MATERIALS SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING (BES03b)

VALLES, ROCEL A. MARCH 26, 2024

BSECE 3 GG ENGR. ERNEST SISON

CHAPTER 4 IMPERFECTIONS IN SOLIDS

LEARNING OBJECTIVES
1. Describe both vacancy and self-interstitial crystalline defects.
• Vacancy is normally occupied lattice site from which an atom or ion is missing. The equilibrium
number of vacancies for a given quantity of material depends on and increases with temperature.
On the other hand, self-interstitial crystalline defects is an atom from the crystal that is crowded
into an interstitial site, a small void space that under ordinary circumstances is not occupied.

2. Calculate the equilibrium number of vacancies in a material at some specified temperature,

given the relevant constants.

3. Name the two types of solid solutions and provide a brief written definition and/or schematic
sketch of each.
• Substitutional solid solution- A solid solution wherein the solute atoms replace or substitute for
the host atoms. Appreciable solubility is possible only when atomic diameters and
electronegativities for both atom types are similar, when both elements have the same crystal
structure, and when the impurity atoms have a valence that is the same as or less than the host
material
• Interstitial solid solution- form for relatively small impurity atoms that occupy interstitial sites
among the host atoms.
4. Given the masses and atomic weights of two or more elements in a metal alloy, calculate the
weight percent and atom percent for each element.
- It is often necessary to express the composition (= concentration) of an alloy in terms of its
constituent elements:

• weight percent C1 • atomic percent C1’

5. For each of edge, screw, and mixed dislocations:

(a) describe and make a drawing of the dislocation,
(b) note the location of the dislocation line, and
(c) indicate the direction along which the dis location line extends.

EDGE DISLOCATION
- It occurs when an extra plane or layer of atoms extends part way into the crystal, which
causes atoms in that region of crystal to be compressed, but in the region where the extra
plane does not extend, they are spread apart.

SCREW DISLOCATION
- It is a topological defect of a crystal lattice. If one moves around the dislocation, the lattice
plane shifts by one layer (or more layers), like a spiral staircase. The Burgers vector of a
screw dislocation is parallel to the dislocation line.
 MIXED DISLOCATION
- it is a dislocation in which the angle between the Burgers vector and the dislocation line
lies between 0° and 90° and possesses, therefore, components of both edge and screw
dislocations.

6. Describe the atomic structure within the vicinity of (

a) a grain boundary
- In the vicinity of a grain boundary, the atomic structure exhibits a discontinuity or
misalignment in the arrangement of atoms. Grain boundaries occur at the interfaces between
adjacent crystalline grains in polycrystalline grains in polycrystalline materials. At theses
boundaries, the lattice structure transitions abruptly from one orientation to another, leading
to a deviation from the regular atomic arrangement within the bulk of the grains. This can
result in the formation pf defects such as dislocations and vacancies, as well as changes in
mechanical, electrical, and thermal properties.
(b) a twin boundary.
- twin boundaries are interfaces within a single crystal where the atomic arrangement on one
side mirrors that of the other side across the boundary. Twin boundaries occur due to
symmetrical atomic arrangements that are present in certain crystal structures. It is typically
forms during crystal growth or due to mechanical; deformation processes. At twin
boundaries, there is coherent alignment of atoms across the boundary, resulting in a distinct
structural feature within the crystal lattice.

IMPORTANT TERMS AND CONCEPTS

• Alloy - A metallic substance that is composed of two or more elements.
• Atomic Vibration - The vibration of an atom about its normal position in a substance.
• Atom Percent- A concentration specification on the basis of the number of moles (or atoms) of a
particular element relative to the total number of moles (or atoms) of all elements within an
alloy.
• Boltzmann’s Constant - A thermal energy constant having the value of 1.38 (8.62 10 23 J/atom K
# 10 5 eV/atom K).
• Burgers Vector - A vector that denotes the magnitude and direction of lattice distortion
associated with a dislocation.
• Composition - The relative con tent of a particular element or constituent (i) within an alloy,
usually expressed in weight percent or atom percent.
• Dislocation Line - The line that ex tends along the end of the extra half-plane of atoms for an
edge dis location, and along the center of the spiral of a screw dislocation.
• Edge Dislocation - A linear crystalline defect associated with the lattice distortion produced in
the vicinity of the end of an extra half-plane of atoms within a crystal. The Burgers vector is
perpendicular to the dis location line.
• Grain Size - The average grain diameter as determined from a random cross section.
• Imperfection - A deviation from perfection; normally applied to crystalline materials wherein
there is a deviation from atomic/molecular order and/or continuity.
• Interstitial Solid Solution - A solid solution wherein relatively small solute atoms occupy
interstitial positions between the solvent or host atoms.
• Microscopy - The investigation of microstructural elements using some type of microscope.
• Microstructure - The structural features of an alloy (e.g., grain and phase structure) that are
subject to observation under a microscope.
• Mixed Dislocation - A dislocation that has both edge and screw components.
• Photomicrograph - A photograph made with a microscope that records a microstructural image.
• Point Defect - A crystalline defect associated with one or, at most, several atomic sites.
• Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM) - A microscope that pro duces an image by using an
electron beam that scans the surface of a specimen; an image is produced by reflected electron
beams. Examination of surface and/or microstructural features at high magnifications is
possible.
• Scanning Probe Microscope (SPM) - A microscope that does not produce an image using light
radiation. Rather, a very small and sharp probe raster scans across the specimen surface; out-of-
surface plane de flections in response to electronic or other interactions with the probe are
monitored, from which a topo graphical map of the specimen sur sintering. Particle coalescence
of a powdered aggregate by diffusion that is accomplished by firing at an elevated temperature.
slip. Plastic deformation as the result of dislocation motion; also, the shear displacement of two
adjacent planes of atoms. slip casting. A forming technique used for some ceramic materials. A
slip, or suspension of solid particles in water, is poured into a porous mold. A solid layer forms
on the inside wall as water is absorbed by the mold, leaving a shell (or ultimately a solid piece)
having the shape of the mold. slip system. The combination of a crystallographic plane and,
within that plane, a crystallographic direction along which slip (i.e., dislocation motion) occurs.
softening point (glass). The maxi mum temperature at which a glass piece may be handled
without permanent deformation; this corresponds to a viscosity of approximately 4 # # 106 Pa s
(4 face (on a nanometer scale) is produced.
• Screw Dislocation - A linear crystalline defect associated with the lattice distortion created
when normally parallel planes are joined together to form a helical ramp. The Burgers vector is
parallel to the dis location line.
• Self-Interstitial - A host atom or ion that is positioned on an interstitial lattice site.
• Solid Solution - A homogeneous crystalline phase that contains two or more chemical species.
Both substitutional and interstitial solid solutions are possible.
• Solute - One component or element of a solution present in a minor concentration. It is
dissolved in the solvent.
• Solvent -The component of a solution present in the greatest amount. It is the component that
dissolves a solute.
• Substitutional Solid Solution - A solid solution wherein the solute atoms replace or substitute
for the host atoms.
• Transmission Electron Microscope (TEM) - A microscope that pro duces an image by using
electron beams that are transmitted (pass through) the specimen. Examination of internal
features at high magnifications is possible.
• Vacancy - A normally occupied lattice site from which an atom or ion is missing.
• Weight Percent - A concentration specification on the basis of weight (or mass) of a particular
element relative to the total alloy weight (or mass).
CHAPTER 5 DIFFUSION
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
1. Name and describe the two atomic mechanisms of diffusion.
• The two atomic mechanisms of diffusion are interstitial diffusion and vacancy diffusion. Vacancy
diffusion the diffusion mechanism wherein net atomic migration is from a lattice site to an
adjacent vacancy while interstitial diffusion is the diffusion mechanism whereby atomic motion
is from interstitial site to interstitial site.
2. Distinguish between steady-state and not steady state diffusion.
• Steady-state diffusion is the diffusion condition for which there is no net accumulation or
depletion of diffusing species. The diffusion flux is independent of time. On the other hand, non-
steady-state diffusion the diffusion condition for which there is some net accumulation or
depletion of diffusing species. The diffusion flux is dependent on time.

3. (a)Write Fick’s first and second laws in equation form and define all parameters.
(b)Note the kind of diffusion for which each of these equations is normally applied.
Fick’s first law— diffusion flux for steady-state diffusion (in one direction)

Where:
J = flux, units = mol m-2s-1
D = diffusion coefficient, units m2s
negative sign = direction of diffusion is down the concentration gradient, from a high to a low
concentration
c = concentration of the gradient with units m-3
Fick’s second law— diffusion equation for nonsteady-state diffusion (in one direction)

Where:
rate of change of concentration in a certain area

= changes that change in concentration can take

D = diffusion coefficient

4. Write the solution to Fick’s second law for diffusion into a semi-infinite solid when the
concentration of diffusing species at the surface is held constant. Define all parameters in this
equation.

Where:
• 𝐶(𝑥,𝑡) is the concentration of the diffusing species at depth x into the solid at time t.
• 𝐶𝑜 is the concentration of the diffusing species at the surface of the solid, which remains
constant over time.
• Erf is the error function
• 𝐷 is the is the diffusion coefficient or diffusivity of the diffusing species in the solid.
• 𝑥 is the distance into the solid from the surface.
• 𝑡 is the time of diffusion

5. Calculate the diffusion coefficient for some material at a specified temperature, given the
appropriate diffusion constants.
IMPORTANT TERMS AND CONCEPTS
• Activation Energy - The energy required to initiate a reaction, such as diffusion.
• Carburizing - The process by which the surface carbon concentration of a ferrous alloy is
increased by diffusion from the surrounding environment
• Concentration Gradient - The slope of the concentration pro file at a specific position.
• Concentration Profile - The curve that results when the concentration of a chemical species is
plotted versus position in a material.
• Diffusion - Mass transport by atomic motion.
• Diffusion Coefficient - The constant of proportionality between the diffusion flux and the
concentration gradient in Fick’s first law. Its magnitude is indicative of the rate of atomic
diffusion.
• Diffusion Flux - The quantity of mass diffusing through and perpendicular to a unit cross-
sectional area of material per unit time.
• Driving Force - The impetus behind a reaction, such as diffusion, grain growth, or a phase
transformation. Usually attendant to the reaction is a reduction in some type of energy (e.g.,
free energy).
• Fick’s First Law - The diffusion flux is proportional to the concentration gradient. This
relationship is employed for steady-state diffusion situations.
• Fick’s Second Law - The time rate of change of concentration is proportional to the second
derivative of concentration. This relationship is employed in nonsteady-state diffusion
situations.
• Interdiffusion (Impurity Diffusion) - Diffusion of atoms of one metal into another metal.
• Interstitial Diffusion - A diffusion mechanism whereby atomic motion is from interstitial site to
interstitial site.
• Non-steady-State Diffusion - The diffusion condition for which there is some net accumulation
or depletion of diffusing species. The diffusion flux is dependent on time.
• Self-Diffusion - Atomic migration in pure metals.
• Steady-State Diffusion - The diffusion condition for which there is no net accumulation or
depletion of diffusing species. The diffusion flux is independent of time.
• Vacancy Diffusion - The diffusion mechanism wherein net atomic migration is from a lattice site
to an adjacent vacancy.