MODULE-3

PROTECTION SYSTEMS
POWER SYSTEM PROTECTION
Power-system protection is a branch of electrical power engineering that deals with the detection and protection
of electrical power systems from faults through the isolation of faulted parts from the rest of the electrical network.

Need for the protection:

• The power system must maintain acceptable operation 24 hours a day.
• Voltage and frequency must stay within certain limits.
• Protect the public.
• Improve system stability.
• Minimize damage to equipment.
• Protect against overloads
Function of Protectives devices:
• Automatic operation, such as auto-re-closing or system restart.
• Monitoring equipment which collects data on the system for post event analysis.
Major advantages of protective devices are:
•Safety
•Economy
•Accuracy
Types of Protections:
• Over Load
• High Voltage Transmission
• Earth Fault
• Back-Up
Selection criteria of Protective devices:
• Certainty and reliability of operation under fault conditions and non-operation under normal conditions.
• Discrimination
• Rapidity of operation
• Simplicity, low initial and maintenance cost
• Easy adjustment and testing.
Overload: Overload protection requires a current transformer which simply measures the current in a circuit.
High Voltage Transmission: (Protection on the transmission and distribution serves two functions) At a
basic level, protection looks to disconnect equipment which experience an overload.
Earth Fault: Earth fault protection requires current transformers and senses an imbalance in a three-phase
circuit.
Back-Up: The objective of protection is to remove only the affected portion of plant and nothing else,
protective device coordination is the process of determining the "best fit" timing of current interruption when
abnormal electrical conditions occur. The goal is to minimize an outage to the greatest extent possible.

Protection systems usually comprise five components:

• Current and voltage transformers
• Protective relays
• Circuit breakers
• Batteries
• Fuses

✓ Current & Voltage Transformer: Current & Voltage Transformer to step down the high
voltages and currents of the electrical power system to convenient levels for the relay.
✓ Protective Relays: to sense the fault and initiate a trip, or disconnection.
✓ Circuit Breakers: to open/close the system based on relay and auto reclose commands.
✓ Batteries: to provide power in case of power disconnection in the system.
✓ Fuses: for parts of a distribution system, fuses are capable of both sensing and disconnecting
faults.
FUSES AND CIRCUIT BREAKERS:
• All Electrical Service Panels are equipped with fuses or circuit breakers
that protect the wires in each circuit from overheating and causing a fire.
• In general, older Service boxes or panels use fuses, while more modern
systems rely on Circuit Breakers.
• Fuses and Circuit Breakers are safety devices which help prevent FUSE
overloading of your home Electrical and Lighting Systems and can help
prevent Electrical Fires.
• These Electric Circuit Breakers and Electrical Fuses can stop the
continuous flow of Electrical current if they exceed the safe level of
current flow to the various portions of your home Electrical System.

DIFFERENCE BETWEEN RELAY AND CIRCUIT BREAKERS: CIRCUIT BREAKER

BASIS RELAY CIRCUIT BREAKER

Principle The Relay is a switching device Circuit breaker breaks the circuit
which gives a signal to the circuit automatically when receives the
breaker as soon as the fault occurs signal from the relay.
in the power system.
Working The Relay does not break the It breaks the circuit contacts.
contact. It only senses the error and
send the signal to the circuit
breaker.
Type of device The Relay is a switching and sensing The Circuit breaker is an isolating or
device. disconnecting device.
Voltage Relays operate on low power input The Circuit breaker is an automatic
voltage. on load device.
Usability It is used to control or select one It uses one per circuit.
among many circuits.
 ELECTRICAL FUSE
A fuse is a safety device which is connected in series to the circuit and protects the appliance or apparatus from possible damage when
abnormal current flows through it. A fuse is commonly used in domestic installation for this purpose. It consists of a porcelain base having fixed
contacts to which are connected the incoming and outgoing cables of the live wire.
The following are the main advantages of this design:
i. It facilitates easy renewal of the fuse wire and does not involve any danger of encountering it.
ii. It is very cheap to replace the fuse wire.
iii. It does not involve any possibilities of encountering the metallic covering.
These fuses are meant for low rupturing capacity and are not employed for the power circuit.

WORKING OF FUSE:
Fuse is the safety valve and the weakest part of the electrical system. It consists of a small link of
soft metal which melts when excessive current passes through it. The fuse wires are usually bare
wires and are made of lead and tin. Lead alloy for small current, up to 3-15 Amps and Tinned
copper wire issued for high current above 15Amps.

TYPES OF ELECCTRICAL FUSE- most common types in fuses are:

1. The Ordinary/Rewirable Fuse: this is simply a strip of metal, usually lead also called as the fuse
link through which electricity flows. This metal melts when more electricity flows and breaks the connection.
Cheapest form of operation, req. minimum time for replacement, no maintainace.
Unreliable operation- due to oxidation or lose connection of the wire.

2. The screw-Plug-Type Fuse- it is used on electric machinery circuits of 220Volts. This type of fuse
can be had in sizes from 3-30Amps and is constructed with either a porcelain or glass body which encloses
the fuse link.
 ELECTRICAL FUSE
TYPES OF ELECCTRICAL FUSE-
3. A knife blade Cartridges Fuse- This type of fuse is used mostly on heavy power
lines of 60-600Amps and 250volts and more. They are constructed with a heavy
fiber body, fitted with ferrules at each end and a heavy copper blade for making
contact with the circuit. The fuse link can easily renewed by moving the end ferrules
and inserting the new link.

4. The Ferrule type Cartridge Fuse- This type of fuses are of 2 types- the renewal or non-renewal.
The renewal type has a small screw plug in each end which can be renewed and the new link is inserted.
The body part this fuse is made of fiber with brass ferrule fasten to each end and can be had in sized
up to 100 amps and 250 volts.

5. H.R.C: (High Ruputuring Capacity) cartridge Fuses. These are used where the high
power is supplied. These have a definite known breaking capacity and a high value.
They are simple and easy to install, no maintainace, do not deteriorate with time, capable of
clearing high as well as low currents. After each operation replacement is required.

6. Time –Delay Fuse- It is a fuse which has the ability to carry over load currents for short
duration without melting. The heavier the over load, the less in the time required for the
fuse to “blow”. In most circuits where the starting currents are high but of short duration,
this type of fuse need not have as high rating as an ordinary fuse to permit the motor to be
started. Like the common fuse the time-delay fuse is also made in plug and cartridge types.
TYPES OF CIRCUIT BREAKERS:
MCB- Miniature Circuit Breaker:
MCB is an electro-mechanical device which operates and disconnects the particular circuit when it attains the pre-determined value. In
case of fault in current they operate automatically. An MCB is a quite good replacement of a fuse with most accurate and efficient system in
overload and short circuit protection. There is no serviceable part as such when they found defective, the whole unit should be replaced. The
functions of MCB’s are:
- They operate to cut off the circuit even on small overload current flow, such as 5% to 20%.
- Direct indication of faulty circuit is provided by the switching knob.
- Though the initial cost is more than re-wirable fuse unit but it is trouble free and gives safe protection.
- Any body can operate to revive the circuit as no tools etc. are needed.
- Rated current not more than 100 A.

Advantages of using MCB’s over Fuses:

- MCB’s are essentially tamper-proof as they have enclosures of a sealed type.
- These are available in plug-in design also, in which they can be pushed into circuit bus-bar even in energized
condition. Thus replacement is easy.
- MCB’s can assume the function of a switch as well as a protective device and consequently they may be used to
control, as well as protect, the circuits and apparatus.
TYPES OF CIRCUIT BREAKERS:
ELCB (Earth Leakage Circuit Breaker)/RCCB(Residual Current Circuit Breaker):
Earth Leakage Circuit Breakers are the devices designed to provide protection against
accidents by rapidly interrupting dangerous contact voltages which may be present in the faulty
electrical equipments as a result of ground faults, insufficient insulation, insulation failure or misuse etc.
- ELCB’s are of two types, voltage operated ELCB and current operated ELCB.
- Current operated are much more reliable in operations, easier to install and maintain.
- Phase (line), Neutral and Earth wire connected through ELCB.
- ELCB is working based on Earth leakage current.
- The amount of current flows through the phase (line) should return through neutral.
- Any mismatch between two currents flowing through phase and neutral is detected even in milliamps, it trip the circuit within 30Milisecondes.
- Working of ELCB could be checked by the test button at intervals.
- These are an extremely effective form of shock protection.
- Specification for ELCB should contain normal rated current, leakage current and the time duration within which the ELCB should trip.
- Some state electricity authorities in India insist on the use of ELCB in each of the domestic installation as a safety measure.

MCCB- Moulded Case Circuit Breaker:

- Rated current up to 1000 A.
- Trip current may be adjustable.
- Thermal or thermal-magnetic operation.

VCB- Vacuum Circuit Breaker:

• With rated current up to 3000 A,
• These breakers interrupt the arc in a vacuum bottle.
• These can also be applied at up to 35,000 V, they tend to have longer life expectancies than air circuit breakers.

ACB- Air Circuit Breaker:

• Rated current up to 10,000 A.
• Trip characteristics often fully adjustable including configurable trip thresholds and delays.
• Usually electronically controlled—some models are microprocessor controlled.
• Often used for main power distribution in large industrial plant, where the breakers are arranged in
draw-out enclosures for ease of maintenance.
 EARTHING
In electricity supply systems, the process of connecting metallic bodies of all the electrical apparatus and equipment to
huge mass of earth by a wire having negligible resistance is called Earthing.
Objectives of Earthing:
• To protect the operating personnel from danger of shock in case they come in contact with the charged frame due to
defective insulation.
• To maintain the line voltage constant under unbalanced load condition.
• Protection of the equipments
• Protection of large buildings and all machines fed from overhead
lines against lightning.
Applications Of Earthing:
• Protect human against lightning and earth fault condition
• Protect the premises against lightning and earth fault condition
• Provide low resistance and safe path for lightning and fault current.
Functions Of Earthing:
Equipment Earth : Path for fault current, lower touch voltage, protection against electric shock.
Lightening Earth : Low resistance path to diverse the current under lightening attack.
Telecom Earth : Signal Earth, reduce noise and interference, stabilize DC supply voltage and prevent electric shock.
Computer Earth : reduce interference, maintain supply voltages
TYPES OF EARTHING:
PLATE EARTHING:
•In this method a copper plate of 60cm x 60cm x 3.18cm or a GI
plate of the size 60cm x 60cm x 6.35cm is used for earthing.

•The plate is placed vertically down inside the ground at a depth

of 3m and is embedded in alternate layers of coal and salt for a
thickness of 15 cm.

•water is poured for keeping the earth electrode resistance value

well below a maximum of 5 ohms. The earth wire is securely
bolted to the earth plate. A cement masonry chamber is built
with a cast iron cover for easy regular maintenance.
PIPE EARTHING
•Earth electrode made of a GI (galvanized) iron pipe of 38mm
in diameter and length of 2m (depending on the current) with
12mm holes on the surface is placed upright at a depth of
4.75m max in a permanently wet ground.
•To keep the value of the earth resistance at the desired level,
the area (15 cms) surrounding the GI pipe is filled with a
mixture of salt and coal.
•The efficiency of the earthing system is improved by pouring
water through the funnel periodically.
•The GI earth wires of sufficient cross- sectional area are run
through a 12.7mm diameter pipe (at 60cms below) from the
19mm diameter pipe and secured tightly at the top as shown in
the following figure

When compared to the plate earth system the pipe earth system
can carry larger leakage currents as a much larger surface area
is in contact with the soil for a given electrode size.
The system also enables easy maintenance as the earth wire
connection is housed at the ground level.
FACTORS EFFECTING EARTHING INSTALLATION:
• A correctly designed and installed earthing system will safe-guard both lives and equipment.
• A good earth connection should have:
• Low electrical resistance to earth.
• Good corrosion resistance.
• Ability to carry high currents repeatedly.
• A reliable life of at least 30 years
• Soil resistivity is a crucial factor in obtaining a 'good earth’. It is a measure of how much the soil resists the flow of electricity.
Factors Affecting Soil Resistivity:
a) Physical Composition: Different soil compositions give different resistivities b) Temperature: When the ground becomes frozen, its
resistivity rises dramatically. An earth that may be
Typical resistivity Temperature Resistivity effective during temperate weather may become
Soil type
ohm-m ineffective in winter. Please note that, if your soil
Marshy Ground 2 - 2.7 degC ohm-m temperature decreases from +20°C to -5°C, the
resistivity increases more than 10 times.
Loam and clay 4 - 150 20 72
Chalk 600 - 400 10 99
Sand 90 - 8000
0 138
Peat More than 200
Sandy Gravel 300 - 500 -5 790
Rock More than 1000 -15 3300

c) Moisture:
Increased moisture content of the ground can rapidly decrease its resistivity. It is especially important to consider moisture content
in areas of high seasonal variation in rainfall. Wherever possible the earth electrode should be installed deep enough to reach the "water
table". or "permanent moisture level".
d) Chemical Composition:
Certain minerals and salts can affect soil resistivity. Their levels can vary with time due to rainfall or flowing water. Note that
although the addition of salt can lower soil resistivity, if not monitored regularly it may cause corrosion.
e) Selecting the Correct Earth Electrode
By reaching permanent moisture and frost free soil levels, low resistance should be achieved. Often these levels are some meters
below the surface and the most economical way of reaching them is by extensible deep driven earth rod electrodes. Quality earth
rods are commonly made from either solid copper, stainless steel or copper bonded steel. These days the copper bonded steel cored
rod is been the most popular, due to its combination of strength, corrosion resistance, and comparatively low cost.
ADAVANCE EARTHING METHODS:

Chemical earthing compound:

• Highly conductive earth-pit back fill.
• Capable of reducing soil resistivity by up to 90%
• Non- corrosive there by improving the life of the earthing system. does not damage the electrode metal in any way.
• Doesn't depend on ambient moisture to sustain the earth resistance values. thus performs in all weather conditions giving stable values.
• Compatible with all types of earthing electrodes, be it pipes, plates or rods of any metal.
• Can also be used in trenches made for horizontal type earthing systems.
• Increases the total surface area of the earthing electrode ensuring quick dissipation of fault currents.
• Maintains constant volume regardless of moisture content, doesn't shrink or expand maintaining constant contact with electrode and soil.
• Long shelf life; can be stored for very long periods without deterioration.
• Environmental friendly; does not pollute or contaminate the water table.

Earthing Kit:
• The Earth Kit is developed making earthing extremely hassle-free.
• The rod uses the material of low magnetic conductivity (Galvanized Iron (GI), Zinc, Copper, length of 120mm, rod diameter 10mm and current
carrying capacity of around 5KA).
• It comes with its complete accessories like clamps and earth enhancing compound for easy handling and storage purpose.
• It can be installed simply by digging a hole of suitable size, length and burring the earth rod into it, removing the outer cover and at last
watering it.
• The chemical attached with the rod has particles with strong abilities of water absorption ability that tightly bond the rod and surrounding soil
with great efficiency.
LIGHTNING SYSTEMS
 Lightning protection system is used to divert the electrical charge caused by lightning,
ensures safety to the building and its occupants when lightning strikes in the building surroundings.
Lightning protection system invented by Sir. Benjamin Franklin in the year 1752.
Lightning arrestors attract the lightning is a MYTH.

Main Components of LPS:

1. Air Terminal
2. Down Conductor/Conductor Cables
3. Earthing System
Working: In this system the electric charges from lightning is received by the air terminal
and is send through the down conductor to earth through the earthing system.
- Air terminal should be placed at highest point od the building, it could be made of any conductive metallic material.
- Bigger complexes might need more than one air terminal
- Air terminals are to be linked through down conductors of copper, Aluminium or G.I. metallic strips to the earthing system.
- Various shapes of air terminal will not effect its working capacity.
- If the roof is made up of flammable material then the air terminal is to be fixed at 0.15m above the roof.
- If the roof is made up of conductive material, then that itself can be used as air terminal.
- The down conductors should transfer the electrical charge speedily and efficiently to earth.
- At least two places the conductors need to be grounded for a building.

An effective lightning protection is achieved by following below mentioned points:

- Type of protection.
- Level of protection based on risk assessment.
- Technically qualified product as per latest and relevant IEC standard.
- Location of air terminal and coverage.
- Conductor routing and connections.
- Sufficient and required earthing provisions.
- Proper utilization of natural components as down conductor if applicable.

Design guidelines:
The following design guidelines need to be ensured for safer installation of the Lightning Protective System:
- A down-conductor should be installed at each exposed corner of the structure where this is possible.
- The down-conductors should form a direct continuation of the air-termination conductors.
- Straight and vertical so that they provide the shortest and most direct path to earth.
- The formation of loops in bringing the down conductor shall be avoided.
- Insufficient conductor dimensions should be strictly avoided.
QUESTIONS Asked in pervious VTU papers:

1. Explain the need of protective devices in building electrical systems and their selection criteria.

2. Explain the over current protection device- Miniature Circuit Breakers (MCB), Earth leakage Circuit Breaker
(ELCB) with neat sketches.

3. Explain importance of earthing system in the buildings. Explain the plate & pipe earthing system in detail.

4. Define a fuse. Explain with sketches, any two types of fuses, in detail.

5. Explain the importance and working of lightening protection system in the buildings.