L. D.

College of Engineering College,

Ahmedabad

Design of Machine Elements and Transmission System (3144101)

Lecture_2
Design Against Static Load-I

Prof. Mahendra Y Patil

Asso. Prof. Mechanical Engineering
Mechanical Engineering Department

Program:- BE (Robotics & Automation) Sem: 4

 Learning Outcomes
Outcomes of the lecture
Students will able to :
 Understand the importance of materials, its properties
and its selection criteria in design

 Understand the different modes of failures

 Understand the concept of stress and strains

 Understand the different types of stresses and strains

and their relations

 Understand Selection and importance of factor of safety

 STRESS–STRAIN DIAGRAMS

A very useful information concerning the behaviour of material and its

usefulness for engineering applications can be obtained by making a
tension test and plotting a curve showing the variation of stress
with respect to strain.
A tension test is one of the simplest and basic tests and determines
values of number of parameters concerned with mechanical
properties of materials like strength, ductility and toughness.
 Selection of Engineering Materials
The selection of materials is one of the important steps in the design of
a machine element. In fact, the design of any machine element begins
with the selection of a material.
There are a large number of engineering materials available and many
more are adding up day by day. The material selection is not an easy job
and involves the trial and error method.

The choice of the materials for a given application depends upon the
following factors:

1) Availability of materials:
The materials which are available readily and in abundance in the
market should be selected. As far as possible, the materials which are
not available easily should be avoided.
 Selection of Engineering Materials
2) Cost of material:
The cost plays a significant role in the success of the product. The
material should be selected such that the total cost should be
minimum and within the specified limit.
The total cost includes : the cost of material and the cost of
processing the material.
3) Manufacturing considerations
The manufacturing considerations play a vital role in the material
selection. The selected material should be suitable for the required
manufacturing processes.
For example, if the body of the machine is to be made by casting
process, the material suitable for the casting process must be
selected. However, if the material is found suitable from all other
considerations, sometimes the manufacturing process can be
changed, if feasible.
 Selection of Engineering Materials
4. Material properties:
The material properties, in general, and mechanical properties, in
particular, govern the selection of the materials.
The different mechanical properties considered are :
static strength, fatigue Strength, stiffness, elasticity, plasticity,
ductility, brittleness, malleability, hardness, toughness, resilience,
creep, etc.
 Mechanical Properties of Materials
1) Strength is defined as the ability of the material to resist, without
rupture, external forces causing various types of stresses.
• Strength is measured by different quantities. Depending upon the
type of stresses induced by external loads, strength is expressed as
tensile strength, compressive strength or shear strength.
• Tensile strength is the ability of the material to resist external load
causing tensile stress, without fracture.
• Compressive strength is the ability to resist external load that
causes compressive stress, without failure.
 Mechanical Properties of Materials
2) Elasticity is defined as the ability of the material to regain its original
shape and size after the deformation, when the external forces are
removed.
3) Plasticity is defined as the ability of the material to retain the
deformation produced under the load on a permanent basis.
Elasticity Plasticity
The amount of elastic deformation is very plastic deformation is relatively
small more.
During elastic deformation, atoms of metal During plastic deformation, atoms
are temporarily displaced from their of metal are permanently displaced
original positions but return back when from their original positions and take
the load is removed. up new positions.
For majority of materials, the stress–strain non-linear in the plastic range.
relationship is linear in the elastic range
Elasticity is an important consideration in Plasticity is desirable for components
machine-tool components made by press working operations.
4) Stiffness or rigidity is defined as the ability of the material to resist
deformation under the action of an external load.
• Modulus of elasticity is the measure of stiffness.
5) Resilience is defined as the ability of the material to absorb energy when
deformed elastically and to release this energy when unloaded.
• A resilient material absorbs energy within elastic range without any
permanent deformation.
• Resilience is measured by a quantity, called modulus of resilience, which
is the strain energy per unit volume that is required to stress the
specimen in a tension test to the elastic limit point.
6) Toughness is defined as the ability of the material to absorb energy before
fracture takes place.
• OR toughness is the energy for failure by fracture.
• This property is essential for machine components which are required
to withstand impact loads.
• Tough materials have the ability to bend, twist or stretch before failure
takes place.
 Resilience Toughness
Resilience is the ability of the material Toughness is the ability to absorb energy
to absorb energy within elastic range. within elastic and plastic range.
Modulus of resilience is the area below the Modulus of toughness is the
stress–strain curve in a tension test up to total area below the stress–strain curve.
the yield point.
Resilience is essential in spring applications toughness is required for components
subjected to bending, twisting, stretching or
to impact loads.
Example: Spring steels Structural steels
7) Malleability is defined as the ability of a material to deform to a
greater extent before the sign of crack, when it is subjected to
compressive force.
8) Ductility is defined as the ability of a material to deform to a greater
extent before the sign of crack, when it is subjected to tensile force.

Malleability Ductility
Malleability is the ability of a material to Ductility is the ability to deform under
deform under compressive force. tensile force.
Malleability increases with Ductility decreases with increasing
temperature. temperature.
All ductile materials are also malleable. the converse is not true
Malleability is an important property Ductility is desirable when the
when the component is forged, rolled or component is formed or drawn. It is also
extruded. desirable when the machine component
is subjected to shock loads.
9) Brittleness is the property of a material which shows negligible
plastic deformation before fracture takes place. Brittleness is the
opposite to ductility.
10) Hardness is defined as the resistance of the material to penetration
or permanent deformation.
• It usually indicates resistance to abrasion, scratching, cutting or
shaping.
• Hardness is an important property in the selection of material for
parts which rub on one another such as pinion and gear, cam and
follower, rail and wheel and parts of ball bearing.
11) Creep is defined as the slow and progressive deformation of
material / machine component at constant stress and elevated
temperature.
 Fundamentals of Stress and Strain
Load: It is defined as any external force acting upon a machine
part.

Types of Load:

1. Dead or steady or Static load: is defined as a force, which is

gradually applied to a mechanical component and which does not
change its magnitude or direction with respect to time.
2. Live or variable load: A load is said to be a live or variable load,
when it changes continually.
3. Suddenly applied or shock loads: A load is said to be a suddenly
applied or shock load, when it is suddenly applied or removed.
4. Impact load: A load is said to be an impact load, when it is
applied with some initial velocity.
 Modes of Failure
Basically there are three modes of failure:
(i) failure by elastic deflection;
(ii) failure by general yielding; and
(iii) failure by fracture.

 Failure by elastic deflection

Example: Transmission shaft supporting gears, the maximum force acting on the
shaft, without affecting its performance, is limited by the permissible elastic
deflection.
Buckling of columns or vibrations (permissible lateral or torsional deflection)
The stresses induced in the component are not significant and the properties of
the material, such as yield strength or ultimate tensile strength, are not of
primary importance. The modules of elasticity and rigidity are the important
properties and the dimensions of the component are determined by the
load-deflection equations.
 Modes of Failure
 Failure general yielding
A mechanical component made of ductile material loses its engineering
usefulness due to a large amount of plastic deformation after the yield point
stress is reached. Considerable portion of the component is subjected to plastic
deformation, called general yielding.

 Failure of ductile materials is due to yielding and therefore yield strength is

considered for the design.

 Failure of brittle materials is sudden, therefore ultimate tensile strength is

considered for the design.

 Failure by fracture

What is the difference between failure and fracture?

The term failure means the component/machine fails functionally. (eg: excessive
deflection, buckling, creep, corrosion, cracking, fatigue ductile and brittle fracture
etc.) whereas fracture means the separation of component into two or more
pieces under the action of load.
 Types of Stresses

Stress: When some external system of forces or loads act on a

body, the internal forces (equal and opposite) are set up at various
sections of the body, which resist the external forces. This internal
force per unit area at any section of the body is known as unit
stress or simply a stress.
It is denoted by a Greek letter sigma (σ).
Mathematically,
Stress, σ = P/A
where P = Force or load acting on a body, and
A = Cross-sectional area of the body.
In S.I. units, the stress is usually expressed in Pascal (Pa) such that
1 Pa = 1 N/m2.
 Types of Stresses
Strain: When a system of forces or loads act on a body, it undergoes
some deformation. This deformation per unit length is known as
unit strain or simply a strain.
It is denoted by a Greek letter epsilon (ε).
Mathematically, Strain, ε = δl / l or δl = ε.l
where δl = Change in length of the body, and
l = Original length of the body.

Tensile Stress and Strain:

Compressive Stress and Strain
Young's Modulus of Elasticity (E) E = σ / ε
E is the property of the material
 Types of Stresses
Shear Stress and Strain
When a body is subjected to two equal and opposite forces acting
tangentially across the resisting section, as a result of which the
body tends to shear off the section, then the stress induced is called
shear stress.
The corresponding strain is known as shear strain and it is
measured by the angular deformation accompanying the shear
stress.
The shear stress and shear strain are denoted by the Greek letters
tau (τ) and phi (φ) respectively. Mathematically,
Shear stress, τ = Tangential force / Resisting area
 Types of Stresses
Shear Modulus or Modulus of Rigidity (G)
It has been found experimentally that within the elastic limit, the
shear stress is directly proportional to shear strain.
Mathematically
τ ∝ φ or τ=C.φ or τ/φ=C
where τ = Shear stress,
φ = Shear strain, and
C = Constant of proportionality, known as shear modulus or
modulus of rigidity. It is also denoted by N or G.
 Types of Stresses
Bearing Stress or Crushing Stress:
A localised compressive stress at the surface of contact between two
members of a machine part, that are relatively at rest is known as
bearing stress or crushing stress.
The bearing stress is taken into account in the design of riveted
joints, cotter joints, knuckle joints, etc.
Let us consider a riveted joint subjected to a load P as shown in
figure. In such a case, the bearing stress or crushing stress (stress at
the surface of contact between the rivet and a plate),
σb (or σc) = P / d t n
where d = Diameter of the rivet,
t = Thickness of the plate,
d.t = Projected area of the rivet, and
n = Number of rivets per pitch length in bearing or crushing.
 Types of Stresses
Bearing Pressure (pb):
The local compression which exists at the surface of contact
between two members of a machine part that are in relative
motion, is called bearing pressure (not the bearing stress).
This term is commonly used in the design of a journal supported in
a bearing, pins for levers, crank pins, clutch lining, etc.
The journal exerts a bearing pressure on the curved surfaces of the
brasses immediately below it.
Thus, the average bearing pressure for a
journal supported in a bearing is given by
pb = P / l d
where pb = Average bearing pressure,
P = Radial load on the journal,
l = Length of the journal in contact, and
d = Diameter of the journal.
 Types of Stresses
Another types of stresses are
1) Stresses due to bending moment
2) Stresses due to twisting moment
3) Eccentric axial loading
 Factor of Safety

Working Stress:
When designing machine parts, it is desirable to keep the stress
lower than the maximum or ultimate stress at which failure of the
material takes place. This stress is known as the working stress
or design stress. It is also known as safe or allowable stress.
Factor of Safety:
While designing a component, it is necessary to provide sufficient
reserve strength in case of an accident. This is achieved by taking
a suitable factor of safety (fs) or FS.
OR It is defined, in general, as the ratio of the maximum stress
to the working stress.
Mathematically,
Factor of safety = Maximum stress / Working or design
stress
 Factor of Safety
The allowable stress is the stress value, which is used in design to
determine the dimensions of the component. It is considered as a
stress, which the designer expects will not be exceeded under
normal operating conditions.

Where Syt and Sut are the yield strength and the ultimate tensile
strength of the material respectively.
 Factor of Safety
Selection of Factor of Safety
The selection of a proper factor of safety to be used in designing any machine
component depends upon a number of considerations. Before selecting a
proper factor of safety, a design engineer should consider the following points;

1. The reliability of the properties of the material and change of these

properties during service ;
2. The reliability of test results and accuracy of application of these results to
actual machine parts ;
3. The reliability of applied load ;
4. The certainty as to exact mode of failure ;
5. The extent of simplifying assumptions ;
6. The extent of localised stresses ;
7. The extent of initial stresses set up during manufacture ;
8. The extent of loss of life if failure occurs ; and
9. The extent of loss of property if failure occurs.
 Factor of Safety
Factors affecting value of Factor of Safety (FOS):
1) Effect of failure: The value of FOS is high for applications where
failure of a machine component may result in danger accidents.
For example, failure of a relief valve in a pressure vessel,
failure of connecting rod in an I.C. engine, etc.
2) Material of parts: The value of FOS depends on the type of material
of a component.
For ductile materials yield strength and for brittle materials
ultimate strength is the criterion of failure.
3) Type of load: The value of FOS is high for impact load (which is
suddenly applied on a component) and low for static load
(which does not vary in magnitude and direction with respect
to time).
4) Accuracy in force analysis : When the forces acting on a
component are calculated accurately then the value of FOS is low. If
the magnitude and direction of forces acting on a component are
unpredictable then the value of FOS is high.
 Factor of Safety
Factors affecting value of Factor of Safety:
5) Testing of machine component : When it is not possible to
test the component in actual service conditions then the value of
FOS is high. The value of FOS is low when the component is
tested under actual conditions.

6) Cost of element: As the value of FOS increases, material

requirement, dimensions of element as well as cost increases.
For low cost elements, the value of FOS is also low.

7) Manufacturing quality : When the manufacturing quality is

high, there are minimum errors in the component. Hence, lower
value of FOS can be selected. If the manufacturing quality is low
then higher value of FOS is selected.
 Service Factor
The service factor also called as application factor or overload
factor is defined as the ratio of maximum torque (load) to the
average torque. It is denoted by Cs or Ks
Mathematically,
Cs = Ks = Maximum torque / Average or mean torque
It is greater than or equal to one.
It is a measure of periodically overload capacity at which a motor
can operate without overload or damage.
Ex. 1. An offset link subjected to a force of 25 kN is shown in figure (1) . It is made of
grey cast iron FG300 and the factor of safety is 3. Determine the dimensions of the
cross-section of the link.

Ex. 2. A hollow circular column carries a projecting bracket, which supports a load of
25 kN as shown in figure (2). The distance between the axis of the column and the
load is 500 mm. The inner diameter of the column is 0.8 times of the outer
diameter. The column is made of steel FeE 200 (Syt = 200 N/mm2) and the factor of
safety is 4. The column is to be designed on the basis of maximum tensile stress
and compression is not the criterion of failure. Determine the dimensions of the
cross-section of the column.
Figure (2)

Figure (1)
 References
1) V.B. Bhandari,” Design of Machine Elements,” Mc Graw Hill Education,
Third Edition, 2014.
2) P C Sharma and D K Aggarwal, “A Textbook of Machine Design”, S K
Kataria & sons.
3) Robert L Norton, Machine Design An Ïntegrated Approach, Pearson”,
Second Edition, 2014
4) R G Budynas, and K J Nisbett, Shigley's Mechanical Engineering Design,
McGraw-Hill
5) R C Juvinall, Fundamentals of Machine Component Design, 4/e, Wiley.
6) R S Khurmi, J K Gupta, “Machine Design,” EURASIA PUBLISHING HOUSE
(PVT.) LTD. RAM NAGAR, NEW DELHI-110 055, 14th Edition, 2005
7) P C Gope, Machine Design: Fundamentals and Applications, 1/e PHI.
8) K Hoga, B Dondlinger, Vehicular Engine Design, Springer.
Quiz