to solar and atmospheric
radiation is determined from an energy balance

qnet, rad   s GSolar   Tsky

4
 Ts4 

where Ts is the temperature of the surface in K and  is its emissivity at room

temperature.

19