(De Gruyter Textbook) Elzagheid M. - Water Chemistry, Analysis and Treatment - Pollutants, Microbial Contaminants, Water and Wastewater Treatment-Walter de Gruyter (2024)

Mohamed Elzagheid
Water Chemistry, Analysis and Treatment

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Mohamed Elzagheid
Water Chemistry,
Analysis and
Treatment
Pollutants, Microbial Contaminants, Water and
Wastewater Treatment
Author
Prof. Dr. Mohamed Ibrahim Elzagheid
Chemical Engineering Department
Jubail Industrial College
Jubail Industrial City
Jubail 31961
Saudi Arabia
[email protected];
[email protected]
ISBN 978-3-11-133242-0
e-ISBN (PDF) 978-3-11-133246-8
e-ISBN (EPUB) 978-3-11-133261-1
Library of Congress Control Number: 2023945078
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www.degruyter.com
This book is dedicated to everyone who has worked day and night
to offer clean and safe water to people all across the world.
Preface
The book covers water chemistry, water sources, water pollutants, and microbiolog-
ical contaminants. Water chemistry principles are explained in a straightforward
manner. The book also looks at the theoretical foundations of several water treatment
and analysis processes, as well as stormwater management and green infrastructure.
This book would be useful for graduate and advanced undergraduate students, as
well as environmental researchers, chemists, and lab technicians working in water
and environmental laboratories. Because the bulk of books on the market are aimed
toward chemical engineers and operators, chemists and technicians alike can benefit
greatly from this book. The book's language is clear, short, and easy to understand for
all readers, including those with only a basic understanding of water chemistry.
I hope students, technicians, researchers, chemists, and scientists enjoy reading
this book and find what they need to further their education.
Dr. Mohamed Ibrahim Elzagheid, Chemistry Professor

Waterloo, Ontario, Canada
2023
https://doi.org/10.1515/9783111332468-202
Acknowledgments
First and foremost, I want to express my gratitude to my entire family for always as-
sisting and supporting me during my academic career.
I would also like to thank everyone in the Chemical Engineering Department at
Jubail Industrial College, and special thanks to those who joined me in teaching the
water and wastewater treatment course for regular students and Aramco company
trainees in Saudi Arabia, as well as my former colleagues at the water desalination
plant in north Benghazi, Libya.
Last but not least, a heartfelt thanks to the entire publishing team, particularly
Ute Skambraks, Helene Chavaroche, and Suruthi Manogarane whose assistance and
hard work cannot be overstated.
The Author
Mohamed Elzagheid is an Associate Professor of Chemistry at Jubail Industrial College (JIC), which is
affiliated with the Saudi Royal Commission for Jubail and Yanbu. He also serves as a professor and
consultant for the Libyan Authority for Scientific Research, which is associated with the Libyan Ministry of
Education.
During his 23-year career at McGill University, SynPrep Inc. in Montreal (Canada), and JIC in Saudi
Arabia, he was directly involved in the education of laboratory technicians and chemists, as well as
supervised many undergraduate and graduate chemistry students, and has significantly contributed to
numerous short-term and long-term training programs for chemistry-based laboratory technicians for
local companies in Saudi Arabia.
He also served on JIC's Research, Publications, Projects, and Academic Promotion Team; Academic
Promotion Committee; Curriculum Development Committee; Industrial Chemistry Technology Program
Advisory and Evaluation Committee; CTAB Steering Accreditation Committee; Industrial Outreach
Committee; and Chemical Engineering Department Safety Committee.
Dr. Elzagheid is the author of five textbooks that are now used to train chemistry-based technicians:
Introductory Organic Chemistry, Thoughts on Organic Chemistry, Macromolecular Chemistry: Natural and
Synthetic Polymers, Chemical Laboratory Safety and Techniques, and Chemical Technicians: Good Laboratory
Practice and Laboratory Information Management Systems.
His work at Turku University in Finland, McGill University in Canada, and JIC in the Kingdom of Saudi
Arabia has helped him establish a solid name in chemistry and chemical education in general, as
evidenced by his research papers and publications.
Contents
Preface VII
Acknowledgments IX
The Author XI
Chapter 1
Introduction 1
1.1 Background 1
1.2 Water Importance 2
1.3 Safe Drinking Water Act 3
1.4 Water Contaminants or Pollutants 3
1.4.1 Contaminant Candidate List 4
1.5 Questions 7
Chapter 2
Water Chemistry 8
2.1 Properties of Water (Physical and Chemical Properties) 8
2.1.1 Density 8
2.1.2 Solubility 9
2.1.3 Polarity 10
2.1.4 Acid–Base Behavior 11
2.1.5 Water States 12
2.1.6 Water Redox Reaction (Water Redox Process) 13
2.1.7 Water’s Cohesive and Adhesive Properties 13
2.2 Hard Water 14
2.3 Soft Water 16
2.4 Heavy Water 16
2.5 Water Hydrates 17
2.6 Questions 18
Chapter 3
Water Sources 19
3.1 Natural Resources 19
3.2 Water Cycle 21
3.3 Water Supply 22
3.3.1 Surface Water 23
3.3.2 Groundwater 29
XIV Contents
3.3.3 Rainwater 34
3.4 Questions 35
Chapter 4
Water Pollution and Pollutants 36
4.1 Water Pollution 36
4.2 Water Pollution Causes 36
4.2.1 Agricultural Sector 36
4.2.2 Sewage and Wastewater 37
4.2.3 Oil Spills 38
4.2.4 Radioactive Waste 38
4.3 Pollution Impacted Water Type 40
4.3.1 Groundwater Pollution 40
4.3.2 Surface Water Pollution 41
4.4 Effects of Water Pollution 42
4.4.1 On Human Health 42
4.4.2 On the Environment 42
4.5 Water Pollutants 43
4.6 Questions 43
Chapter 5
Microbial Contaminants in Water 44
5.1 Water Consumption as a Source of Disease 44
5.1.1 Cholera 45
5.1.2 Salmonellosis 46
5.1.3 Shigellosis or Bacillary Dysentery 46
5.1.4 Pathogenic Escherichia coli Strains 48
5.2 Microbial Contaminants in Potable Drinking Water 48
5.3 Bottled Water Microbiology 49
5.3.1 Source Water 49
5.3.2 Water Treatment Before Bottling 49
5.4 Questions 50
Chapter 6
Water Analysis 51
6.1 Common Water Tests 51
6.1.1 Color, Odor, and Taste 51
6.1.2 Turbidity 53
6.1.3 Jar Test 55
6.1.4 pH Measurements 55
Contents XV
6.1.5 Alkalinity 56
6.1.6 Hardness 58
6.1.7 Residual Chlorine 60
6.1.8 Chlorides 63
6.1.9 Sulfates 63
6.1.10 Dissolved Oxygen 65
6.1.11 Total Dissolved Solids 66
6.1.12 Total Suspended Solids 67
6.1.13 Coliform Bacteria Test 67
6.2 Questions 71
Chapter 7
Water Quality 72
7.1 Parameters of Water Quality 73
7.1.1 Physical Parameters of Water Quality 73
7.1.2 Chemical Parameters of Water Quality 76
7.1.3 Biological Parameters of Water 77
7.2 Question 78
Chapter 8
Water Treatment 79
8.1 Drinking Water 79
8.2 Seawater 80
8.2.1 Distillation (Desalination) 80
8.2.2 Reverse Osmosis 80
8.2.3 Electrodialysis 81
8.2.4 Advantages of Seawater Desalination 82
8.2.5 Disadvantages of Seawater Desalination 82
8.3 Municipality and Industrial Water Waste 82
8.3.1 Sources 82
8.3.2 Methods of Treatment 83
8.3.3 Treatment Processes 83
8.4 Questions 84
Chapter 9
Water and Wastewater Treatment Techniques 85
9.1 Coagulation 85
9.1.1 Coagulants in Water Treatment 85
9.1.2 Coagulant Aids 86
9.2 Flocculation 86
XVI Contents
9.2.1 Flocculants 87
9.3 Sedimentation 88
9.3.1 Conventional Basins 89
9.3.2 High-Rate Basins 89
9.3.3 Sedimentation Influencing Factors 91
9.4 Softening 92
9.4.1 Softening Methods 93
9.5 Stabilization 97
9.5.1 Scale Formation or Deposition 99
9.5.2 Corrosion 99
9.5.3 Sequestration or Sequestering 101
9.5.4 CaCO3 Deposition Determination 101
9.6 Filtration 104
9.6.1 Granular Media (Bed) Filtration 104
9.6.2 Membrane Filtration 105
9.7 Disinfection 106
9.7.1 Chlorination 106
9.7.2 Chloramination 106
9.7.3 Chlorine Dioxide 108
9.7.4 Ultraviolet Light Water Treatment 108
9.7.5 Ozonation 108
9.7.6 Photocatalytic Disinfection 109
9.8 Fluoridation 110
9.9 Questions 110
Chapter 10
Stormwater Management and Green Infrastructure 111
10.1 Introduction 111
10.2 Types of Green Infrastructure 112
10.2.1 Green Roofs 112
10.2.2 Rain Gardens 113
10.2.3 Permeable Pavement 113
10.3 Questions 114
Chapter 11
Water as a Renewable Energy Source 116
11.1 Introduction 116
11.2 Endless Energy Sources 116
11.3 Natural Resources 116
11.4 Renewable Energy Resources 117
Contents XVII
11.5 Hydroelectric or Hydropower Stations 117

11.6 Types of Hydropower Energy Plants 118
11.7 Questions 118
Essential Terms 119
Abbreviations 123
Resources and Further Readings 125
Index 129
Chapter 1
Introduction
1.1 Background
Water is a clear fluid that composes the world’s streams, lakes, oceans, and rain as
well as the primary component of organism fluids. A water molecule is a chemical
substance composed of one oxygen atom and two hydrogen atoms linked by covalent
bonds. At typical ambient temperature and pressure, water is a liquid, yet it coexists
on Earth alongside its solid state, ice, and its gaseous state, steam.
Liquid water is essential for life on Earth because it acts as a solvent. It can dis-
solve molecules and enable important chemical reactions in animals, plants, and mi-
crobial cells. Because of its chemical and physical properties, it can dissolve more
compounds than most other liquids. Every day, water is needed for a variety of pur-
poses. We need water for a variety of reasons, including drinking, washing, cleaning,
and cooking. There is no existence without water, and no life without air.
Water is locked up in the crystal lattices of minerals that make up rocks; it occurs
in the innumerable microscopic pore spaces of rocks, from the surface to depths of
over 5 km. Water is a simple enough substance, consisting of two hydrogens and one
oxygen, yet it has some fascinating and essential features. Water’s boiling and freez-
ing temperatures are particularly high in comparison to other compounds of equal
molecular weight, allowing it to exist at the Earth’s surface in all three phases: solid,
liquid, and vapor.
Although water is in a continuous cycle on Earth, it is consumed before it com-
pletes its cycle due to population expansion, environmental pollution, cost, mindless
water usage, and climatic variations. It becomes increasingly challenging to obtain ag-
ricultural, industrial, drinking, and utility water.
Water, as a natural resource, is required for all living species to survive. The
amount of water on the Earth’s surface, however, is limited. The world’s 1.4 billion km3
of water is made up of 97.5% saline water and 2.5% fresh water. The percentage of
freshwater distribution is 69.5% for polar glaciers, 30.1% for groundwater, and 0.4%
for surface water resources.
In addition to issues with the number of freshwater supplies, there have also
been issues concerning water quality on a worldwide scale. Rapid population expan-
sion, technological advancements, urbanization, and global climate change are the
primary causes of the deterioration of natural resources in terms of quantity and
quality.
2 Chapter 1 Introduction
1.2 Water Importance
Water is essential for people and our prosperity. Because of its high dielectric con-
stant, it is regarded as a universal solvent. Water accounts for about 60% of an adult’s
body weight on average ranging from 31% in bones to 83% in the lungs. Water per-
forms numerous critical functions in the body, including waste removal, temperature
regulation, nutrition transfer, and digestion. Water is the best hydrator for the body.
It also moisturizes the tissues around the eyes, nose, and mouth. It safeguards the
body’s organs and tissues. It transports nutrients and oxygen to cells. Joint lubricant.
Draining away waste materials reduces the stress on the kidneys and liver. Drinking
water has many health benefits, some are illustrated in Figure 1.1.
Improves skin health
Keeps you energized
Improves your workout
Elevates one's mood
Promotes kidney health
Aids in weight loss
Prevents dehydration
Figure 1.1: Drinking water health benefits.
Water is required by all living organisms including humans, plants, and animals to
survive. It is actually necessary for life on the Earth to continue. Human bodies re-
quire water to help regulate body temperature and sustain all critical processes. Due
to the body’s loss of water through breathing, sweating, and digesting, it is vital to
rehydrate and replenish water through beverages and foods containing water. Water
is the most abundant component of saliva. It is required for the digestion of solid
foods and the maintenance of oral health.
Maintaining a normal body temperature requires staying hydrated. When we
sweat or are in a hot environment, our bodies lose water. Sweating keeps our bodies
cool, but if we don’t replenish the water we lose, our body temperatures rise. Dehy-
dration results from a lack of water, which causes electrolyte and plasma levels to
decline. Proper hydration is essential for maintaining optimal brain health. Inade-
quate water consumption has a negative impact on our focus, alertness, and short-
term memory. Water helps to lubricate and cushion our joints, spinal cord, and tis-
sues. This pushes us to be more physically active and relieves the pain produced by
disorders such as arthritis. We all need water to restore fluids lost via sweating.
Drinking enough water assists our kidneys to function more efficiently, lowering the
risk of kidney stones.
It is critical to drink plenty of water while working out, participating in sports, or
simply being active. Keeping hydrated has an impact on our strength, power, and en-
durance. Water assists to increase our metabolic rate. Exercising in the heat without
staying hydrated can lead to major medical complications. In fact, severe dehydration
can result in convulsions and, in some cases, death. Dehydration occurs when the
body does not receive enough water. And, because water is essential for the proper
functioning of many biological functions, dehydration can be quite harmful. It can
even have fatal implications. Severe dehydration can have significant consequences.
Drink plenty of water to avoid dehydration.
1.3 Safe Drinking Water Act
The WHO standards for safe drinking water employ a daily per capita consumption
value of 2 L of drinking water for adults weighing 60 kg in the computation. A 10-kg child
is considered to drink 1 L of water per day, while a 5 kg infant consumes 0.75 L/ day. The
potable water that can be given to the user is suitable for drinking, food preparation,
personal hygiene, and washing. At the point of supply to the consumers, this water must
meet the requisite chemical, biological, and physical quality criteria. Any country’s Safe
Drinking Water Act is intended to ensure reliable and safe drinking water supplies while
also protecting public health by regulating public water systems. This necessitates the for-
mulation and enforcement of standards for public drinking water systems. To control
water quality, we should consider controlling:
– microbiological caliber,
– chemical efficiency,
– by-products of disinfection and disinfectants,
– by-products of corrosion,
– chemicals used in agriculture,
– organic substances that are volatile, and
– radionuclides are radioactive unstable chemical elements that emit radiation as
they degrade and become more stable. Radionuclides include radium-226, cesium-
137, and strontium-90.
1.4 Water Contaminants or Pollutants
The term “contaminant” in the Safe Drinking Water Act (SDWA) is defined as any
physical, chemical, biological, or radiological substance or matter in water. As a re-
sult, the legislation defines “contaminant” broadly as anything other than water mole-
cules. Some pollutants could be reasonably expected to be present in drinking water.

Some contaminants in drinking water may be dangerous if taken in specific quanti-
ties, while others may be innocuous. The presence of pollutants does not always
imply that the water is unsafe to drink.
The Contaminant Candidate List (CCL) contains just a subset of the universe of
pollutants defined above. The CCL is the first stage of examination for unregulated
drinking water contaminants that may require additional investigation of potential
health impacts and levels observed in drinking water. The broad types of drinking
water pollutants and examples of each are as follows:
– Physical contaminants have a great impact on the physical appearance and prop-
erties of water. Physical contaminants include sediment and organic detritus sus-
pended in lakes, rivers, and streams.
– Substances or elements form chemical contaminants. These can be natural or
man-made. Chemical contaminants include nitrogen, bleach, salts, pesticides, met-
als, bacterial toxins, and human or animal pharmaceuticals.
– Biological contaminants are organisms that live in water. Microbes and microbio-
logical contaminants are other terms for them. Bacteria, viruses, protozoa, and
parasites are examples of biological or microbiological contaminants.
– Radiological contaminants are chemical elements having an uneven number of pro-
tons and neutrons that produce unstable atoms capable of emitting ionizing radia-
tion. Cesium, plutonium, and uranium are examples of radioactive contaminants.
1.4.1 Contaminant Candidate List
1.4.1.1 Microbial Contaminant Candidates

Bacteria, viruses, and fungi are examples of microbial contaminants. Some of the po-
tential consequences of microbial contamination may include health consequences
such as sickness, agony and suffering, starvation, and, in the worst-case scenario,
death. Economic consequences for the affected person include pay loss, time away
from work owing to illness, and healthcare-related costs. Time and money spent on
consultations, treatment, investigations, and hospital stays, giving drugs and care
have an impact on healthcare services. Figure 1.2 depicts a few instances of these
contaminants.
1.4.1.2 Chemical Contaminant Candidates

Chemical contaminants are substances that are toxic to aquatic plants and animals.
Chemicals are considered contaminants when they are present in places they should
not be or in greater quantities than would naturally exist. Drinking water is also af-
fected, which has serious health implications not just for humans but also for marine
life and other organisms that consume contaminated water. These contaminants orig-
Acanthamoeba
Coxsackieviruses Adenoviruses
Microbial Contaminant Candidates
Cyanobacteria Aeromonas Hydrophila
Echoviruses Helicobacter Pylori
Microsporidia
Figure 1.2: Selected examples of microbial contaminants.
inate in a variety of places, including industrial and municipal discharges, natural

geological formations, urban and rural run-off, drinking water treatment processes,
and water delivery materials.
Human activities such as hydraulic fracturing and horizontal drilling have also
contaminated drinking water. Drinking water supplied from groundwater may also
be contaminated with heavy metals such as nickel, mercury, copper, and chromium,
potentially leading to an increase in cases of carcinogenic and noncarcinogenic health
abnormalities. This type of source of drinking water contamination is very common
in poor nations.
Chemical contaminants in drinking water include disinfection by-products, phar-
maceutical by-products, pesticides, and other chemicals too. They have a wide range
of health impacts, including cancer, cardiovascular disease, poor reproductive results,
and neurological illnesses. Selected chemical contaminants are listed in Table 1.1, and
selected chemical structures are shown in Figure 1.3.
1.4.1.3 Contaminants Levels

Long-term exposure to concentrations over the maximum contaminant level goal
(MCLG, the highest contamination level in drinking water at which no known or pre-
dicted harmful effect on human health will occur, allowing for an adequate margin of
safety) can result in liver damage, skin sores, appetite loss, blood and CNS issues, and
skin sores. Maximum contaminant level (MCL, the highest level of a contaminant per-
mitted in drinking water) are enforceable standards that must be set as closely as pos-
Table 1.1: Examples of chemical contaminants.
,,,-Tetrachloroethane ,-Dichloropropane Bromobenzene

,,-Trimethylbenzene ,-Dichlorophenol DDE
,-Dichloroethane ,-Dinitrophenol Diazinon
,-Dichloropropene ,-Dinitrotoluene Dieldrin
,-Diphenylhydrazine ,-Dinitrotoluene Disulfoton
,-Dichloropropane o-Cresol Diuron
,-Dichloropropene Acetochlor EPTC
,,-Trichlorophenol Boron Fonofos
Linuron Hexachlorobutadiene Molinate
Manganese p-Isopropyltoluene Naphthalene
Methyl bromide Metolachlor Nitrobenzene
MTBE Metribuzin Organotins
Perchlorate Vanadium Terbacil
Prometon Pesticides Terbufos
RDX Disinfection by-products Triazines
Figure 1.3: Chemical structures of selected chemical contaminants.
sible to the MCLG where the level of a contaminant in drinking water below which
there is no known or anticipated risk to health. These standards are based on treat-
ment technologies, affordability, and other factors that are feasible, such as the avail-
ability of analytical methods and treatment technology.
The examination of the negative effects brought on by the substance in question
and the doses required to bring about such effects is the first step in establishing an
1.5 Questions 7
MCL. The end result of this procedure is a reference dose (RfD), a safe dose based on
research findings that have been extrapolated to humans from outcomes of animal tests.
MCLG is created for substances that don’t cause cancer by first translating the
safe dosage into a water concentration. Then, on the supposition that exposure to the
chemical by drinking water represents just one-fifth of all possible exposure, this
number is divided by five. The MCLG number is often the same as the MCL in most
situations.
The MCLG is set at zero for substances that are thought to cause cancer, meaning
that no level of the substance is thought to be acceptable. The MCL is based on the
lowest concentration that can be consistently measured because 0 cannot be mea-
sured. The MCL is the lowest measured level for known or suspected carcinogens, not
a safe level.
A number equivalent to the MCLG is determined for substances that are poten-
tially carcinogenic, that is, there is some evidence that they might cause cancer, but
this is not particularly compelling. The final MCLG is obtained by dividing this value
by a factor of 10. This offers an additional level of safety in the event that the sub-
stance is ultimately shown to be carcinogenic.
1.5 Questions
1.5.1 What are the percentages of saline and fresh water in the world?
1.5.2 List three health benefits of drinking water.
1.5.3 Define chemical contaminants.
1.5.4 Give four examples of chemical contaminants.
1.5.5 Draw the chemical structures of 1,1,2,2-tetrachloroethane, 1,2,4-trimethylben-
zene, and terbufos.
1.5.6 Give examples of disinfection by-products.
1.5.7 What does MCLG stand for?
1.5.8 Give three examples of microbial contaminants.
1.5.9 Define MCL.
1.5.10 What is the reference dose (RfD)?
Chapter 2
Water Chemistry
2.1 Properties of Water (Physical and Chemical Properties)
The earth is mostly made up of water (H2O). Almost everything, including drinking,
bathing, and cooking, requires water. Water makes up 60–70% of the human body.
The survival of life on Earth depends on water. The earth’s surface is unevenly cov-
ered in water. It dissolves practically all polar solutes and creates a significant sol-
vent. At room temperature, water is a polar inorganic substance that is a tasteless,
odorless liquid and is almost colorless. It is referred to as the “universal solvent” and
the “solvent of life” and is by far the chemical compound that has been investigated
the most. It is the most prevalent substance on Earth’s surface and the only one that
can be found as solid, liquid, and gas at the same time. Aside from carbon monoxide
and molecular hydrogen, it is the third most prevalent molecule in the cosmos.
Water molecules are highly polar and form hydrogen bonds with one another.
Because of its polarity, it can dissolve other polar substances such as alcohols and
acids by interacting with them and dissociating the ions in salts. Its hydrogen bonding
is responsible for several of its distinguishing properties, including a less dense solid
form than its liquid form, a fairly high boiling point of 100 °C for its molar mass, and
a large heat capacity. Water is amphoteric, which implies that it can exhibit acidic or
basic properties depending on the pH of the solution. Because of its amphoteric na-
ture, it undergoes a process of self-ionization. Figure 2.1 summarizes the unique fea-
tures of water. Water molecules have multiple hydrogen bonds, which results in
distinct properties when condensed. As a result, the melting and boiling points are
both very high. Other liquids have lower specific heat, thermal conductivity, surface
tension, and dipole moment than water. These qualities support its significance in the
biosphere. Water assists in the transfer of ions and molecules required for metabo-
lism. It has a high latent heat of vaporization, which helps regulate body temperature.
2.1.1 Density
The weight of water per unit volume, which fluctuates with temperature, is the defini-
tion of water’s density. Grams per cubic centimeter, or 1 g/cm3, is roughly how dense
the water is. It responds to changes in temperature. Although liquid water, like other
liquids, generally thickens as it is chilled at room temperature, pure water is thought
to reach its maximum density at roughly 4 °C. It expands and loses density as the cool-
ing process continues. This exceptional negative thermal expansion is the result of
strong intermolecular interactions. Water lacks an absolute density due to its temper-
ature-dependent density. It is denser in the liquid state than in the solid state. The
Possesses both cohesive Has a high vaporization

and adhesive qualities temperature
Has a high thermal

Universal solvent
capacity
Has a lower density as a

Polar
solid than as a liquid
Figure 2.1: Unique features of water.
Table 2.1: The density of water for different

temperature scale.
Temperature Density (g/cm)
 °C .
 °C .
 °C .
 °C .
 °C .
 °C .
 °C .
 °C .
 °C .
 °C .
 °C .
 °C .
– °C .
– °C .
– °C .
density of water varies with temperature. The density (in g/cm3) of water for various
temperature ranges (from 100 to −30 °C) is given in Table 2.1.
2.1.2 Solubility
Water solubility is a measurement of how much a chemical compound may dissolve in

water at a given temperature. Solubility is usually measured in mg/L (milligrams per
liter) or ppm (parts per million). Intermolecular interactions determine a substance’s sol-
ubility in a liquid, which also determines whether two liquids are miscible. Solutes are
classed as hydrophilic (water-loving) or hydrophobic (water-fearing). For example, water
10 Chapter 2 Water Chemistry
is poorly soluble in aliphatic and aromatic hydrocarbons but miscible with polar solvents
such as acetonitrile, dimethyl sulfoxide, dimethoxyethane, dimethylformamide, acetalde-
hyde, sulfolane, tetrahydrofuran, 1,4-dioxane, glycerol, acetone, isopropanol, propanol,
ethanol, and methanol. Salt and sugar, for example, dissolve in water. Warm or hot
water usually dissolves them faster and better. Water also provides a vital life-sustaining
force that functions at the biological level by assisting cells in transporting and utilizing
substances like oxygen or nutrients. Figure 2.2 depicts a simple solubility curve that is
commonly used to calculate the mass of solute in 100 g (or 100 mL) of water at a given
temperature. When it reaches the line, it has become saturated and cannot hold any
more solute. Below the line indicates unsaturation and the ability to store more solute.
Above the line, the solute concentration is higher than it should be.
Supersaturated
Solute in grams per
100 grams of water Saturated
Unsaturated
Temperature
Figure 2.2: Simple water solubility curve.
2.1.3 Polarity
One of the most important characteristics of water is that it is a polar molecule, with
the hydrogen and oxygen in water molecule (H2O) forming polar covalent bond. The
polarity of a water molecule results in a slightly positive charge on hydrogen and a
slightly negative charge on oxygen despite the fact that a water molecule has no net
charge. Because oxygen is more electronegative than hydrogen, a shared electron is
more likely to be located there than close to the hydrogen nucleus, which results in a
partial negative charge near the oxygen.
Due to the polarity of water, nearby water molecules are pulled to one another by
their opposing charges and form hydrogen bonds. Water also attracts or repels other
polar molecules and ions as shown in Figure 2.3. A polar chemical that easily interacts
with or dissolves in water is said to be hydrophilic. Hydro- is the prefix for “water,” and -
philic is the suffix for “loving.” Oils and fats, which are non-polar substances, do not mix
well with water and separate from it rather than dissolve in it. These nonpolar substan-
ces are referred to as hydrophobic (hydro- = “water” and -phobic = “fearing”) substances.
O
H H Covalent bonds H Carboxylic acid
O Hydrogen bond H O C R
H H H H O H H
Primary amine
N R
O O H
Covalent bonds Hydrogen bond
O R
Hydrogen bonds between H Alcohol
water molecules
Figure 2.3: Hydrogen bond formation due to water polarity.
2.1.4 Acid–Base Behavior
When water can operate as both an acid and a base in solution, it can become both an
acid and a base to itself during the autoionization process as shown in Figure 2.4.
Water absorbs hydrogen ions and behaves as a base when combined with an acid.
When water is combined with a base, it behaves like an acid because hydrogen ions
are produced.
H+
O
OH-
H+
O
O H+
O OH-
H+
O O
OH-
Figure 2.4: Water autoionization process.
The hydrogen (H+) ions in acids are what cause their acidic nature. In the presence of
water, they release hydrogen ions. The fact that water is a polar solvent aids in breaking
down the link between the ions and making them soluble. On the other hand, when
placed in water, bases draw hydrogen atoms. Sodium hydroxide, or NaOH, is an illustra-
tion of a base. Hydrogen ions are drawn to it when it is submerged in water, and as hy-
droxyl (OH−) ions build up, a basic or alkaline solution is created. Figure 2.5 illustrates the
amphoteric characteristic of water, which can function as both an acid and a base.
Figure 2.5: An illustration of the amphoteric characteristic of water.
2.1.5 Water States
The ability of liquid water to generate hydrogen bonds is a significant property that is
essential to life. Since living organisms have a high-water content, understanding
these chemical traits is essential to understanding life. As water molecules form hy-
drogen bonds with one another, the water acquires several distinct chemical proper-
ties compared to other liquids. As the water molecules flow by one another in liquid
water, hydrogen bonds are continuously made and broken. These bonds are broken
as a result of the water molecules moving because of the heat in the system, which
gives them kinetic energy. The hydrogen bonds between water molecules entirely dis-
solve when the heat is increased during the boiling process, allowing water molecules
to escape into the air as gas (steam or water vapor). However, as the temperature of
water drops and it freezes, the water molecules create a crystalline structure that is
sustained by hydrogen bonds, which results in ice that is less dense than liquid water,
a phenomenon that is not observed when other liquids solidify. Since the hydrogen
bonds between water molecules are forced away when it freezes, the solid form of
water has a lower density than liquid water. When the temperature drops, the kinetic
energy between molecules in the majority of other liquids also decreases, allowing
the molecules to pack even more closely than they would in liquid form and providing
the solid a higher density than the liquid. Because of its unusually low density, ice
floats at the surface of liquid water, as seen in icebergs and ice cubes in ice water. Ice
that accumulates on the surface of lakes and ponds functions as an insulator, keeping
animals and plant life from freezing. Plants and animals in the pond would freeze in
the solid block of ice and die if this layer of insulating ice was not present.
2.1.6 Water Redox Reaction (Water Redox Process)
When molecular hydrogen (H2) is oxidized by molecular oxygen (O2) to form water
(H2O), the reaction can be thought of as two coupled processes, as shown in Figure 2.6:
electron transfer from hydrogen to oxygen (reduction of oxygen) and electron accep-
tance from hydrogen by oxygen (oxidation of hydrogen). The oxidizing agent is oxy-
gen, and the reducing agent is hydrogen.
Water splitting is the process by which two molecules of water are broken down
into their basic elements: two molecules of hydrogen gas (H2) and one molecule of
oxygen gas (O2). The overall breakdown of water into oxygen and hydrogen is the
same whether either half reaction pair is combined. The amount of hydrogen pro-
duced is double that of oxygen.
The importance of redox reactions in aqueous solutions in biological and environ-
mental systems cannot be overstated. They support and sustain life by collecting and
dispersing energy in order to develop and spread low-entropy living systems.
2H2O → O2 + 4H+ + 4e− (Oxidation)
H
O O O
H
2H2O → 2H2 + O2 Total Reaction +
+
H H
H
H H
O
H
4H+ + 4e− → 2H (Reduction)
Figure 2.6: Water redox process.
2.1.7 Water’s Cohesive and Adhesive Properties
When a glass of water is filled to the brim and then a few drips are carefully added
till the glass overflows, the water forms a dome-like shape above the rim. This water
can float over the glass due to its cohesion. In this case, water molecules are attracted
to each other due to hydrogen bonding, which keeps the molecules together at the
water-air interface.
Surface tension is usually promoted by cohesion. When water is dropped on a

dry surface, it forms droplets rather than being flattened out by gravity. The paper
floats despite the fact that paper is denser (heavier) than water when a small scrap of
paper is placed on top of a droplet of water. Cohesion and surface tension keep water
molecules’ hydrogen bonds intact and the item afloat. If placed correctly and without
breaking the surface tension, a needle can also “float” on top of a glass of water.
The adhesion property of water, or the attraction of water molecules to other
molecules, is related to these cohesive forces. When water comes into touch with
charged surfaces, such as those found on the interior of tiny glass tubes known as
capillary tubes, this attraction can be stronger than the cohesive forces in the
water. Figure 2.7 shows how water “climbs” up the tube submerged in a glass of
water, giving the impression that the water is higher on the sides of the tube than in
the center. This is due to the fact that water molecules stick to the charged glass walls
of the capillary more so than they do to other molecules. This kind of adherence is
referred to as capillary action.
Meniscus
Water "climbs" up the tube
Capillary Tube higher on the sides of the
tube than in the center
Water
Figure 2.7: Water adhesion by capillary action.
Cohesive and adhesive forces also influence water transfer from a plant’s roots to its
leaves. Water molecules that evaporate from the plant’s surface remain attached to
water molecules below them, causing them to be dragged along. Plants employ this
natural process to help move water from the roots to the leaves. Plants would be un-
able to receive the water and dissolved minerals they require if these water qualities
were not present. Due to surface tension, aquatic insects such as water striders can
also float on the water’s surface.
2.2 Hard Water
Hard water contains a high concentration of mineral ions. The metal cations, calcium
(Ca2+) and magnesium (Mg2+), are the most prevalent ions found in hard water, while
iron (Fe2+), aluminum (Al3+), and manganese (Mn2+) may also be present in some re-
gions (Figure 2.8). These metals are water soluble, which means they dissolve in
water. These ions’ relatively large concentrations can saturate the solution, causing
2.2 Hard Water 15
Aluminum
Iron Hard water

Al 3+ Mn 2+
Calcium Mn 2+
Fe 2+
Fe 2+
Al 3+
Manganese Ca2+
Mg 2+ Mg 2+
Ca2+
Magnesium Ca2+ Fe 2+ Al 3+ Mg 2+
Mn 2+
Figure 2.8: Hard water.
the equilibrium of these solutes to move to the left, toward reactants. In other words,
the ions have the ability to precipitate out of the solution. The calcination, or precipi-
tation of calcium or magnesium carbonate, visible on water faucets is caused by the
displacement of minerals from the solution. Furthermore, hard water can react with
other substances in a solution, such as soap, to form a precipitate known as “scum.”
There are two forms of hard water: temporary and permanent. Temporary hard
water is made up mostly of calcium (Ca2+) and bicarbonate (HCO3−) ions. The bicar-
bonate ion in temporary hard water decomposes upon heating into carbonate ions
(CO32−), carbon dioxide (CO2), and water (H2O). The carbonate ion (CO32−) formed can
then combine with other ions in the solution to generate insoluble compounds such
as CaCO3 and MgCO3. The interactions of carbonate ions in solution also generate the
well-known mineral build-up visible on the sides of boiling pots, rust known as “boiler
scale.” The breakdown of the bicarbonate ion caused by increasing the temperature
of transient hard water represents a shift in the equilibrium equation. This shift is
responsible for the white scale seen in the boiling containers as well as the mineral
deposits that form inside water pipes, resulting in inefficiency and, in extreme cases,
explosion due to overheating. Because CaCO3 or other scale is relatively insoluble, it
does not entirely dissolve back into the water when cooled. As a result, this form of
hard water is considered “temporary” since boiling can alleviate the hardness by re-
moving the problematic ions from the solution.
Permanent hard water contains large levels of anions such as sulfate anion (SO42−).
This is referred to as “permanent” hard water because, unlike temporary hard water,
the hardness cannot be erased merely by boiling the water and allowing the mineral
ions to precipitate out. However, the name is misleading because “permanent” hard
water can be softened by different methods. The permanent hard water scale has simi-
lar negative impacts as the transitory hard water scale, such as obstructing water flow
in pipes. Permanent hard water is also to blame for the bathtub “ring,” commonly
known as soap scum, that appears after showering or bathing.
2.3 Soft Water
Soft water is free of dissolved salts of metals such as calcium, iron, and magnesium or it
has a mineral content of calcium and magnesium of less than 17 ppm (17 ppm; Figure 2.9).
It is primarily derived from peat or igneous rock sources such as granite, but it can also
be derived from sandstone. Soft water contains very little dissolved salt. It is defined as
water with less than 50 mg of calcium carbonate per liter when expressed in terms of a
comparable amount of calcium carbonate. Most soft water has a pH of 6–7, while most
hard water has a pH of 7–8. This is because hard water minerals lower the quantity of
acid in the water; therefore when they are removed, the outcome is a lower pH level.
Mg2+ Ca2+
OR
Free of dissolved salts of Low mineral salt content of
metals such as calcium, calcium and magnesium
iron, and magnesium “Less than 17 ppm”
Mg2+
Ca2+
Figure 2.9: Soft water.
2.4 Heavy Water
Deuterium, an isotope of hydrogen, and oxygen are combined to form heavy water
(also known as deuterium oxide or D2O; Figure 2.10). The atomic weight of deuterium,
which is 2, and the atomic weight of oxygen, which is 16, together make up the molec-
2.5 Water Hydrates 17
ular weight of heavy water, which is approximately 20; contrast this with regular
water, which has a molecular weight of about 18 (two times that of regular hydrogen,
which is 1, plus oxygen, which is 16).
Heavy water differs from ordinary water in terms of its physical characteristics,
such as being 10.6% denser and having a higher boiling point. At a given temperature,
heavy water is less dissociated and doesn’t have the same color as ordinary water. It
doesn’t taste much different, but it can taste a little sugary. When used as a coolant in
nuclear reactors, it can become slightly radioactive even though it is not radioactive
in its pure form. Deuterated water is naturally present in normal water, but it can be
isolated via chemical exchange, electrolysis, or distillation techniques. The most prac-
tical way for producing heavy water from an economic standpoint is the Girdler sul-
fide process. Heavy water is sold and used in a range of industries and comes in
various purity degrees. Its applications include neutron capture therapy, nuclear mag-
netic resonance, infrared spectroscopy, neutron moderation, neutrino detection, met-
abolic rate monitoring, and the production of radioactive elements like plutonium
and tritium.
Oxygen Oxygen
O O
D D H H
Deuterium Deuterium Hydrogen Hydrogen
Figure 2.10: Heavy water (D2O) versus water (H2O).
2.5 Water Hydrates
Any chemical that contains water in the form of H2O molecules is referred to as a
hydrate. The most well-known hydrates are crystalline solids that decompose once
the attached water is removed. Hygroscopic or deliquescent substances are those that
spontaneously take up water from the air to create hydrates, whereas efflorescent hy-
drates are those that lose the so-called water of hydration or water of crystallization
to become unhydrated (anhydrous) substances. When water is taken in and lost
through heating, the color changes. As an illustration, the colors of blue vitriol (copper
sulfate, CuSO4), copper sulfate pentahydrate (CuSO4 · 5H2O), and copper sulfate trihy-
drate (CuSO4 · 3H2O) are all blue. Cobalt (II) chloride (CoCl2) is another vivid illustra-
tion, and it can be used as a water indicator because it changes color from blue to red
(CoCl2 · 6H2O) when hydrated (Figure 2.11).
Blue anhydrous cobalt (II) chloride Pink cobalt (II) chloride hexahydrate
(CoCl2) (CoCl2·6H2O)
Figure 2.11: Examples of hydrated and dehydrated chemicals.
2.6 Questions
2.6.1 List three unique features of water.

2.6.2 What is the density of water at 0 °C and 100 °C, and is there a big difference
in density?
2.6.3 Show how water forms hydrogen bonds with both amines and alcohols and
why?
2.6.4 What does water autoionization mean?
2.6.5 Explain the amphoteric characteristic of water.
2.6.6 Give an example of a water redox reaction.
2.6.7 Why does water climb up the tube submerged in a glass of water higher on
the sides of the tube than in the center?
2.6.8 List the most prevalent ions found in hard water.
2.6.9 What is the difference between temporary and permanent hard water?
2.6.10 Give three applications for heavy water.
Chapter 3
Water Sources
3.1 Natural Resources
Water resources are any of the many naturally occurring waters on the Earth, regard-
less of their state or ability to benefit humans. The most helpful water resources are
those found in rivers, waterfalls, ponds, and lakes; other sources include deep under-
ground water, glaciers, and permanent snowfields. The Earth’s surface is covered by
water over 71% of its area. Fresh water makes up just 3% of the world’s total water
supply, which makes up 97% of the seas. Glaciers and ice caps contain 2% of the world’s
fresh water. Selected examples of water resources are shown in Figures 3.1–3.4.
Figure 3.1: Almese Waterfall, Italy.
20 Chapter 3 Water Sources
Figure 3.2: Como Lake, Italy.
Figure 3.3: Nova Ponente Pond, Italy.

3.2 Water Cycle 21
Figure 3.4: Po River, Italy.
3.2 Water Cycle
The water cycle demonstrates how water is constantly moving both inside the Earth
and in the atmosphere. It is a complicated system with a wide range of processes.
Water vapor is created when liquid water evaporates, and this water vapor then con-
denses to form clouds and falls as rain and snow back to the Earth. The three phases
of water – atmospheric water, surface water, and groundwater – are in constant cir-
culation. The moisture that clouds are made of is known as atmospheric water. Warm
air pushes the vapor upward into colder levels, where it condenses to form clouds
and returns to the Earth as rain or snow. The water found in rivers, seas, and oceans
is considered surface water. Deep underground water is known as groundwater. The
water goes in three different directions: some move to surface bodies, some move
deeper through interstices (gaps or holes), and the remainder moves deeper through
impervious strata before becoming groundwater.
The water cycle has four primary stages: Figure 3.5 illustrates them as evapora-
tion, condensation, precipitation, and collection.
– Evaporation is the process through which water from lakes, oceans, streams, ice,
and soil rises into the air and evaporates to form water vapor and then water
vapor droplets combine together to form clouds.
– Condensation is the process through which airborne water vapor cools and trans-
forms back into liquid water.
– Precipitation is the process by which water from clouds in the sky descends to the
ground as rain, snow, hail, or sleet.
– Collection is the process that takes place when water from the clouds gathers in
the oceans, rivers, lakes, and streams as rain, snow, hail, or sleet. The majority
will permeate (soak into) the earth and gather as underground water.
Evaporation
Water
Collection Condensation
Cycle
Precipitation
Figure 3.5: Water cycle.
3.3 Water Supply
There are three separate natural water sources in total. They are classified into three
types: surface water, groundwater, and rainwater. Snow and other types of precipita-
tion are also sources of rainwater. Precipitation that falls on the Earth is important in
the water cycle because it replaces both surface and underground water supplies.
These are the water sources that you cannot see or easily access. Underground water
sources are critical to the water cycle since they are the primary sources for human
use. Wells are typically utilized to access these underground water sources, and
springs are employed to force the water to the surface when the pressure is too high.
Surface water is the easiest to see and use. The negative is that most of the world’s
3.3 Water Supply 23
surface water is salt water, which is unsuitable for drinking by most living things. In
addition to serving as a source of drinking water, surface water plays a vital role in
our everyday life. Surface water is utilized to generate hydroelectric power, which is
a clean and renewable energy source. Precipitation, springs, and ice melting from
higher elevations and glaciers supply surface water. Probably the world’s largest
source of water is “hidden” or trapped in a different type of water. Hidden sources of
water can be found in glaciers, polar ice caps, and even the atmosphere. Although
these sources are not immediately usable, they all eventually become fresh water due
to melting and precipitation.
3.3.1 Surface Water
Surface water is defined as any body of water found on the Earth’s surface, including
saltwater in the oceans and fresh water in waterfalls, rivers, and lakes. Precipitation
that does not soak into the ground or evaporate is referred to as runoff. There are
three forms of surface water: perennial, ephemeral, and man-made. When there is
little or no precipitation, perennial or permanent surface water remains throughout
the year and is recharged by groundwater. Ephemeral or semipermanent surface
water exists only for a portion of the year. Ephemeral surface water includes small
creeks, lagoons, and water holes. The third form is the man-made canals and lakes.
Selected examples of the three forms of surface water are depicted in Figures 3.6–3.13.
Figure 3.6: Indian Ocean, Mauritius.

Figure 3.7: Niagara Falls, Canada.
Surface waters are divided into two types: lentic and lotic. The lentic zone is described
as the area of a water body where there is no flow and the water is stagnant, whereas
the lotic region is defined as the area of a water body where the water is in a continu-
ous state of motion, that is, in a dynamic state.
3.3.1.1 Lentic Water

Lentic water or lentic ecosystems refer to aquatic systems that move so slowly that
the water seems static or nearly so. Ponds and lakes are some examples. Algae-rooted
and floating-leaved plants and crustaceans like crabs and prawns live in these envi-
ronments. Amphibians such as frogs and salamanders, as well as reptiles such as alli-
gators and water snakes, can be found here. During droughts, complex systems
frequently outlast their smaller counterparts, allowing species to survive despite lim-
ited resources. Many things happen in these bodies, which are often deep and have
multiple zones, that lotic water systems do not. Figure 3.14 depicts the littoral, lim-
netic, profundal, and benthic zones of the lentic water.
The littoral zone refers to the shoreline of a lake or pond. It includes everything
from the dry land to the water’s edge along the coast or bank. Depending on the loca-
tion and age of the lake, the extent and depth of this zone might vary substantially.
3.3 Water Supply 25
Figure 3.8: Geneva Lake, Switzerland.
However, this zone is often shallow and rich in nutrients from runoff and inbound
water sources. As a result, it is the zone with the most aquatic or semi-aquatic flora,
such as reeds, grasses, and algae.
The next layer is the limnetic zone, which is the lake’s surface or open water
area. The amount of light that enters the body of water defines the limnetic zone. This
upper water layer, also known as the euphotic zone, is the warmest and receives the
most sunlight in the lake. The zone terminates when sunlight can no longer penetrate
the lake. Because of the presence of sunlight, aquatic plants grow in this region, as
they do in the littoral zone. Because oxygen levels are greater in this region of the
lake, the majority of fish also reside there.
The profundal zone starts when sunlight can no longer reach the lake’s surface.
The temperature in these oceans is considerably lower as a result of the Sun’s heat
not being able to penetrate these depths. The profundal layer’s volume and depth will
differ from lake to lake since the purity and make-up of the water greatly affect how
far sunlight may travel. There are much fewer fish in this area of the lake since there
is less oxygen there.
Figure 3.9: Columbia Lake Waterloo, Canada.
The region along the lake’s bottom is known as the benthic zone. The sediment, silt,
and dirt that accumulate at the lake’s bottom are all included in what makes up the
bottom of the body of water. Bacteria exist and work to break down any organic ma-
terial that has fallen to the lake floor at this lowest position; everything, including
dead vegetation, fish, animals, and animals’ droppings. Benthic zones are larger or
more prevalent in older lakes because there is more material to decay.
Thermal stratification is a phenomenon that causes some lakes and ponds in tem-
perate regions to divide into three distinct thermal layers or zones: the epilimnion,
metalimnion, and hypolimnion (Figure 3.15).
In the epilimnion or surface water, is where life is most abundant. The warmer
region that receives the most sunshine will hold the most oxygen, allowing the most
life to flourish here. This zone has a high oxygen concentration during the summer.
The temperature of the water starts to drop in the metalimnion or middle mass of
the lake. Although there are not as many species here as in the surface waters, there
are still many to be discovered. The thermocline, which is a region where the water
temperature drops by around one degree Celsius each meter, frequently starts here.
The hypolimnion is the zone with the greatest temperature differences between
summer and winter. It is the area of the water body closest to the bottom where light
may not always penetrate. Most of the year, the least quantity of life can be found in
3.3 Water Supply 27
Figure 3.10: Sirio Lake, Italy.
this zone. When water is stratified in bodies, overturning happens when the water
near the surface and the water at the bottom of the mass mix. This happens in the
spring and autumn.
The critical topic is how to keep lentic ecosystems safe and safeguarded against
threats that can harm the entire ecosystem. Many of these hazards are caused by
human intervention, while others are caused by climate change. Figure 3.16 summa-
rizes some of these threats.
3.3.1.2 Lotic Water

Lotic water, flowing waterways, include rivers, streams, and springs. Because of their
steady movement their oxygen concentration is higher, and their water is clearer.
Lotic ecosystems are home to a variety of insect species, including beetles, stoneflies,
and mayflies, all of which have acquired environmental adaptations. A variety of fish
species, including eels, trout, and minnows, can be found here. A variety of species
live in these environments, including beavers, otters, and river dolphins.
Lotic water systems are flowing continuously, ranging from torrential rapids to
slow-moving backwaters and their water tend to be much shallower than their coun-
terparts, causing the temperature to become a major abiotic factor for life. Water
Figure 3.11: Lachine Canal, Montreal, Canada.
found in these systems will freeze much quicker and thaw much faster than the deep
waters of lentic systems. Lotic ecosystems depend on precipitation, snow melt, and
springs to keep the water flowing. In times of drought these shallow systems will dry
up and many organisms will die. Lotic environments have water flowing in only one
direction, which is also known as unidirectional (one-way). As a result, there is a con-
dition of constant physical change. Flowing rivers can sculpt the streambed through
erosion and deposition, resulting in a variety of ecosystems such as glides and pools.
Light is required by biotic systems to provide the energy required to fuel the pri-
mary generation of new organic matter via photosynthesis. Prey animals can find ref-
uge in the shadows cast by light.
All aerobic organisms require oxygen to survive in lotic ecosystems. The majority
of oxygen enters the water via diffusion at the water-air interface. Its solubility in
water diminishes as the temperature of the water rises.
The geologic material present in the catchment that is eroded, transported, sorted,
and deposited by the current forms the underlying layer of inorganic substrate in lotic
ecosystems. Boulders, pebbles, gravel, sand, and silt are examples of inorganic sub-
3.3 Water Supply 29
Figure 3.12: Venice Canal, Italy.
strates. The organic substrate can also comprise small particles, autumn fallen leaves,
buried wood, moss, and more advanced plants.
Lotic water productivity and biodiversity are diminishing globally due to climate
and anthropogenic-caused changes. Many current and developing challenges have an
impact on their quality and availability. Table 3.1 offers a number of examples of the
threats to lotic ecosystems.
3.3.2 Groundwater
After soaking into the soil as a result of rain or the melting of ice and snow groundwa-
ter is preserved in small holes between rocks and soil particles. Although it is chilly,
transparent, and odorless and has the least turbidity of any natural water, it is quickly
contaminated by limestone deposits or septic tank effluent.
The movement of groundwater is a component of the hydrologic cycle. As precipi-
tation and other surface water sources recharge it, the groundwater gradually – and
occasionally very gradually – drains toward its discharge point. Groundwater does not
Figure 3.13: Waterloo Park Silver Lake, Canada.
Littoral The shoreline of a lake or pond
The multiple zones of The lake's surface or the open water area
Limnetic
the lentic water
ecosystem The region that starts when sunlight can
Profundal
no longer reach the lake's surface
Benthic The region along the lake's bottom
Figure 3.14: Lentic water ecosystem multiple zones.
wait to be drawn from a well or remain motionless indefinitely beneath the surface.
Groundwater is present in two zones. The pores, or open spaces, that make up the un-
saturated zone, which is located just below the Earth’s surface, contain both water and
air. The saturated zone, which is located underneath the unsaturated zone and is
where all the pores and rock cracks are filled with water, is shown in Figure 3.17.
Numerous factors can lead to groundwater contamination. An aquifer’s recharge sur-
face water will contaminate the groundwater if it is tainted. The quality of surface water
at discharge points may then be impacted by contaminated groundwater. Liquid hazard-
3.3 Water Supply 31
The surface water

The epilimnion
Lake thermal
Thermocline
stratification layers The middle mass of water
The metalimnion
The hypolimnion The bottom most part of the water body
Figure 3.15: Lake thermal stratification layers or zones.
Agriculture
Chemical Absence of
contamination light
Invasive
Salinity
species
Wastewater Population
outflow pressure
Garbage Over-
disposal extraction
Figure 3.16: Threats to lentic ecosystems.
Table 3.1: Threats to lotic ecosystems with examples.
Industrial DDT, dyes, mercury, cadmium, lead. Solid wastes such as metals, plastics, and artificial
effluents fibers
Agrochemicals Fertilizers, herbicides, and pesticides
Heavy metals Mercury, lead, cadmium, copper, zinc, and nickel

Unsaturated
Underground water
zone
Soil zone
Water table
Saturated
zone
Groundwater
Figure 3.17: Groundwater zones.
ous compounds that seep into groundwater through the earth can also contaminate it.
The water will carry contaminants that can dissolve in groundwater with it, possibly to
wells that provide drinking water. An area of contaminated groundwater, known as a
plume, can occur if there is a persistent source of pollution entering flowing groundwater.
Very large volumes and areas of groundwater can get contaminated by the combina-
tion of moving groundwater and a constant source of pollution. In water, some danger-
ous compounds dissolve very slowly. Some of the contaminants will remain in liquid
form if these compounds seep into groundwater more quickly than they can break down.
The liquid will float on top of the water table like oil on water if it is less dense than water.
In this state, pollutants are referred to as light nonaqueous phase liquids (LNAPLs).
The pollutants are referred to as dense nonaqueous phase liquids (DNAPLs) if
the liquid is denser than water. DNAPLs develop pools at the aquifer’s bottom as they
sink. As the pools slowly decompose and are removed by flowing groundwater, they
continue to poison the aquifer. Tiny globules of liquid are caught in the gaps between
soil particles as DNAPLs move downward through an aquifer.
3.3.2.1 Groundwater Sources

The most prevalent types of groundwater sources are hand-dug wells and springs. De-
pending on the source type, multiple methods are used to abstract groundwater. Tra-
ditional techniques, such as hand pumps or mechanical or electrical pumps, can be
Table 3.2: Groundwater sources.
Spring A spring is a location where underground water finds its way to the land surface and emerges,
sometimes as a trickle, sometimes immediately after a rain, and sometimes in a constant flow.
Hot springs can also arise when spring water emerges from subsurface heated rock. The quantity
and velocity of the spring are both affected by the size of the aquifer and the location of the
spring. The flow rate increases with the size of the aquifer.
Well A well is a hole bored into the ground to gain access to water in an aquifer. To extract water from
the ground, a pipe and a pump are needed, while a screen screens out undesired particles that
could clog the pipe. Deeper wells have lower turbidity, more dissolved minerals, and fewer
microorganisms. Natural filtration is less effective in shallow wells. Wells can be safeguarded by
keeping them away from human waste and from geological leaks.
3.3 Water Supply 33
used to extract groundwater from boreholes and hand-dug wells. The two sources of
groundwater are listed and discussed briefly in Table 3.2.
Wells are classified into four types. These types are briefly presented in Table 3.3.
Table 3.3: Well types.
Drilled A drilled well consists of a hole that has been

well excavated (also called a borehole) and a
casing that lines the upper part of the entire
depth of the well. The borehole is created by
using a portable drilling machine.
https://wellowner.org/2021/03/some-com
mon-mistakes-well-owners-make-regarding-
their-wells-and-equipment/
Bored well Is built with an earth auger machine and  m

deep. The well, which is normally half a meter
in diameter, is constructed from concrete. This
shallow well is more susceptible to pollution
since it is the first to dry up during droughts.
https://water.ca.uky.edu/boredwells
Dug well Is not the ideal choice for the purpose of

providing drinking water because it is shallow,
often less than  m deep and  m broad. Due
to its inadequate protection from surface
water, it poses the largest risk of
contaminating the water supply. A dug well
can be built by hand or with the aid of
machinery for excavation.
https://water.ca.uky.edu/dugwell
Driven or The combined lengths of pipe are driven into

sand point the ground to create the sand-point or driven-
well point wells. This well typically has a diameter
of no more than  cm and a depth of no more
than  m. Only areas with relatively loose
soils, such as sand and gravel aquifers, can
accommodate this type of well. It is only put in
locations with a shallow water table and few
to no stones. It is driven into the ground or https://dengarden.com/home-improve
inserted using high water pressure. ment/How-To-Replace-Your-Old-Well-And-
Save-Dollars
The wells mentioned above do not produce water in a sustainable way, and their
water yield can decrease after being continuously drained for a long time. Figures 3.18
and 3.19 provide an overview of the causes of poor yield and the corrective actions
that should be taken to fix them so that a reasonable yield is maintained.
Over pumping
Clogging of the screen
Aquifer depletion
Proximity to another well
Nature of the sand particles
Figure 3.18: Causes of poor well yield.
Surging
“Forcefully moving water into and out of the well screen using compressed air”
Pumping at higher rate
Doubling the pump diameter
Keeping longer distance between wells
Sodium hexametaphosphate and chlorine treatment
Figure 3.19: Well lower yields corrective actions.
3.3.3 Rainwater
Rain occurs when water vapor in the atmosphere condenses into droplets heavy
enough to fall to the earth. Rain, which is an important aspect of the water cycle, de-
3.4 Questions 35
posits the bulk of the fresh water on the Earth. Given the right precautions, it is a
typically safe source of water that can even be used for drinking. It is abundant in
roof catchments and other paved places, and it can be used for a variety of purposes,
including drinking, washing clothes, flushing toilets, watering gardens, and cooling
and heating systems.
Rainwater often lacks any dissolved particles but contains dissolved gases such as
carbon oxides, nitrogen, and sulfur, resulting in pH levels of 5.5 or below. Rainwater
in coastal locations may include up to 15 mg/L of sodium chloride from sea spray.
Rainwater also lacks alkalinity; it is acidic (low pH), low in mineral content, and ag-
gressive to calcium-containing materials such as concrete and some metals commonly
used in household plumbing. Rainwater is a crucial source of fresh water that is re-
quired for human, plant, and animal survival. Rainwater fills wells, lakes, and rivers,
providing fresh water for home use.
Rainwater can be collected and saved for later use. Rainwater harvesting systems
must include a collection area, a conveyance system, and a storage tank. A pump, a
water treatment system, and water using fixtures can also be included in the systems.
This type of water is often used as a non-potable supply for purposes such as toilet
flushing and irrigation. It can also be used as potable water for drinking, dishwashing,
and bathing if treated. Because treatment can be costly, most rainwater collection sys-
tems in metropolitan areas are not designed to provide drinking water.
Using rainwater to meet water supply needs helps to conserve groundwater in
areas where water is supplied by groundwater sources, saves money and energy asso-
ciated with the reduced use of treated municipal water, reduces the volume of storm-
water runoff, which helps to prevent flooding and channel erosion, and saves money
associated with drainage infrastructure and downstream stormwater management.
3.4 Questions
3.4.1 Give three examples of water resources.

3.4.2 What are the water cycle’s four primary stages?
3.4.3 What are the three forms of surface water?
3.4.4 Define lentic water and give two examples.
3.4.5 Name the multiple zones of the lentic water.
3.4.6 Describe the thermal stratification phenomenon.
3.4.7 List five threats to lentic ecosystems.
3.4.8 Give examples of the threats to aquatic ecosystems.
3.4.9 What are the groundwater zones?
3.4.10 What are the causes of poor well yield?
Chapter 4
Water Pollution and Pollutants
4.1 Water Pollution
Water pollution occurs when dangerous substances, most typically chemicals or mi-
crobes, pollute a stream, river, lake, ocean, aquifer, or other water bodies, lowering
water quality and making it poisonous to humans or the environment.
Water contamination is a major problem that endangers human health. Every year,
unsafe water kills more people than war and all other types of violence combined. Mean-
while, our available drinking water is limited. We have access to less than one percent of
the world’s fresh water. Without action, the difficulties would only worsen when global
demand for fresh water exceeds current levels. The five consequences of water pollution
are shown in Figure 4.1.
Contamination Lack of
Biodiversity is High infant
throughout Diseases adequate
vanishing mortality rate
the food chain water
Figure 4.1: The five consequences of water pollution.
4.2 Water Pollution Causes
Water is very vulnerable to pollution. Water, widely described as a “universal sol-

vent,” has the ability to dissolve more compounds than any other liquid on the Earth.
It is responsible for the vivid blue waterfalls. It also explains the ease with which
water can be polluted. Toxic compounds released by farms, cities, and industry dis-
solve and combine with it, contaminating the water. Here are some of the most prom-
inent global water pollution sources.
4.2.1 Agricultural Sector
Agriculture, the world’s largest user of fresh water, contributes significantly to envi-
ronmental pollution. It is considered the world’s leading source of water pollution.
Agricultural pollution is the leading cause of pollution in wetlands, lakes, rivers, and
streams and also contributes to groundwater contamination.
Pesticides and fertilizers are two of the most common agricultural pollutants. The
goal of these fertilizers and pesticides is to kill the local pests that cause crop harm.
Some pesticides are absorbed by the soil, water, and plants when they are sprayed on
crops. These chemicals are extremely dangerous since they affect the water supply
and soil. Animals’ health is harmed when they consume these leftover crops after har-
vesting. When we consume these crops, they may have an effect on our health.
Heavy metals like cadmium, lead, and arsenic can be found in insecticides and
fertilizers. These heavy metal traces disintegrate in the soil, mix with water sources,
are sucked up by groundwater, and are sometimes absorbed by crops.
Although agricultural manure and fertilizers may not be immediately harmful, they
may include high levels of chemical nutrients such as nitrogen and phosphorus. These
are the major sources of nutrient contamination that causes agricultural pollution, and
their overabundance causes a threat to the quality of the world’s water supply.
Non-native crop development and a lack of natural species are two other major
contributors to agricultural pollution. This has an impact on human health and causes
irreversible alterations in the natural environment. These plants may consume more
soil nutrients and may emit toxins that harm the soil and water. As a result, crop out-
put and quality may decline.
4.2.2 Sewage and Wastewater
While the term “sewage” is occasionally used to refer to all wastewater, sewage is the
fraction of wastewater that contains feces or pee. It comes from the sinks, showers,
and toilets in our homes. Wastewater is a catch-all term for the liquid waste that
comes from industrial, commercial, and agricultural operations. Stormwater runoff,
which occurs when rain causes impermeable surfaces to leak chemicals, oil, grease,
and debris into our waterways, is another example of the phrase.
Wastewater is harmful to the environment because it carries germs, viruses, and
disease-causing organisms that can taint shellfish populations, damage beaches, and
prevent people from enjoying themselves or drinking water or eating shellfish.
In addition to polluting waterways with excess nutrients, sewage discharges also
cause fish kills and coral reef die-offs by fostering hazardous algal blooms that endan-
ger human health. Because sewage treatment is expensive, it is sometimes discarded
without being cleaned. When sewage is dumped, it spreads bacteria, worms, or danger-
ous chemicals that can cause diseases including cholera, typhoid, and hepatitis. Sewage
spills can often result in a variety of issues, some of which are shown in Figure 4.2.
Large amounts of wastewater from manufacturing facilities, oil refineries, waste-
water treatment facilities, and septic systems flow back into the environment either
legally or illegally without being treated or reused. If put in place and used correctly,
wastewater treatment facilities can process a significant portion of wastewater. Prior
to releasing the cleaned waters back into waterways, these facilities filter out pollu-
38 Chapter 4 Water Pollution and Pollutants
Threaten local
waterways and
Threaten the beaches
environment
Damage
homes and
businesses
Cause health
hazards
Figure 4.2: Sewage spill effects.
tants like bacteria, phosphorous, and nitrogen from sewage as well as heavy metals
and hazardous chemicals from industrial waste.
Although wastewater treatment generates energy, fertilizers, lowers hazards to
the public’s health, and cleans up the water, it also emits a strong odor, hybrid micro-
organisms, needs a lot of money and space, and has an impact on the environment.
4.2.3 Oil Spills
Large portions of our economy are powered by oil, which is also used to heat our
houses and provide energy. Accidental oil spills into the ocean or sea can injure ma-
rine life, sour a day at the beach, and render fish unfit for consumption. To remove
the oil, assess the effects of pollution, and aid in the ocean’s or sea’s recovery, strong
science is required.
Anywhere that oil is drilled, transported, or used is subject to oil leaks. The great
majority of oil that enters marine habitats each year originates from sources on land
as well, including factories, farms, and towns, in addition to tanker disasters. Differ-
ent techniques are used to clean up oil spills. Figure 4.3 presents a summary of these
techniques.
4.2.4 Radioactive Waste
Radioactive waste is defined as any pollutant that emits more radiation than the envi-
ronment normally does. It is created by uranium mining, nuclear power plants, the de-
Using oil booms
Using skimmers
Using sorbents
Burning in-situ
Using dispersants
Hot water and high-pressure

washing
Using manual labor
Bioremediation
Chemical stabilization of oil by

elastomizers
Natural recovery
Figure 4.3: Oil spill cleaning methods.
velopment and testing of military weapons, and the use of radioactive materials in aca-
demic institutions and healthcare facilities’ research and treatment plans. Because ra-
dioactive waste can last for tens of thousands of years in the environment, disposal is
extremely challenging. Contaminants pose a risk to groundwater, surface water, and
marine resources if they are unintentionally released or disposed of improperly.
Nuclear waste is classified into three types: high-level waste, transuranic waste,
and low-level waste, and each must be disposed of according to the risk to human
health and the environment. Some examples include radioactively contaminated pro-
tective shoe coverings and clothing, cleaning rags, mops, filters, reactor water treatment
residues, equipment and instruments, medical tubes, swabs, hypodermic syringes, and
laboratory animal corpses and tissues.
Radioactive waste can cause DNA damage in human cells. Acute radiation syn-
drome (ARS) or Cutaneous radiation injuries (CRI) can be caused by high doses of
radiation. High radiation exposure may potentially cause cancer later in life.
Low-level waste disposal is simple and may be done safely and practically in any
place. Deep geological disposal is largely accepted as the best approach for the final
disposal of the majority of radioactive waste produced. Radioactive materials are han-
dled in special containers. Only non-life-threatening amounts of radioactive material
are transported in type A packaging. Type B packaging is intended for transporting
radioactive materials with the greatest levels of radioactivity.
Radioactive materials have the potential to infiltrate the human body if individu-
als breathe them in or consume contaminated food or water. Radiation or radioactive
waste overexposure may have detrimental repercussions. Figure 4.4 illustrates an ex-
ample of each.
Radiation-
Heart and brain
induced
malfunctioning
vasculopathy
Reproductive
Thyroid cancer
tract problems
Figure 4.4: The effects of being exposed to radiation or radioactive waste.
4.3 Pollution Impacted Water Type
4.3.1 Groundwater Pollution
When rain falls, it seeps deep into the earth, filling fissures, crevices, and porous pla-
ces in an aquifer to form groundwater. It is one of our most important but least obvi-
ous natural resources. Several countries rely on groundwater pumped to the earth’s
surface for drinking water. Some people in rural locations rely solely on it for fresh
water. Toxins from landfills and septic systems infiltrate an aquifer and poison
groundwater, rendering it unfit for human consumption.
Nitrates from the overuse of chemical fertilizers or manure on farmland are also
common groundwater pollutants, as are petroleum products leaking from under-
ground storage tanks and diesel fuel from gas stations, leaching of fluids from land-
fills and dumpsites, road salt, accidental spills, and excessive applications of chemical
pesticides, as shown in Figure 4.5.
Pollutant removal from groundwater can be complex and costly. Poisoned aqui-
fers may be uninhabitable for decades, if not thousands of years. Groundwater can
transmit toxins far from the initial contaminating source as it seeps into streams,
lakes, and seas.
4.3 Pollution Impacted Water Type 41
To prevent groundwater pollution, the best way is to properly dispose of all waste
and avoid dumping chemicals down drains or on the ground, to continuously test un-
derground fuel oil tanks for leaks, and, if possible, to replace them above ground, to
safely store all chemicals and fuels, to minimize the use of chemicals, and to always
use them according to directions.
Residential
Gas
area Station
Septic Storage Tank Contaminants leach

Tank from septic systems,
Soil Zone and gas stations
Water Table
Groundwater
Figure 4.5: Groundwater pollution.
4.3.2 Surface Water Pollution
Many of the world’s rivers, streams, and lakes are poisoned, making swimming, fish-
ing, and drinking unhealthy. Nutrient pollution, which includes nitrates and phos-
phates, is the most common type of contamination in these freshwater sources. While
these nutrients are necessary for plant and animal life, agricultural waste and fertil-
izer runoff have made them major pollutants. The municipal and industrial waste
also releases toxins into the environment. There’s also the litter that corporations and
individuals toss directly into waterways.
From farms, factories, and towns, streams and rivers also transport pollutants like
pesticides, fertilizers, and heavy metals into our bays and estuaries, where they eventu-
ally make their way to the seas and oceans. While this is going on, maritime debris,
particularly plastic, is being blown in by the wind or washing up through storm drains
and sewers. Along with continuously absorbing carbon pollution from the atmosphere,
seas and oceans are occasionally polluted by large and small oil spills and leaks.
4.4 Effects of Water Pollution
4.4.1 On Human Health
Waterborne pathogens are bacteria and viruses that cause disease and are present in
human and animal waste, and they are one of the most common reasons of illness
caused by contaminated drinking water. Among the diseases spread by contaminated
water are cholera, giardiasis, and typhoid. Even in affluent countries, sewage treat-
ment plant emissions, as well as farm and urban runoff, introduce potentially harm-
ful bacteria into rivers.
Another crisis is coming from lead poisoning, caused by cost-cutting initiatives
and deteriorating water infrastructure, which provides a sharp reminder of how
harmful chemical and other industrial pollutants in our water may be. The problem
extends far beyond flint and encompasses far more than lead, as various chemical
pollutants, ranging from heavy metals like arsenic and mercury to pesticides and ni-
trate fertilizers, are finding their way into our water systems. If taken, toxins can
cause various health problems ranging from cancer to hormone disruption to im-
paired brain function.
4.4.2 On the Environment
An intricate web of interactions between organisms such as plants, animals, bacteria,

and fungi is necessary for the maintenance of healthy ecosystems. Any harm to one of
these creatures has the potential to set off a cascade that puts entire aquatic ecosys-
tems in danger. When a lake or sea has an algal bloom due to water pollution, the
abundance of recently provided nutrients drives plant and algae growth, lowering
water oxygen levels. Eutrophication, or a lack of oxygen, causes plants and animals to
suffocate, which can result in “dead zones,” or regions of water that are virtually life-
less. Rarely, these harmful algal blooms can produce neurotoxins that are harmful to
animals like whales and sea turtles.
Chemicals and heavy metals from municipal and industrial effluent that contami-
nate streams present another issue. These pollutants, which are poisonous to aquatic
life and frequently shorten an organism’s life expectancy and capacity for reproduc-
tion, move up the food chain as predators devour their prey. This is how large fish
like tuna and others pick up large amounts of poisons like mercury.
Marine debris, which can starve, choke, and strangle creatures, is also a threat to
marine ecosystems. The majority of this solid waste, including plastic bags and drink
cans, is flushed into storm drains and sewers before being discharged at sea, trans-
forming our oceans into a soup of junk that occasionally accumulates to form floating
garbage patches. Many marine life species have been wiped out by discarded fishing
gear and other sorts of rubbish.
4.6 Questions 43
Another issue is ocean acidification, which makes it difficult for shellfish and
coral to survive. Oceans are growing more acidic despite the fact that they absorb
around a quarter of the carbon pollution produced each year by the combustion of
fossil fuels. This process makes shellfish and other species’ shell formation more diffi-
cult, and it may have an impact on the neurological systems of sharks, clownfish, and
other marine animals.
4.5 Water Pollutants
Domestic trash, insecticides and herbicides, food processing waste, livestock opera-
tions waste, volatile organic compounds, heavy metals, and chemical waste are all ex-
amples of water pollutants. Some of these contaminants are summarized in Table 4.1.
Table 4.1: Examples of water pollutants.
Fertilizers Pesticides
Nitrates Phosphates
Dissolved inorganic ions Dissolved organic compounds
Plastics Perchloroethylene (PERC)
Dissolved gases Polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFASs)
Bacteria Parasites
Viruses Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs)
Suspended particles Colloidal particles
Lead Mercury
Cadmium Arsenic
4.6 Questions
4.6.1 List the five consequences of water pollution.

4.6.2 What are the known causes of water pollution?
4.6.3 Does agriculture contribute significantly to environmental pollution and how?
4.6.4 What are the most common agricultural pollutants?
4.6.5 What does the term sewage stand for?
4.6.6 Give examples of the sewage spill’s effects.
4.6.7 Name five techniques used to clean up oil spills.
4.6.8 What are the common groundwater pollutants?
4.6.9 Can the groundwater pollutants be removed?
4.6.10 Give five examples of water pollutants.
Chapter 5
Microbial Contaminants in Water
Water is necessary for survival; however, many people lack access to clean and safe
drinking water, and many people die as a result of waterborne bacterial illnesses. The
most common bacterial diseases transmitted through water are cholera, typhoid
fever, and bacillary dysentery, and the most well-known contaminants of concern in
drinking water are bacteria like Helicobacter pylori, the Salmonella family, Escheri-
chia coli, and viruses like hepatitis A, Norwalk-type viruses, rotaviruses, adenoviruses,
enteroviruses, and reoviruses. Figure 5.1 depicts the four most typical sources of bac-
terial contamination.
Contaminated manure
Irrigation water
Soil
Livestock and wildlife
Figure 5.1: Bacterial contamination sources.
It is not always easy to identify if water has microbiological contamination, but there
are some indications that can help. A summary of them is shown in Figure 5.2.
One of the biggest issues is providing everyone with access to safe drinking
water, and drinking water should always be microbiologically controlled. Drinking
water should undergo a routine basic microbiological investigation to check for the
presence of several bacteria that commonly cause bacterial illnesses.
5.1 Water Consumption as a Source of Disease
Life is dependent on water. Everyone should have access to a sufficient, secure, and
reliable supply. Enhancing access to clean drinking water can have a positive impact
on health. To ensure the highest level of safety for drinking water, every effort should
Metallic, oily, or fishy water taste
Chlorine smell
Sulfur odor
Frothy, and hazy appearance
Low water pressure
Sediments, grime, or blackening in the sink
Figure 5.2: Signs for water microbiological contamination.
be made. Many individuals have trouble getting access to clean water. In industrial-
ized nations, a clean and treated water supply to every home may be the standard,
but in developing nations, access to clean water and sanitation is not the norm, and
waterborne diseases are frequent.
Millions of people die each year from diseases linked to water, says the WHO.
More than 50% of them are microbial intestinal diseases, with cholera being the most
notable. Generally speaking, drinking water that has been tainted with human or ani-
mal feces poses the biggest microbiological dangers. Pathogenic fecal bacteria, includ-
ing those found in fresh water and coastal seawaters, are primarily obtained via
wastewater discharges.
The following paragraphs discuss the most common bacterial infections transmit-
ted through water, including cholera, salmonellosis, and shigellosis or bacillary dysen-
tery, as well as dangerous E. coli strains.
5.1.1 Cholera
Cholera is caused by curved, Gram-negative bacillus called Vibrio cholerae. The spe-
cies is a naturally occurring, free-living organism that can be found in a variety of
aquatic environments. Where there is poor water treatment, sanitation, and hygiene,
cholera is more likely to occur and spread. The severe diarrheal disease cholera is
brought on by the bacterial pathogen V. cholerae. Figure 5.3 shows the four cholera
symptoms.
46 Chapter 5 Microbial Contaminants in Water
Vomiting and
Thirst
diarrhea
Agitation and
Leg pains
restlessness
Figure 5.3: Cholera symptoms.
Cholera infection treatment involves the use of doxycycline as a first-line treatment.

If doxycycline resistance is documented, and azithromycin and ciprofloxacin are via-
ble alternatives.
5.1.2 Salmonellosis
Salmonellosis is a frequent bacterial illness of the intestine caused by Salmonella in-

fection. Salmonella bacteria normally dwell in the intestines of animals and humans
and are excreted in the form of stool.
Humans are most commonly infected through polluted water or contaminated
food. Figure 5.4 summarizes the possible signs and symptoms of salmonella infection.
Salmonella infections are typically treated with fluoroquinolones or third-generation
cephalosporins, such as ciprofloxacin and ceftriaxone.
5.1.3 Shigellosis or Bacillary Dysentery
Shigellosis is a digestive infection caused by Shigella, a Gram-negative, straight rod-

like bacteria that does not produce spores. Shigella is quickly transmitted from person
to person, and just a little amount of Shigella is required to induce sickness. Shigella
bacteria cause infection when consumed by mistake from polluted water. Shigella
germs can enter water through sewage or through a Shigella-infected swimmer. The
signs and symptoms of Shigella infection are summarized in Figure 5.5.
Diarrhea
Stomach cramps
Fever
Nausea
Vomiting
Chills
Headache
Blood in the stool
Figure 5.4: Signs and symptoms of salmonella infection.
Diarrhea Stomach cramps
Fever Nausea
Vomiting
Figure 5.5: Signs and symptoms of Shigella infection.
Combating dehydration by drinking plenty of fluids, especially electrolyte solutions,

many of which are available over the counter, is the first line of Shigella infection
treatment. Infections that are moderate to severe may necessitate medical attention.
Antibiotics are typically used to clear the germs from the digestive tract. Azithromycin
(Zithromax), ciprofloxacin (Cipro), and sulfamethoxazole/trimethoprim (Bactrim) are
examples of strong antibiotics.
5.1.4 Pathogenic Escherichia coli Strains
A Gram-negative, rod-shaped bacteria called E. coli is frequently discovered in the

lower intestine of warm-blooded animals. The majority of E. coli strains are benign,
but pathogenic types can seriously affect humans by leading to septic shock, meningi-
tis, or urinary tract infections. Based on epidemiological data, morphological charac-
teristics, clinical characteristics of the disease, and particular virulence factors, at
least six primary groupings of E. coli strains isolated from intestinal disorders have
been identified. They can all be spread by contaminated water, but enterotoxigenic
E. coli (ETEC), enterohemorrhagic E. coli (EHEC), and enteroinvasive E. coli (EIEC)
are of exceptional relevance. A few signs and symptoms of E. coli infection are shown
in Figure 5.6.
Bloody diarrhea
Stomach cramps
Vomiting
Figure 5.6: Signs and symptoms of E. coli infection.
There are no drugs available right now that can treat the illness, lessen symptoms, or
prevent issues brought on by E. coli. The most frequent kind of treatment for most
people is rest. Fluids help to reduce tiredness and dehydration.
5.2 Microbial Contaminants in Potable Drinking Water
The objective of water treatment facilities is to create drinking water that is free of
pathogens and parasites, not necessarily sterile water. However, a potable water sup-
ply can become contaminated from a number of different sources, including:
– Water supply source
– Water treatment facility
– Water distribution system
– Biofilms formation
5.3 Bottled Water Microbiology 49
5.3 Bottled Water Microbiology
Numerous parasites and pathogenic microbes, as well as native microorganisms, are

frequently present in water sources and could end up in drinking water. Bacterial
pathogens, viral pathogens, and protozoan parasites are the three types of pathogens
most frequently seen.
Even in established industrial nations with state-of-the-art water purification fa-
cilities, effective marketing and advertising have contributed to the expansion of the
bottled water industry globally.
For a variety of reasons, including complaints about the taste of tap water and wor-
ries about the presence of hazardous chemicals, germs, and parasites, people choose to
drink bottled water. Consumers believe bottled water to be pure and harmless; how-
ever, multiple studies have found that it can occasionally include hazardous chemicals
and pathogenic microbes that could have negative effects on human health.
The main purpose of bottled water today is for drinking, but it has also been used
to make baby formula, clean contact lenses, and run humidifiers. Customers typically
believe bottled water to be of higher quality and greater flavor than tap water. How-
ever, it’s not always true that bottled water is of greater quality.
According to some investigators, the quality of bottled water isn’t any higher than
that of municipal drinking water. Additionally, it costs a hundred times as much as
regular tap water. Additionally, plastic bottle collecting, packing, transportation, and
disposal harm the environment. It’s possible that source water or water treatment
prior to bottling is to blame for the seldom presence of harmful compounds and path-
ogenic microbes.
5.3.1 Source Water
Aquatic native microbes, possible pathogens, and parasites may come from the source
water or may be added at the bottling facility through contaminated equipment. The
identification of indigenous microorganisms in natural mineral fluids and spring
waters has been aided by culture-dependent and molecular-based approaches.
5.3.2 Water Treatment Before Bottling
Depending on the source, activated carbon, sand filtration, microfiltration, distilla-

tion, deionization, softening, mineral adjustment, UV radiation, carbonation, ozona-
tion, or reverse osmosis are few of the methods that can be used to treat water before
bottling.
5.4 Questions
5.4.1 What are the typical bacterial contamination sources?

5.4.2 Give examples of the most prevalent bacterial infections that are spread by
water.
5.4.3 List three signs of microbial contamination.
5.4.4 What are the four signs of cholera disease?
5.4.5 How is the infection caused by cholera treated?
5.4.6 Identify the Salmonellosis-causing bacterium.
5.4.7 What symptoms and signs indicate a Shigella infection?
5.4.8 What does ETEC stand for?
5.4.9 What are the sources of water supply contamination?
5.4.10 Does bottled water always have high quality?
Chapter 6
Water Analysis
Water testing and analysis can look at a variety of characteristics and parameters, in-
cluding those that are physical such as temperature, color, and turbidity, chemical such
as the presence of metals and compounds, and microbiological such as contamination
with bacteria and viruses. To assess the quality of the water, chemists, and technicians
measure a variety of parameters. These include the following: temperature, pH, dis-
solved solids, particle matter, dissolved oxygen, hardness, and suspended sediment.
Water testing on a regular basis can assist in ensuring that water supplies fulfill
appropriate health and safety standards, safeguarding customers from potential
harm. The laboratory is where exact work is done to identify proper analysis and test-
ing, as well as to monitor the quality of the produced water. Representative water
samples aid in determining the purity and quality of water sources.
Water sampling is critical for producing accurate water analysis results. The right
technique, as well as glasses or plasticware, must be used to get the desired result.
Metals, for example, react with glass and can adsorb on it; thus, water samples for
metal analysis are collected in polyethylene containers. Another important factor to
consider is the appropriate lifetime of the parameters to be employed as well as the
preservation technique.
Separating the dissolved or suspended components in the sample before analysis
is a common requirement in water analysis. This is usually accomplished by a physi-
cal separation stage. The most prevalent form of sample pretreatment is filtration.
Membrane and glass fiber filters come in various pore diameters, while membranes
come in a variety of materials. In general, various tools are used for water analysis,
some of which are listed in Figure 6.1.
The theoretical underpinnings of the typical water tests used for water analysis
are covered in detail in the pages that follow.
6.1 Common Water Tests
6.1.1 Color, Odor, and Taste
Natural inorganic and organic chemical pollutants, biological sources or processes,

manmade chemical pollution, corrosion, or problems with water treatment methods
like chlorination can all contribute to color, taste, and odor (smell). Drinking water in
particular may have an unpleasant taste or odor as a result of pollution or a problem
with the water treatment or distribution system. Table 6.1 summarizes water color,
odor (smell), taste, and related pollutants.
52 Chapter 6 Water Analysis
Turbidity meters
pH meters
Conductivity meters
Dissolved O2 sensors
Jar test apparatus
Chloroscopes
Digital colorimeters
Figure 6.1: Water analysis tools.
Table 6.1: Water color, odor (smell), taste, and related pollutants.
Water color Possible pollutants
Bluish-green or green High concentrations of copper, lead, zinc, or other trace metals
Grayish High levels of aluminum
Blackish High quantities of copper, iron, and manganese sulfides or oxides

as well as sulfate-related, iron, or manganese nuisance bacteria
Tea-like appearance Elevated tannic and fulvic acid levels
Water odor or smell Possible pollutants
Phenolic strong odor Petrochemicals and volatile organic compounds
Chemical odor Synthesized organic molecules and industrial chemicals
Methane-like odor Mercaptans
Oily odor Gasoline, petrochemicals, and surfactants
Smell of rotten eggs Sulfur, hydrogen sulfide, and microbial pollutants
Fishy odor Surfactants, barium, cadmium, and algal blooms in surface water
sources
Musty or earthy odor Iron bacteria, mold, fungi, algal blooms, or a high bacterial count
Cucumber smell Iron bacteria and algal blooms
Chlorine smell High quantities of chlorine and chlorine by-products

Table 6.1 (continued)
Water taste Possible pollutants
Metallic High levels of metals like iron, manganese, copper, lead, and zinc
Oily, fishy, or perfume-like, Breakdown of waste products

hazy, and bitter
6.1.2 Turbidity
Turbidity is a measure of how much transparency the water loses due to the presence
of suspended particulates. It can also be defined as a fluid’s cloudiness or haziness
induced by a large number of individual particles.
A nephelometer, often known as a turbidity meter, is the best tool for measuring
turbidity in a wide range of samples. An electronic handheld meter that measures
light scatter using a light and photodetector and outputs turbidity units such as
nephelometric turbidity units (NTUs) or formazin turbidity units (FTUs). The nephe-
lometric approach compares the quantity of light scattered in a water sample to the
amount of light scattered in a control solution. There are various types of turbidity
meters:
– Benchtop meters are used to take measurements on samples that can be carried
to a laboratory.
– Submersible meters can be submerged in water and used to measure turbidity
on-site.
– Continuous flow meters provide continuous turbidity monitoring as a stream of
water passes past the sensor.
Drinking water turbidity should preferably be kept below 1 NTU. The lower the turbid-
ity, the less particle matter there is. Low turbidity readings imply clear water, whereas
high values suggest cloudy water. In large, well-managed municipal supplies, less than
0.5 NTU should be maintained at all times with an average of 0.2 NTU or less, regardless
of source water type and quality.
When it comes to turbidity levels, less than 10 NTUs is considered low turbidity,
more than 50 NTUs is considered moderate, and more than 100 NTUs is considered se-
vere. The World Health Organization recommends that the turbidity of drinking water
be less than 1 NTU and no higher than 5 NTUs.
High turbidity in drinking water is both unpleasant and potentially harmful to
one’s health. Pathogens can find food and refuge in turbidity. If the reasons for high
turbidity are not eliminated, they can stimulate the regeneration of bacteria in the
water, resulting in waterborne disease outbreaks. Figure 6.2 summarizes the elements
that contribute to water turbidity.
Algae
Silt
Sediment
Phytoplankton
Organic matter
Clay
Figure 6.2: Factors that contribute to water turbidity.
Visual tools, in addition to the turbidity meters discussed above, can be used to mea-
sure turbidity in water. Turbidity can be measured visually using two techniques that
are commonly used in lake and stream monitoring programs:
– Secchi disks are black and white circular disks that are used to determine the
clarity of water. Secchi disks are an inexpensive, portable, and simple technique
to obtain turbidity readings in a big body of water. The accuracy of the results is
determined by the lighting and the person’s eyesight.
– Transparency tubes are transparent tubes with a Secchi disk and a release valve
at the bottom. The tubes also have measurement markings on them to measure
the volume of water collected.
The following precautions should be observed during a turbidity test and when using
a nephelometric turbidimeter:
– Clean glass or plastic containers should be used to collect samples.
– Samples should be analyzed as soon as possible after collection.
– Dirty, scarred, or chipped sample tubes might give high results.
6.1.3 Jar Test
Coagulation–flocculation is the process of aggregating tiny particles in water into

larger, heavier clumps that settle out quickly. The larger particles are referred to as
flocs. Properly constructed floc will swiftly settle out of the water in the sedimentation
basin, removing the majority of the turbidity. Many plants require the operator to
modify coagulant dosages at regular intervals to achieve optimal coagulation due to
changing water properties. A jar test is performed to compare various coagulant dos-
ages to estimate the minimum coagulant dose required to achieve certain water qual-
ity goals. Figure 6.3 depicts a schematic diagram of the jar test apparatus.
This test is generally accomplished by replicating the treatment plant settings for
each jar test and pouring 1 L of representative water sample into each jar, followed
by a sequence of doses of the required chemical, beginning with control (0 dose) and
ending with the highest dose; then, using the mixing paddles to mix the chemicals
and samples before treating them in plant conditions and checking the results.
Sample container Mixing pedals
(Control)
Figure 6.3: A schematic diagram of jar test apparatus.
6.1.4 pH Measurements
The concentration of hydrogen ions is determined by pH. The hydrogen ion concen-
tration of a solution, measured in moles per liter, is expressed as the negative loga-
rithm of pH. For instance, pure water has a pH of 7 and a hydrogen ion concentration
of 10−7 mol/L at ambient temperature. Normally, the pH scale ranges from 0–14. At a
pH of 0, acids frequently fully ionize in water. A solution that has a pH value less than
7 indicates a higher concentration of hydrogen ions and is regarded as acidic. Water
has a pH of 14.0 when a fully ionized base or alkaline solution is present.
pH values are measured and controlled with pH meters; a schematic diagram of

the pH meter is shown in Figure 6.4. The pH meter’s probe is placed into the water
sample. At the tip of the probe, there is a thin glass bulb that contains a reference
electrode, usually made of silver/silver chloride (Ag/AgCl). The glass bulb itself serves
as the pH-sensitive glass electrode.
In order to obtain an accurate measurement, pH meters must be calibrated. To
accomplish this, the probe is taken out of the solution and cleaned with deionized
water before being put into a buffer with a specified pH for calibration. After being
taken out of the buffer and cleaned with deionized water, the electrode is then rein-
serted into the water solution to be measured.
Digital meter
Glass electrode
Figure 6.4: A schematic diagram of the pH meter.
Many water testing and purification techniques rely on pH monitoring. For the follow-
ing reasons, water pH should be tested and monitored:
– A change in water pH can affect the behavior of compounds in the water.
– pH has an impact on product quality and customer safety.
– pH changes can impact flavor, color, shelf life, product stability, and acidity.
– Tap water with an improper pH can cause corrosion in the distribution system
and allow dangerous heavy metals to leach out.
– Managing the pH of industrial water settings aids in the prevention of corrosion
and equipment damage.
– In natural ecosystems, pH can have an impact on plants and animals.
6.1.5 Alkalinity
Alkalinity is a measurement of the amount of dissolved alkaline compounds in water

that may neutralize acid (pH greater than 7.0). The three major types are as follows:
– Bicarbonate (HCO3−)
– Carbonate (CO32−)
– Hydroxides
The general classification system for alkalinity is as follows:

– Low alkalinity < 20 mg CaCO₃/L
– Moderate alkalinity 20–160 mg CaCO₃/L
– High alkalinity > 160 mg CaCO₃/L
Alkalinity can occur in water in three basic forms depending on the pH: carbonate, bi-
carbonate, or hydroxide. The sum of these three kinds is total alkalinity. Alkalinity is
determined by titrating a water sample with standard acid to a specific pH and record-
ing the result as P, M, or T alkalinity. P alkalinity is titrated with phenolphthalein to pH
8.3, M alkalinity is titrated to pH 4.6 using the methyl orange indicator, and T alkalinity
is titrated to pH 4.5 using the total alkalinity indicator. As can be seen, the endpoints of
both the methyl orange indicator (pH 4.6) and the total alkalinity indicator (pH 4.5) are
nearly identical, so they can be used interchangeably for total alkalinity readings. As a
result, the values of M and T can also be interchanged. Once P, M, or T alkalinity values
are determined, Table 6.2 can be use to calculate treatment control and effectiveness.
Table 6.2: Alkalinity relationship.
Titration results of Hydroxide alkalinity Carbonate alkalinity Bicarbonate alkalinity

alkalinity test (OH−) (CO−) (HCO−)
P=   T
P<½T  P T–P
P=½T  T 
P>½T P–T (T–P) 
P=T T  
Note that values of M and T can be interchanged to P/T or P/M.
100
Free CO2 HCO3- CO32-
80 or H2CO3
Percent
60 Types of alkalinity at different pH levels
40
20
0
1 4.3 6.3 8.3 10.3 12.3 14
pH
Figure 6.5: Types of alkalinity at different pH levels.

As depicted in Figure 6.5, alkalinity in water starts to occur with a pH of 4.3. Anything
with a pH below 4.3 has only dissolved CO2 (or carbonic acid) and no alkalinity. In es-
sence, bicarbonate alkalinity (blue line) starts to change from the carbonic acid (black
line) at pH 4.3. The change from bicarbonate to carbonate ions then takes place at a pH
of 8.3 (green line). More hydrogen dissociates and evaporates at higher pH levels. As a
result, bicarbonate (HCO3−) is created when carbonic acid (H2CO3) loses hydrogen.
Bicarbonate loses hydrogen when the pH rises; at a pH of 8.3 and becomes car-
bonate (CO32−). It is evident that the bicarbonate–carbonate equilibrium predominates
at pH values between 8.3 and 12.3, with the CO2–bicarbonate equilibrium existing in
the pH range of 4.3–8.3. Additionally, the pH–carbonate equilibrium shows:
– Only dissolved CO2 (gas) or carbonic acid is present at a pH of 4.3.
– Only carbonic acid and bicarbonate ions exist between pH 4.3 and 8.3, with the
amount of each species varying depending on the pH.
– Only bicarbonate ions are present at pH 8.3.
– Only bicarbonate and carbonate ions are present between pH 8.3 and 12.3, with
the amount of each species varying depending on the pH.
– At pH 6.3 and pH 10.3, buffers are formed.
6.1.6 Hardness
The amount of measured divalent metal cations is referred to as water hardness. Only
two divalent cations, dissolved calcium (Ca2+) and dissolved magnesium (Mg2+) are pres-
ent in significant amounts in most waters. Both calcium and magnesium are mainly
bound to bicarbonate, sulfate, or chloride in natural water. Bicarbonate changes to car-
bonate and precipitates out with Ca2+ to produce calcium carbonate (CaCO3) scale when
hard water evaporates or is heated above 61 °C. Since CaCO3 is not a component of
water, water hardness levels are normally expressed in mg/L as CaCO3 equivalent.
There are various classification systems for indicating the degree of hardness, but gen-
erally speaking, soft water has CaCO3 equivalents under 60 mg/L and hard water has
more than 120 mg/L. According to general recommendations, water should be catego-
rized as soft up to 60 mg/L of calcium carbonate, moderately hard between 61 and
120 mg/L, hard between 121 and 180 mg/L, and very hard over 180 mg/L.
Water hardness is of two types: carbonates and noncarbonate hardness. The car-
bonate and bicarbonate salts of calcium and magnesium are the main contributors to
carbonate hardness (temporary hardness). Magnesium and calcium hydrogen carbo-
nates (Ca(HCO3)2 and Mg(HCO3)2) are responsible for their occurrence.
When heated, both species break down, and CaCO3 or MgCO3 precipitates. As a
result, boiling water can be used to eliminate temporary hardness.
The sulfates and chlorides of magnesium and calcium cause noncarbonate hard-
ness, also known as permanent hardness. In other words, water that contains calcium
sulfate (CaSO4), calcium chloride (CaCl2), magnesium sulfate (MgSO4), or magnesium

chloride (MgCl2) becomes permanently hard.
Total hardness is expressed as the sum of carbonate hardness. Water hardness is
expressed in parts per million (ppm) and milligrams per liter (mg/L):
Total hardness = calcium hardness + magnesium hardness

ðmg=L as CaCO3 Þ ðmg=L as CaCO3 Þ ðmg=L as CaCO3 Þ

= 2.50 × calcium conc. mg=L as Ca2+ + 4.12 × magnesium conc. mg=L as Mg2+
or
Hardness = 2.497 Ca + 4.118 Mg
Total hardness, calcium hardness, and magnesium hardness are the three parts used
to analyze water hardness. An ammonia buffer solution is added to the sample in
order to keep the pH around 11 while measuring total hardness. The next step is to
add sodium 1-(1-hydroxy 2-naphthylazo)-6-nitro-2-naphthol-4-sutphonate, Eriochrome
Black T (EBT; Figure 6.6A) indicator to allow the sample’s wine-red color to fully de-
velop. The sample is then titrated against ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid (EDTA) so-
lution (Figure 6.6B) after that and the sample’s color will change from wine red to
blue. The titration of total hardness comes to an end at this stage. Ammonium purpu-
rate, murexide (Figure 6.6C) indicator is added to the sample, after the addition of so-
dium hydroxide solution to the sample to maintain pH, to estimate the calcium
hardness by titration. When the sample is titrated against an EDTA solution, the sam-
ple’s color will change from pink to purple. The calcium hardness test comes to an
end at this point.
Total hardness minus calcium hardness value equals magnesium hardness:
Magnesium hardness = total hardness − calcium hardness
Figure 6.6: Chemical structures of EBT, EDTA, and murexide.

6.1.7 Residual Chlorine
Residual chlorine is the quantity of chlorine that remains in water after a specific period
of time or contact time. The residual chlorine test is one of the most typical tests per-
formed in water treatment facilities. The residual chlorine test detects the quantity of
residual chlorine in the water that has passed testing and is appropriate for distribution.
The fact that drinking water still contains chlorine after initial chlorine addition
to inactivate bacteria and some viruses shows that the water was properly stored to
prevent recontamination. In water distribution systems, free chlorine residuals of 0.5
to 2.0 mg/L offer efficient continuous disinfection.
The WHO has set a limit of 5 mg/L for the residual amount of free chlorine in
drinking water. The WHO recommends 0.2 mg/L as the lowest acceptable level of free
chlorine in treated drinking water. There are three forms of residual chlorine in
water treatment:
– Free: composed of dissolved hypochlorite ions, hypochlorous acid, and chlorine
gas.
– Combined: composed of chloramines that can kill bacteria and oxidize organic
matter.
– Total: the sum of free and combined residual chlorine.
The amount of residual chlorine left in the chlorinated water after the required con-
tact period can be experimentally determined by using any of the following tests:
– Diethyl-p-phenylene-diamine test
– Orthotolidine test
– Chloroscope test
– Digital colorimeters
6.1.7.1 Diethyl-p-Phenylenediamine Test

Chlorine and chlorine-released compounds are commonly used in drinking water dis-
infection, for microbial growth control in cooling water, and in many other water
treatment systems. Accurate detection of the chlorine residual is critical for control-
ling these chlorination systems. Although chlorine levels can be represented in terms
of free chlorine, mixed chlorine, or total chlorine residuals, the free chlorine residual
is the most essential for the majority of applications.
A pink color results from the reaction of free chlorine with N,N-diethyl-p-phenylene
diamine (DPD; Figure 6.7), in a buffered solution. The relationship between color inten-
sity and free chlorine content is linear. After the excess potassium iodide is added, any
combined chlorine that is present undergoes a reaction. The increase in intensity now
indicates the combined chlorine concentration and the color intensity is now inversely
proportional to the total chlorine concentration. Free and combined chlorine in the sam-
ple can be differentiated using this method.
NH2
Figure 6.7: Chemical structure of N,N-diethyl-p-phenylenediamine.
DPD test is not only used to determine the quantity of chlorine in water but also bro-
mine, iodine, and other disinfectants. It can distinguish between free and combined
chlorine. The color is tested on a comparator so that it may be easily compared to the
reference colors. There are two chlorine concentration levels available for the com-
parator disks: 0.1–1.0 mg/L and 0.2–4.0 mg/L.
To do the test, 10 mL of water is collected in the comparator tube to begin the
test; then a reagent tablet (DPD chlorine tablet) is added, and water is shaken to dis-
solve the tablet completely. Compare the resultant color with reference colors to get
the residual chlorine level in mg/L.
When measuring chlorine, there are four common DPD tablets that can be used:
– DPD 1 measures free chlorine.
– DPD 2 measures combined chlorine when used with DPD 1.
– DPD 3 measures total chlorine when used with DPD 1.
– DPD 4 calculates the total chlorine available or total chlorine content.
6.1.7.2 Orthotolidine Test

Orthotolidine, (Figure 6.8A), not orthotoluidine (Figure 6.8B), as some researchers
have misidentified it, is used in this test. In the figures, both chemical structures are
depicted. To conduct this test, 10 mL of chlorinated water is collected in a glass tube
after the required contact period. This is mixed with 0.1 mL of orthotolidine solution.
After 5 min, the color created is observed. The presence of total chlorine in the water
is generally indicated by the production of yellow color. The higher the chlorine resid-
ual, the more yellow the color. By comparing the color formed in the glass tube to the
standard colors already preserved in the laboratory, the amount of residual chlorine
can be determined.
NH2
H3C NH2
CH3
H2N CH3
Figure 6.8: Orthotolidine versus orthotoluidine chemical structures.

6.1.7.3 Chloroscope Test

A chloroscope is used as a comparison instrument in this test. The viewing window
on the right is used for the water sample, which is then compared with reference col-
ors on the left side on the comparator disk. The chloroscope detects accessible chlo-
rine levels ranging from 0.1–2.0 ppm (mg/L). If chlorine is present, an orthotolidine
solution causes the water to turn yellow or greenish-yellow. To perform this test, fill a
test tube to 5 mL with the water sample to be tested. Using a dropper, add 1–2 drops
of O-tolidine solution to the sample. Shake well and leave the tube for a few minutes
to allow the color to develop.
As soon as the color is generated, insert the tube into the hole on the right side of
the comparator to compare it to standard colors and record the reading from the ppm
(mg/L) scale marked in front of the chloroscope, as illustrated in Figure 6.9.
Left Right
Sample hole
ppm
2.0
1.5
Standard colors 1.0
0.5
0.2
0.1
Figure 6.9: A chloroscope diagram.
6.1.7.4 Digital Colorimeters

With digital colorimeter or pocket colorimeter (Figure 6.10), the free chlorine and/or
total chlorine residual measurements are the most precise. The color of the sample
water turns pink when DPD tablets or powder are added, and the vial is then put in
the colorimeter, which reads the intensity of the color change by emitting a wave-
length of light and digitally calculating and displaying the color intensity (free and/or
total chlorine residual). The colorimeter records values between 0 and 4 mg/L (ppm).
Sample slot
Display screen 00000
Zero button Read button
Figure 6.10: Pocket colorimeter diagram.
6.1.8 Chlorides
In most natural waters, chloride is a naturally occurring element that is frequently

present as a component of salt (sodium chloride) or, in certain situations, in combina-
tion with potassium or calcium. Water can taste bitter at chloride concentrations
above 250 mg/L; however, the threshold is dependent on the related cations.
Chlorides precipitate as white silver chloride when chloride-containing water is
titrated with silver nitrate solution. An indicator that provides chromate ions is potas-
sium chromate. Silver ion concentration rises to a point at which a reddish-brown
precipitate of silver chromate forms, signifying the endpoint when the concentration
of chloride ions approaches extinction.
Chlorides are typically not harmful to humans, although sodium in table salt has
been related to renal and heart disease. At 250 mg/L, sodium chloride may give off a
salty taste, while calcium or magnesium chloride is typically not tasted until values of
1,000 mg/L are achieved. There are a number of ways that chlorides can enter surface
water, including:
– chloride-containing rocks;
– runoff from agricultural operations;
– industrial wastewater;
– wastes from oil wells;
– wastewater effluent from sewage treatment facilities;
– salting of roads during snowfall.
6.1.9 Sulfates
Sulfates (SO4−) are found in almost all natural water sources. Polyatomic anion is
used in a wide range of sectors, including pharmaceuticals, cleaning supplies, and cos-
metics. While some sulfate minerals are naturally occurring in some soils and rocks,
sulfate is mostly a contaminant that enters our water supply from waste and indus-
trial discharge. Mines, smelters, paper mills, textile mills, and tanneries produce sul-
fate, which ends up in streams and groundwater. The main sulfates found in our
water are sodium, potassium, and magnesium sulfates, which are all very soluble.
Sulfate concentrations in saltwater are around 2,700 mg/L, while freshwater lakes
have concentrations ranging from 3 to 30 mg/L. The World Health Organization
(WHO) recommends a maximum sulfate content of 500 mg/L in the guidelines for
drinking water quality. Sulfate levels greater than 250 mg/L may cause the water to
taste bitter or medicinal. Sulfate levels beyond a certain threshold can corrode plumb-
ing, particularly copper piping. Plumbing materials that are more resistant to corro-
sion, such as plastic pipes, are widely used in places with high sulfate levels. Sulfate is
removed from drinking water using four different treatment systems:
– Reverse osmosis, which forces water through a membrane with microscopic
pores. The membrane prevents various pollutants, including sulfates, from pass-
ing through while enabling water to pass through. Depending on the type of treat-
ment unit, reverse osmosis eliminates between 93% and 99% of the sulfates in
drinking water.
– Distillation is a method of producing steam by boiling water. As the steam rises,
pollutants such as sulfates are left behind. Distillation units, when used properly,
can remove nearly all sulfates.
– Anion exchange is the most commonly used method for eliminating substantial
amounts of sulfates from commercial, livestock, and public water supplies. Indi-
vidual residential water treatment is not often used. It is a method of replacing
negatively charged ions such as sulfates with salts such as sodium chloride or po-
tassium chloride.
– Adsorptive media filtration uses a charged media bed to pull ions with opposing
charges such as sulfates out of the water and attach them to the media.
Titration with a solution of barium chloride (BaCl2) or barium nitrate (Ba(NO3)2) can
be used to assess the presence of sulfate ions in water. As shown in Figure 6.11, both
will be sources of barium ions that react with sulfate ions in water solutions. If there
are sulfate ions in the solution, a white precipitate of barium sulfate (BaSO4) forms.
False findings can be obtained if the sample contains carbonates, which similarly
form a white precipitate. To overcome this, the sample should be titrated with barium
chloride after being treated with nitric acid or hydrochloric acid.
Indirect EDTA titration can also be used to determine sulfates. The determination
of sulfate concentration in water using indirect EDTA titration is a useful experiment
that is simple to carry out. Excess barium chloride is added to a water sample to pre-
cipitate sulfate ions as BaSO4. After that, the unprecipitated barium ions are titrated
using EDTA.
The turbidimetric approach can also be used to determine sulfate ions. Under reg-
ulated conditions, sulfate ions in a water sample are transformed to a suspension of
BaSO4 for turbidimetric measurement.
BaCl2 Ba 2+ + 2 Cl-
(aq) (aq) (aq)
Barium chloride Barium ion Chloride ion
Ba(NO3)2 Ba 2+ + 2 NO3-
(aq) (aq) (aq)
Barium nitrate Barium ion Nitrate ion
Ba 2+ + SO42- BaSO4
(aq) (aq) (s) White ppt
Barium ion Sulfate ion Barium sulfate
Ba 2+ + CO32- BaCO3
(aq) (aq) (s) White ppt
Figure 6.11: Reaction of barium ions with sulfate and carbonate ions during
the determination of sulfate ions in a water sample.
To generate the suspension, the sulfate ions contained in the sample are precipitated
by adding a highly acidified solution of barium chloride. A spectrophotometer is then
used to calculate the suspension’s percent transmittance. This is then converted math-
ematically to turbidity.
The turbidity of the sample solution is compared to a calibration curve con-
structed from standard sulfate ion solutions.
6.1.10 Dissolved Oxygen
Dissolved oxygen (DO) is used as a measure of a water body’s health, with higher DO
concentrations associated with good productivity and low pollution.
DO in water is measured using chemical methods such as titrimetry, electroana-
lytical methods (using galvanic and polarographic probes), optical DO, and colorimet-
ric methods. Modern techniques, on the other hand, mostly employ electrochemical
or optical sensor technologies.
Winkler’s method is one of the most popular techniques for determining the
amount of DO in water. The test involves adding manganese sulfate and alkali-iodide-
azide reagent to a water sample, which results in the formation of a white precipitate
of Mn(OH)2. The oxygen in the water sample then oxidizes this precipitate, turning it
into a brown precipitate that contains manganese. The solution is then acidified with
strong sulfuric acid or hydrochloric acid, and the brown precipitate converts the io-
dide ion to iodine. The amount of dissolved oxygen is exactly proportionate when io-
dine is titrated with a thiosulfate solution.
6.1.11 Total Dissolved Solids
The elements in drinking water known as total dissolved solids (TDS) are both benefi-
cial and harmful. Examples of both organic and inorganic compounds that are dissolved
in water include minerals, salts, metals, cations, or anions. TDS concentrations are ex-
pressed as parts per million (ppm) and milligrams per liter (mg/L). TDS concentrations
usually range from 50 to 1,000 ppm. The ideal TDS concentrations in the water are listed
in Table 6.3.
Table 6.3: The preferable levels of TDS in water.
TDS levels in mg/L (ppm) Rating
< Excellent
– Good
– Fair
–, Poor
>, Unacceptable
However, the WHO recommends a TDS level of 300 ppm. TDS is typically reduced by
distillation to less than 10 ppm and by reverse osmosis to less than 25 ppm. TDS levels
in bottled mineral water typically range from 400 to 650 ppm.
Conductivity and gravimetric analysis are the two primary methods for estimat-
ing TDS. The gravimetric approach (Figure 6.12) requires letting the solvent evaporate,
dry, and then weighing the leftover residues. Even if it takes some time, this experi-
ment is usually regarded as the best. Using an electrical conductivity or TDS meter is
another easy technique to determine the TDS in water and the quality of the water.
Evaporate and dry
Filtrate Total Dissolved Solids (TDS)
Figure 6.12: Gravimetric approach to determine the total dissolved solids.

6.1.12 Total Suspended Solids
The total number of solids dissolved in water is one way to judge the purity of water
in lakes, rivers, and streams. High dissolved solids levels may indicate poor water
quality. The same holds true for wastewater or drinking water that has been treated
in a wastewater treatment facility.
Total suspended solids (TSS) is a term used to describe the dry weight of undis-
solved suspended particles in a sample of water that may be filtered through or mea-
sured by sintered glass crucible (glass fiber filter). Total suspended matter (TSM) and
suspended particulate matter (SPM) are other terminologies used to describe TSS.
The exact essential measurement is described by all three words. Previously, TSS was
also referred to as non-filterable residue (NFR).
A preweighed glass fiber filter (or regular filter) that collects the particles is used
to filter a water sample to quantify TSS, as shown in Figure 6.13. The filter that was
removed from the Buchner funnel after filtration is now dried in an oven for 1 h at
103–105 °C to eliminate any leftover water before being weighed once again. The TSS
(the dried residues on the glass fiber filter) concentration in mg/L is given by the
weight differential times 1 million over the sample volume.
Figure 6.13: Gravimetric approach to determine the total suspended solids.
6.1.13 Coliform Bacteria Test
Municipal water treatment operators should monitor coliform bacteria levels in the
water, with zero total coliform being the health requirement. However, private well
monitoring is the duty of the homeowner for well water safety. Testing well water for
bacteria is the only accurate way to know if water is safe because most of the time no
one can identify if water contains disease-causing organisms (pathogens) based on its
appearance, taste, or smell. Health officials highly advise annual coliform bacteria
testing for private water wells since contamination can occur without any change in
the water’s flavor or odor. There are five methods or techniques for detecting the
presence of coliform bacteria in water samples. They are as follows:
– Membrane filter (MF) technique
– Multiple tube fermentation (MTF) technique
– Presence–absence (P-A) method
– Defined substrate technology (DST) method (the Colilert test)
– Heterotrophic plate count (HPC) or standard plate count (SPC) method
6.1.13.1 Membrane Filter Technique

The membrane filter (MF) techniques, shown in Figure 6.14, can be used to assess
whether a specific coliform group is present in wastewater and groundwater. To deter-
mine the quality of the water, the number of colonies is directly counted using a colony
counter. A bacterial colony equates to a single bacterium in a 100 mL sample of water.
Water sample to be tested is

filtered through filtration
system
Coliform bacteria
Membrane filter
traps bacteria
Membrane filter incubated in bacterial

growth medium
Figure 6.14: Membrane filter technique for coliform bacteria detection.
6.1.13.2 Multiple Tube Fermentation Technique

A multiple-tube fermentation (MTF) technique involves the analysis of water samples for
the presence of coliform bacteria. A set of water-filled culture tubes containing lauryl
tryptose broth or lactose broth is incubated at 35 °C for 48 h. Figure 6.15 shows that if
coliform bacteria are present in the water sample, they will break down lauryl tryptose
or lactose to produce CO2 gas. The presence of gas indicates that the test is positive.
6.1.13.3 Presence–Absence Method

The presence-absence (P-A) test with 4-methylumbelliferyl-β-D-glucuronide (MUG) is
commonly used for routine drinking water testing. Coliform will ferment lactose to pro-
duce acid and gas if it is present. In addition to lactose, P-A broth contains a pH indica-
No CO2 gas production CO2 gas production

“No fermentation” “Fermentation”
Figure 6.15: Multiple tube fermentation technique for coliform bacteria detection.
tor (bromocresol purple), which changes from purple to yellow when lactose ferments
and acid is created as shown in Figure 6.16. MUG is also added to this P-A broth and is
hydrolyzed by the E. coli-glucuronidase enzyme to generate 4-methylumbeliferone,
which fluoresces under long UV light (336 nm). Detecting fluorescence emission is an-
other sensitive method for confirming the presence of E. coli in water samples.
Presence Absence
After 48 hours
Figure 6.16: P-A test with MUG for coliform bacteria detection.
6.1.13.4 Defined Substrate Technology Method

The defined substrate technology (DST), also known as the Colilert test, is a reagent
system used to identify and count certain target microorganisms in a bacterial mix-
ture. The device directly counts total coliforms and Escherichia coli from a water sam-
ple. The reagent contains o-nitrophenyl-β-D-galactopyranoside (ONPG; Figure 6.17A)
which is digested by total coliforms to create a yellow chromogen and 4-methylum-
beilliferyl-β-D-glucuronide (MUG; Figure 6.17B) which is hydrolyzed and fluoresces
when E. coli organisms develop.
HO2C
OH OH O
HO
O NO2 HO O O O
OH
HO O
OH
Figure 6.17: Chemical structures of ONPG and MUG.
6.1.13.5 Heterotrophic Plate Count (Standard Plate Count) Method

The heterotrophic plate count (HPC), shown in Figure 6.18, or standard plate count
(SPC) method is commonly used to determine the population of heterotrophic micro-
organisms in drinking water and other media. Heterotrophs are organisms that re-
quire an external source of organic carbon to grow, such as bacteria, yeasts, and
molds. This method calculates the total number of bacteria in the water that can grow
on nutrient agar as a general medium. A colony count of less than 500 per mL of the
sample indicates that the water is properly disinfected, and vice versa.
Media Water sample
Figure 6.18: Heterotrophic plate count.

6.2 Questions 71
The test is performed by pouring a low-nutrient medium into a Petri plate with
the sample and incubating it for 48 h. The number of heterotrophs present is then
determined by counting all colonies. It should also be emphasized that the results of
an HPC test are not a true estimate of overall heterotrophic concentrations, but rather
are indicators of the presence of culturable organisms.
HPC limits of 100–500 colony-forming units per mL are recommended by drinking
water quality guidelines around the world.
6.2 Questions
6.2.1 Give examples of tools that are used for water analysis and mention their use.
6.2.2 What does bluish-green or green mean in terms of possible pollutants?
6.2.3 What does NTU stand for?
6.2.4 What is the main goal of using the jar test?
6.2.5 Five samples are tested for alkalinity. Using the following table, determine the
types of alkalinity in each sample.
– The first sample has no P alkalinity, and total alkalinity is 240 mg/L.
– The second sample has a total alkalinity of 120 mg/L and a P alkalinity of
10 mg/L.
– The third sample has 60 mg/L P alkalinity and 120 mg/L total alkalinity.
– The fourth one has 60 mg/L P alkalinity, and the total is 80 mg/L.
– The fifth sample has all-P alkalinity and total alkalinity of 95 mg/L.
Titration result Hydroxide (OH) Carbonates (CO−) Bicarbonate (HCO−)
P=   T
P<½T  P T–P
P=½T  T 
P>½T P–T (T–P) 
P=T T  
6.2.6 Orthotolidine test is used for determination of:

A. Dissolved oxygen
B. Residual chlorine
C. Biochemical oxygen demand
D. Dose of coagulant
6.2.7 Explain the difference between temporary and permanent hardness.

6.2.8 What are the two chlorine concentration levels available for the DPD compara-
tor disks?
6.2.9 Name the reagent that is used in the chloroscope test.
6.2.10 What is the difference between TDS and TSS?
Chapter 7
Water Quality
Water is the second most important necessity for life, after air. As a result, water qual-
ity has received extensive attention in the scientific literature. Water quality is most
frequently defined as “the physical, chemical, and biological properties of water.”
Water quality is a measurement of a body of water’s condition in relation to the
needs of one or more biotic species and/or any human need or purpose. Water can be
contaminated by agricultural, industrial, and residential activities that produce a
wide range of pollutants such as heavy metals, pesticides, fertilizers, poisonous chem-
icals, and oils.
The four types of water quality are potable water, palatable water, contaminated
(polluted) water, and infected water. Figure 7.1 depicts the most generally used scien-
tific definitions of different types of water quality.
• The one that is safe to drink, tastes well, and

Potable water
can be utilized at home
• The one that is aesthetically pleasing, and

Palatable water contains substances that are not harmful to
human health
• The one that contains unwanted pollutants,

Contaminated or polluted water and is hence unsuited for drinking or
domestic use
• The one that is contaminated by pathogenic

Infected water organisms
Figure 7.1: Types of water quality.
Certain toxins in our water can cause health problems such as gastrointestinal disease,
reproductive problems, and neurological impairments. Infants, young children, preg-
nant women, the elderly, and persons with compromised immune systems may be
more vulnerable to sickness. To maintain an acceptable water quality, water should be
colorless and transparent, free of any aroma or smell, contain only the quantity of dis-
solved salts, essential for human health to give water a modest taste, and contain dis-
solved gases such as oxygen, which offers freshness to water. There are additionally six
main water quality indicators. These are shown in Figure 7.2.
Dissolved
oxygen
Toxicants pH
Water
quality
indicators
Nutrients Temperature
Salinity
Figure 7.2: Six main water quality indicators.
7.1 Parameters of Water Quality
Water quality refers to the state of the water, including its chemical, physical, and
biological qualities, as well as its suitability for a certain purpose such as drinking or
cooling or swimming. These three categories of water quality metrics are discussed in
greater depth in the following paragraphs.
7.1.1 Physical Parameters of Water Quality
7.1.1.1 Turbidity
The capacity of light to flow through water is measured by turbidity. It is caused by
particle matters suspended in water. Turbidity in drinking water is prohibited because
it gives water an unpleasant appearance. Turbidity effects are summarized in Table 7.1.
7.1.1.2 Temperature
It is one of the most essential criteria for water quality. Temperature influences palat-
ability, viscosity, solubility, odor, and chemical reactions. As a result, temperature influ-
ences the processes of sedimentation, chlorination, and biochemical oxygen demand
(BOD). It also has an impact on the biosorption of heavy metals in water.
74 Chapter 7 Water Quality
Table 7.1: Turbidity effects and consequences.
Money (operational Raise the cost of water treatment for a variety of applications
cost)
Particulates Act as a haven for hazardous germs, shielding them from the disinfection process
Suspended debris Clog or injure fish gills, limiting disease resistance and slowing growth rates
Suspended particles Absorb heavy metals such as mercury, chromium, lead, and cadmium, as well as
many toxic organic pollutants such as polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs),
polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), and many pesticides
Temperature Raise water temperature, lowering the amount of accessible food and lowering
the dissolved oxygen (DO) concentration
It is always best to keep water temperatures below 20 °C. Temperature can also affect
the amount of oxygen that can dissolve in water and the rate at which algae and
other aquatic plants can photosynthesize.
7.1.1.3 Color
Organic trash such as fallen leaves, twigs, and pulled weeds decay and colorize water,
as do poisonous waste such as batteries, pesticide containers, medication bottles, and
motor oil, and inorganic garbage such as plastic soda bottles, yogurt cups, and plastic
bags. Water color should be checked to maintain good water quality by evaluating
samples. This can be done by using the platinum-cobalt color scale.
The platinum-cobalt scale, commonly known as the Apha–Hazen scale, is a color
scale that evaluates “yellowness” in liquids, using dilutions of a 500 ppm (parts per mil-
lion) platinum cobalt solution. Its color index is a method for measuring product qual-
ity and contaminants as well as evaluating pollution levels in water or wastewater.
The Platinum–Cobalt color scale runs from 0 to 500 platinum color units (PCUs), with
“0” referring to water as white or “distilled.” A 500 on the scale indicates that the
water has a pronounced yellow color due to pollution or breakdown products. Color
values that are evaluated in comparison to the platinum–cobalt standards are denoted
as PCU. The World Health Organization recommends that the color of drinking water
not exceed 15 true color units (equivalent to platinum color units).
7.1.1.4 Taste and Odor

Organic materials, inorganic compounds, or dissolved gases can generate taste and
odor in water. These resources could be natural, domestic, or agricultural. The quanti-
tative value of odor or taste is assessed by measuring a volume of sample A and dilut-
ing it with a volume of sample B of odor-free distilled water until the odor of the
resulting combination is hardly detectable at a total mixture volume of 200 mL. The
odor or taste unit is represented in terms of a threshold number, which is as follows:
TON or TTN = ðA + BÞ=A
(where TON is the threshold odor number and TTN is the threshold taste number).
7.1.1.5 Solids
Solids exist in water in two forms: solution and suspension. These two forms of solids
can be distinguished by passing a water sample through a glass fiber filter. The sus-
pended solids are held on the top of the filter, while the dissolved solids pass through
with the water. If a part of the filtered water sample is placed in a tiny dish and then
evaporated, the solids remain as a residue. Total dissolved solids, or TDS, is the com-
mon name for this substance:
Total solid ðTSÞ = total dissolved solid ðTDSÞ + total suspended solid ðTSSÞ
Fixed solids are defined as the remnant of TSS and TDS after heating to dryness for a
specified time and temperature. Volatile solids are solids that are lost when heated to
550 °C. These measurements are useful to wastewater treatment plant operators be-
cause they generally estimate the amount of organic matter present in total solids of
wastewater, activated sludge, and industrial wastes. They are determined as follows:
Total solidsðmg=LÞ = ½ðTSA − TSBÞ × 1, 000=sampleðmLÞ
where TSA is the weight of dried residue + dish in milligrams and TSB is the weight of
dish in milligrams
Total dissolved solidsðmg=LÞ = ½ðTDSA − TDSBÞ × 1, 000=sample ðmLÞ
where TDSA is the weight of dried residue + dish in milligrams and TDSB is the weight
of dish in milligrams
Total suspended solids ðmg=LÞ = ½ðTSSA − TSSBÞ × 1, 000=sample ðmLÞ
where TSSA = weight of dish and filter paper + dried residue and TSSB is the weight of
dish and filter paper in milligram
Volatile suspended solids ðmg=LÞ = ½ðVSSA − VSSBÞ × 1, 000=sampleðmLÞ
where VSSA = weight of residue + dish and filter before ignition (mg) and VSSB = weight
of residue + dish and filter after ignition (mg).
7.1.1.6 Electrical Conductivity (EC)

Water’s electrical conductivity (EC) is a measure of a solution’s capacity to carry or
conduct electrical current. Because electrical current is carried by ions in solution,
conductivity rises as ion concentration rises. As a result, it is one of the primary fac-
tors used to establish water appropriateness for irrigation and firefighting. It is mea-
sured in the following units:
U.S. units = micromhos=cm

S.I. units = milliSiemens=m ðmS=mÞ or dS=m ðdeciSiemens=mÞ
where ðmS=mÞ = 10 μmho=cm ð1, 000 μS=cm = 1 dS=mÞ.
Pure water is not a good conductor of electricity. Typical conductivity of water is as

follows:
– Ultrapure water: 5.5 × 10−6 S/m
– Drinking water: 0.005−0.05 S/m
– Seawater: 5 S/m
7.1.2 Chemical Parameters of Water Quality
7.1.2.1 Biochemical Oxygen Demand

Biochemical oxygen demand (BOD) is the quantity of dissolved oxygen that aerobic bio-
logical organisms in a body of water need to break down organic material present in a
certain water sample at a specific temperature during a specific time period. The faster
that oxygen is lost in the stream, the higher the value. Higher-level aquatic life thus has
less access to oxygen.
7.1.2.2 Phosphorus
Phosphorus, one of the five essential components of living things, is required for or-
ganic life. Although elemental phosphorus is uncommon in nature, it does exist in a
number of forms, most notably as phosphates. The soluble form of phosphate is ortho-
phosphate (PO43−), a naturally occurring ion in water. Excess phosphorus in surface
water should be avoided because aquatic plants and algae can multiply quickly and
produce a range of water quality problems, including low dissolved oxygen levels,
which can kill fish and other aquatic life.
7.1.2.3 pH
In almost every water quality application, pH testing is critical. pH is regulated in waste-
water treatment as part of discharge permits, and many treatment procedures are pH-
dependent. High or low pH readings in environmental sampling and monitoring can in-
dicate contamination. Pollution can alter the pH of water, causing harm to aquatic ani-
mals and plants. The following summarizes the effects of pH:
– Most aquatic creatures and plants have adapted to survive in water with a spe-
cific pH and may be adversely affected by even minor changes.
– Even moderately acidic (low pH) water can reduce the quantity of hatched fish
eggs, irritate the gills of fish and aquatic insects, and damage membranes.
– Water with an extremely low or high pH is lethal. Most fish will die if the pH falls
below 4 or rises above 10, and very few creatures will survive if the pH falls
below 3 or rises above 11.
– Low pH endangers amphibians because their skin is particularly sensitive to pol-
lutants. Some scientists believe that the present decline in amphibian populations
around the world is caused by low pH levels caused by acid rain.
– Heavy metals like cadmium, lead, and chromium dissolve more quickly in very
acidic (lower pH) water and become significantly more hazardous.
– A change in pH can alter the forms of several compounds in water. Ammonia, for
example, is relatively innocuous to fish in neutral or acidic water. However,
when the water becomes more alkaline (the pH rises), ammonia becomes more
toxic to these same creatures.
7.1.2.4 Total Organic Carbon

Total organic carbon (TOC) is a metric used to determine how much carbon is present
in all organic compounds in both pure water and aqueous systems. Businesses and
labs can assess a solution’s compatibility, with their procedures, by using this valu-
able analytical technique known as TOC.
Organic pollution can impair ion exchange capacity and encourage undesirable
biological growth, rendering treated water unfit for human consumption. Some harm-
ful by-products could be generated through water treatment.
7.1.3 Biological Parameters of Water
7.1.3.1 Bacteria
Bacteria proliferate so quickly that counting the number of bacteria in a sample of
water is nearly impossible. In most circumstances, bacteria reproduce slowly in
cooler water. Many dangerous waterborne infections, such as cholera, tularemia, and
typhoid, can be caused by high levels of bacteria in water.
7.1.3.2 Blue-Green Algae

Blue-green algae (BGA), also known as cyanobacteria, can be found in a variety of
colors, including blues, greens, reds, and black. BGA can reduce nitrogen and carbon
in water, but it can also deplete dissolved oxygen when present in large quantities.
Monitoring BGA is critical because algal blooms pose a major danger to water quality,
ecological stability, surface drinking water supplies, and human health due to toxin
production and the massive biomass produced.
7.1.3.3 Nutrients
Nitrogen is a nutrient that occurs naturally in both fresh and salt water. Plant develop-
ment in aquatic ecosystems is depedent on it. When substantial volumes of nitrogen are
introduced into river ecosystems, problems develop. As a result, excessive algal growth
may occur, reducing available oxygen in streams used by fish and other aquatic life.
7.1.3.4 Viruses
Due to their small sizes, viruses are able to pass through the majority of filters. Cer-
tain waterborne viruses can cause hepatitis and similar health problems. Despite the
difficulty in treating viruses, most water treatment facilities should be able to elimi-
nate viruses during the disinfection process.
7.2 Question
7.2.1 What is the TON, if 170 mL of odor-free distilled water is required to produce
a 200 mL mixture from a 30 mL odor?
7.2.2 What is the distinction between potable and palatable water?
7.2.3 Describe three turbidity effects and their consequences.
7.2.4 How and in what manner is the color of drinking water evaluated?
7.2.5 What do TTN and TON mean?
7.2.6 What is ultrapure water’s typical conductivity?
7.2.7 Define BOD.
7.2.8 What is the water-soluble form of phosphate?
7.2.9 What happens if the pH of the water falls below 4?
7.2.10 List the six most important water quality indicators.
Chapter 8
Water Treatment
8.1 Drinking Water
Treatment for drinking water production entails removing pollutants and/or inacti-
vating potentially hazardous bacteria from raw water to produce water that is pure
enough for human use without any risk of ill health effects in the short or long term.
Boiling is one of the oldest and most effective methods for killing disease-causing
organisms such as viruses, bacteria, and parasites. The high temperature and length of
time spent boiling are critical for effectively killing the organisms in the water. Even if
the water is still hazy or murky, boiling will effectively cure it. Another method of
water purification is reverse osmosis (RO). RO filters are the most successful at eliminat-
ing pollutants from water, including potentially hazardous microorganisms.
On a large scale, raw water treatment involves screening, coagulation and floccu-
lation, aeration, sedimentation, filtration, and disinfection. The full operation is de-
picted in Figure 8.1.
Coagulation Aeration
Surface water
and and
Screening Flocculation Sedimentation
Ground
water
Water storage
Disinfection Filtration
Distribution
Figure 8.1: Large-scale raw water treatment.
Small-scale water treatment systems commonly comprise one or more of the five
major methods described below:
– Disinfection by chlorination and ultraviolet (UV) light
– Activated carbon filtration
– RO
80 Chapter 8 Water Treatment
– Distillation
– Ion exchange
8.2 Seawater
Desalination is an artificial process that converts saline water (usually seawater) to

fresh water by eliminating dissolved mineral salts. When applied to seawater, this
procedure is currently one of the most often employed to obtain fresh water for
human consumption or agricultural uses. Desalination can be accomplished in three
ways:
8.2.1 Distillation (Desalination)
Distillation is a common method to desalinate seawater or ocean water to obtain fresh

water by condensation of vapors produced by heating as simply illustrated in Figure 8.2.
Thermal desalination systems, in general, employ heat to evaporate water, leaving be-
hind dissolved components. After that, the condensed water vapor is collected as prod-
uct water. Distillation is the most fundamental of these thermal processes, and its energy
efficiency has significantly improved. Multistage flash (MSF) distillation is the most
widely used thermal desalination method nowadays. MSF reuses waste heat by cycling it
through a series of low-pressure chambers. Another low-pressure chamber-based ther-
mal process is multiple-effect evaporation (MEE), also known as multiple-effect distilla-
tion (MED).
Energy consumed for

heating the unit
Fresh
Desalination Unit drinking
water
Figure 8.2: Seawater thermal desalination process.
8.2.2 Reverse Osmosis
Reverse osmosis (RO) is a method of obtaining fresh water that involves filtering sea-
water under pressure via a semipermeable membrane, as illustrated in Figure 8.3. In
8.2 Seawater 81
Pressure
Seawater Fresh water

or
Briny water
Semi-permeable
membrane
Figure 8.3: Reverse osmosis.
this most popular membrane desalination process, water molecules are forced through
very small pores (holes) under high pressure, while salts and other larger molecules
are preserved.
8.2.3 Electrodialysis
Electrodialysis (ED) extracts ions from water by using current. Figure 8.4 depicts a
technique of desalinating water that does not require the use of filters. Instead, an
electrically generated shockwave is employed to replace filters, resulting in cheaper
and easier-to-manage drinking water.
In this approach, briny water flows through a frit, a porous substance comprised
of glass particles that are sandwiched between membranes or electrodes on either
side. When an electric current is passed through the system, the salinized water sepa-
rates into zones with either enriched or depleted salt concentrations. When the cur-
rent is raised, the fresh and salty sections of the streams are separated by a simple
physical barrier at the flow’s center, causing a shockwave to form between the two
zones and splitting the streams.
Positive Electrode
+
CEM = Cation exchange membrane
Frit
+ Salty water
Briny water
Physical barrier
feed -
+ Fresh water
Shockwave
CEM = Cation exchange membrane
Negative Electrode
Figure 8.4: A sample shock electrodialysis diagram.

8.2.4 Advantages of Seawater Desalination
Desalination can offer water to places that are possibly water-stressed or desert. Desa-
lination procedures can enable access to previously unusable saline waters in numer-
ous situations. Due to the high quality of the output water, it provides safe drinking
water. It can also offer water for other businesses, such as pharmaceuticals, which
require very pure water sources.
Desalination has the potential to considerably increase climate change adaptation
by diversifying water suppliers and increasing tolerance to water quality degradation.
Water supply diversification can provide other or supplemental sources of water
when current water resources are insufficient in quantity or quality. Desalination
technologies are also resistant to water quality degradation since they may produce
extremely pure water from highly contaminated source waters.
8.2.5 Disadvantages of Seawater Desalination
The primary drawbacks of present desalination techniques include costs, energy re-
quirements, and environmental repercussions. The disposal of the concentrated waste
stream, as well as the effects of intakes and outfalls on nearby ecosystems, is among the
environmental consequences. In addition, the high energy requirements of the current
desalination systems will raise greenhouse gas emissions and may obstruct climate-
change mitigation efforts.
8.3 Municipality and Industrial Water Waste
Municipality and industrial water waste treatment are designed to improve wastewa-
ter quality by removing pollutants and toxicants, protecting water quality of natural
water resources, and preventing harmful diseases by eradicating pathogenic organ-
isms found in wastewater.
8.3.1 Sources
– Domestic sanitary wastewater is wastewater produced by human and household

wastes, such as kitchen sinks, bathtubs, toilets, showers, and laundry.
– Industrial wastewater contains hazardous chemicals and other pollutants from
industries, manufacturers, and mills.
– Commercial wastewater comes from schools, hospitals, workplaces, hotels, res-
taurants, and airports.
– Stormwater is wastewater that drains from roofs, parks, gardens, streets, and gutters.
8.3 Municipality and Industrial Water Waste 83
8.3.2 Methods of Treatment
Wastewater treatment technology or advanced wastewater treatment methods can be

classified into three types:
– Physical treatment: Physical removal of pollutants and contaminants.
– Chemical treatment: Chemical reactions are employed to eliminate impurities or
hazardous pollutants.
– Biological treatment: Pollutants are expelled from the environment through bio-
logical activity.
8.3.3 Treatment Processes
Industrial and municipal wastewater treatment processes use four unique steps of
treatment to eliminate hazardous contaminants in order to generate clean effluent
that can be properly discharged to water bodies.
8.3.3.1 Preliminary Treatment

Preliminary treatment removes large debris, coarse particles, and heavy inorganic
material from the wastewater flow. It consists of physical operations such as:
– Screening: This process removes heavy materials in wastewater in order to re-
duce downstream equipment damage and blockage.
– Floatation is a method of separating floatable and suspended solid particles from
wastewater.
– Grit removal: Grit chambers are used to slow down the flow of water and allow
sediments to settle out of it so that they can be removed manually or mechanically.
8.3.3.2 Primary Treatment

Primary treatment involves the use of a sedimentation tank or primary clarifier that
removes most of the suspended solids that will float or settle. Sedimentation often
uses chemicals like flocculants and coagulants. The resulting primary sludge that set-
tles to the bottom of the clarifier is collected for a further treatment called sludge
treatment.
8.3.3.3 Secondary Treatment

Secondary treatment is a biological approach that treats effluent further to remove left-
over organics and suspended particles. Secondary biological treatment procedures are
classified as aerobic (with oxygen) or anaerobic (without oxygen). This treatment in-
volves an activated sludge process in which the primary effluent is routed via an aera-
tion tank where the air is mixed with sludge, followed by a secondary sedimentation
tank where microorganisms and solid wastes clump and settle. In general, this treat-
ment removes pollutants as well as a significant portion of dangerous compounds.
8.3.3.4 Tertiary or Advanced Treatment

Tertiary or advanced treatment is the ultimate step in wastewater processing, and its
major goal is to remove certain wastewater constituents that cannot be removed in
previous stages, thus increasing the effluent quality to a larger degree. It uses filtra-
tion to remove more suspended particles than primary and secondary screening and
sedimentation can.
Nutrients, heavy metals, certain dangerous chemicals, and other contaminants
and impurities are removed through this method. It requires disinfection, which can
be performed with both physical disinfectants like ultra violet (UV) radiation and
chemical disinfectants like chlorine. During this process, a substantial percentage of
dangerous organisms are killed or regulated.
8.4 Questions
8.4.1 What is the purpose of drinking water treatment?

8.4.2 What are the most ancient and successful strategies for eliminating disease-
causing organisms?
8.4.3 Describe the steps involved in large-scale raw water treatment.
8.4.4 What are the most often used small-scale water treatment methods?
8.4.5 What is the most common method of thermal desalination?
8.4.6 What does MSF stand for?
8.4.7 What is RO?
8.4.8 Is filtering essential during the ED process?
8.4.9 List the three advanced wastewater treatment methods.
8.4.10 What physical procedures are employed in the preliminary treatment of
wastewater?
Chapter 9
Water and Wastewater Treatment Techniques
9.1 Coagulation
Coagulation is the use of coagulants and coagulant aids to precipitate colloidal turbid-
ity particles. In order to precipitate out the negatively charged colloidal turbidity par-
ticles, positively charged inorganic coagulants are used.
When inorganic coagulants such as aluminum sulfate (alum), ferric chloride, and
ferric sulfate are introduced to water, coagulation occurs, which is crucial to the treat-
ment process because it lessens electrostatic repulsion between particles. The nega-
tively charged nonsettable materials that are scattered throughout the water are
balanced by the positive charge of the inorganic coagulant, forcing the water’s par-
ticles to coalesce. The coagulation process is shown in Figure 9.1, in which negatively
charged colloidal turbidity particles are drawn in by Al3+ or Fe3+ cations (+ve ions)
aggregation, resulting in the formation of micro-flocs, a microscopic clumps.
Addition of coagulants
Untreated water
with impurities
Dispersed Coagulants form precipitate that trap

negatively charged dispersed negatively charged non-
Figure 9.1: Coagulation process.
The type of coagulant employed and a variety of other variables, including those
listed in Table 9.1, affect the size of flocs formed during the coagulation process. The
majority of microplastics, other particles, and dissolved detritus may be removed
from water via coagulation.
9.1.1 Coagulants in Water Treatment
Aluminum and iron-based coagulants are used in water treatment to remove particles
such as microplastics, TOC, phosphorus, BOD and COD, color, metals, hydrogen sulfide,
conditioning sludge, dewatering sludge, bulking sludge, and lake restoration. Table 9.2
lists some of the most commonly used coagulants.
86 Chapter 9 Water and Wastewater Treatment Techniques
Table 9.1: Factors affecting coagulation.
pH The effectiveness of the coagulant generally depends upon pH. The optimum pH
range for precipitation with aluminum salts is between  and , while iron salts can
be used in the range –.
Alkalinity Anions like OH– are required to generate insoluble compounds, which could then be
precipitated out.
Temperature Reaction and coagulation occur more quickly and effectively at higher temperatures.
Time Detention time and proper mixing are crucial.
Velocity Lower velocity will allow the floc particles to settle in the flocculation basin, whereas
higher velocity will shear or break them.
Table 9.2: Aluminum and iron-based coagulants.
Aluminum-based coagulants Iron-based coagulants
Aluminum sulfate Ferric chloride

Polyaluminum sulfate Ferrous chloride
Aluminum chloride Ferric sulfate
Polyaluminum chloride Ferrous sulfate
Aluminum chlorohydrate Ferric chlorosulfate
Sodium aluminate
9.1.2 Coagulant Aids
A coagulant aid facilitates coagulation by improving coagulation conditions such as

pH and alkalinity. Lime and sodium carbonate are the two pH-adjusting coagulant
aids. Clay, sodium silicate, and activated silica are non-pH-altering coagulant aids. Pol-
ymers are coagulating aids that function as secondary coagulants.
They are added to water during coagulation to improve coagulation conditions
such as pH and alkalinity as well as make a more stable and stronger floc, solve the
issue of slow floc generation in cold water, reduce the amount of coagulant that is
required, and reduce the amount of sludge that is produced.
9.2 Flocculation
Flocculation is the separation of a solution, commonly the removal of sediment from

a fluid. As shown in Figure 9.2, flocculation occurs when silt clumps into bigger aggre-
gated particles flakes that are easier to recognize and remove. This process can hap-
pen naturally or be generated by using flocculants or physical approaches. In the
9.2 Flocculation 87
water treatment process, the flocculation phenomenon is used to remove particles

from water by producing larger clusters or flocs. This is a common method of treating
stormwater, wastewater, and purifying drinking water.
Addition of organic
polymeric flocculants
To sedimentation
Figure 9.2: Flocculation process.
9.2.1 Flocculants
Flocculants are substances that cause small particles in a solution to clump together,
resulting in the development of a floc that floats to the surface or sinks to the bottom.
This can then be removed more easily from the liquid. Flocculants come in a wide
range of charges, charge densities, molecular weights, and morphologies. Inorganic
flocculants, organic synthetic polymer flocculants, natural polymer flocculants, and
composite flocculants are the four types of flocculants. Table 9.3 shows some exam-
ples of these categories.
Table 9.3: Types of flocculants.
Inorganic flocculants Organic synthetic polymer flocculants
Aluminum sulfate Polyacrylamide

Sodium aluminate Sodium polyacrylate, polyoxyethylene
Ferrous sulfate Polyvinylamine
Polyvinyl sulfonate
Natural polymer flocculants Composite flocculants
Starch phosphate Polyacrylamide ferric chloride

Starch Polysilicate aluminum sulfate
Xanthate Polyaluminum ferric chloride
Chitosan Polyaluminum chloride-chitosan
Chitin-based flocculants
Organic polymeric flocculants are the most widely utilized today due to their ability
to produce flocculation with minimal dosage. However, because of their lack of biode-
gradability and the concomitant dispersion of potentially toxic monomers into water
systems, researchers are shifting their focus to more environmentally friendly biopol-
ymers. The disadvantage is that they have a shorter shelf life and a higher dosage re-
quirement than organic polymeric flocculants. To tackle these drawbacks, integrated
solutions are being developed in which synthetic polymers are grafted onto natural
polymers to create customized flocculants for water treatment that provide the best
of both worlds. Flocculants can be used alone or in conjunction with coagulants. This
depends on the chemical composition of the water to be purified. The type of contam-
inants removed from the water as well as the method of separation utilized by the
water treatment facility define the optimal combination of organic and inorganic floc-
culants and coagulants.
9.3 Sedimentation
The separation of flocs from flocculated water by gravity is known as sedimentation.

This physical method of wastewater purification is typically carried out in sedimenta-
tion tanks or basins. Inlet and output valves generally control water flow in these ba-
sins or tanks, and the bottom floor slopes to a hopper for sludge collection.
The efficacy of this method is determined by particle size and weight. While
heavier particles fall, suspended solids, with specific gravity similar to water, remain
suspended. Sedimentation benefits municipalities by using fewer chemicals for later
water treatment and simplifying any subsequent process. It is less expensive than
other technologies, and the water quality that passes through the process varies less.
A simplified sedimentation diagram is shown in Figure 9.3. Sediments or sludge
collect in the bottom, as shown, and can be readily removed. Coagulants are also
often used in water to help with settling, prior to sedimentation.
Clear water
Large flocs
Sludge
Formation of large flocs Large flocs settle to the
during flocculation bottom as sludge because
of gravity forces during
Figure 9.3: Sedimentation process.

There are several types of sedimentation basins (also known as sedimentation clari-
fiers). The most common ones are conventional basins, high-rate basins, and solid
contact basins. These are covered in greater depth in the following paragraphs.
9.3.1 Conventional Basins
Simplified diagrams of rectangular and circular basins are depicted in Figure 9.4.
Rectangular sedimentation tanks have length-to-width ratio of at least 4 to 1. In order
to ensure proper sedimentation, sludge, light floc (above the sludge), and clear water
are kept well separated on top. From the intake to the outlet, the rectangular basin
has a horizontal flow.
The circular basin receives radial flow from a central intake, with inlets and out-
flows at opposite ends. Circular tanks with diameters of up to 60 m are in use but are
usually limited to 30 m to prevent wind effects. In the circular sedimentation tanks,
the influent is routed through the tank’s central pipe, resulting in a radial flow. Me-
chanical sludge scrappers are installed to collect the sludge, which is then conveyed
through the sludge pipe at the bottom.
Center feed-well
Effluent
Sludge scraper arm Influent “Clean
“Wastewater in” water out”
Inlet Settling Outlet
Effluent zone zone zone
“Clean water out”
Influent
Sludge “Wastewater in”
Sludge discharge Sludge
discharge
Figure 9.4: Rectangular and circular basins.
9.3.2 High-Rate Basins
High-rate basins are intended for improved drinking water and wastewater treatment
with a high load and minimal detention time. They are compact units. The average de-
tention duration is 1–2 h, compared to 4–6 h in typical basins. These basins are divided
into three types: tube settler basins, plate settler basins, and solid contact basins.
The tube settler basins, as shown in Figure 9.5, have tubes installed in them to
increase the settling surface and offer sufficient baffling for greater sedimentation in
less space. Tube settlers combine a number of tubular channels that are sloped at a
60° angle and close to one another to give a larger effective settling area. This results
in a significantly lower particle settling depth than typical basins, resulting in shorter
settling times.
Baffle
Inlets
Effluent
Influent “Clean water out”
“Wastewater in”
Tube
settlers
Flocculation Water moves

zone upward through
the tubes
Settled sludge Settled sludge
slides downward
Figure 9.5: Tube settler basin.
Plate settler basins, depicted in Figure 9.6, serve the same purpose as tubes but use
plates instead of tubes. Plate settlers improve the effective settling area by using a se-
ries of inclined plates, commonly made of stainless steel, and placed two to three in-
ches apart on a 55° to 60° slope.
Plate
Inlets settlers
Effluent
Influent “Clean water out”
“Wastewater in”
Flocculation Water moves

zone upward through
the tubes
Sludge Settled sludge
Figure 9.6: Plate settler basin.

A solid contact basin, depicted in Figure 9.7, is a small device that combines zones of
rapid mixing, coagulation, and sedimentation. In a single basin, they use the recycled
solids contact principle for flocculation, sedimentation, and clarifying. The influent
water is combined with previously settled sediments within the draft tube. The mod-
erate mixing of the process encourages the agglomeration of floc particles and chemi-
cal precipitates. The aggregated materials settle out quickly in the clarifying area.
Rotating sludge scrapers transport the settled sediments to the basin’s center for
disposal.
Solid contact clarifiers are used in big industrial operations such as refineries
and petrochemical facilities to produce process water that can be used as a general
process or as cooling water throughout the plant. Solid contact clarifiers can also be
used in municipal drinking water systems in place of traditional flocculation and sedi-
mentation basins to reduce the environmental impact.
Propeller
Clarified water
Clear water
(Effluent)
Flocculation
zone
Sludge Mixing zone
Sludge formation
drain
Sludge Raw water
(Influent)
Figure 9.7: Solid contact basin.
9.3.3 Sedimentation Influencing Factors
Different elements, including the following, influence sedimentation:

– Sufficient detention time is essential for full sedimentation. The turbidity in-
creases and the settling decreases as the detention period decreases, and vice
versa.
– Proper velocity is crucial. At greater velocities, the settled floc is resuspended,
which may cause it to rise to the surface and result in excessive effluent turbidity.
The solids in the basin would not be distributed properly at a relatively low
velocity.
– The rate of sedimentation decreases with increasing turbulence, and vice versa.
– The rate of sedimentation increases with temperature, and vice versa. Water set-
tles more quickly and is lighter at higher temperatures.
– The basins’ precise dimensions, particularly their depth, which is often 15 feet or
more, are crucial.
– The horizontal flow basins’ inlets and outlets need to be positioned correctly to
allow for proper water mixing and prevent short circuits.
– Chemical feed points should be carefully selected to ensure that each chemical
reacts properly with its target ingredient, that is, alum should always be used be-
fore lime.
– Appropriate sludge removal is necessary for managing the decomposition, scour-
ing, and effective volume of the basin. Denser sludge settles faster and needs to
be removed more frequently than lighter, frothier, or flakier types.
9.4 Softening
Water softening is a process of removing calcium, magnesium, and iron ions from
water. Substances containing additional positively charged ions are more difficult to
dissolve in hard water because of the presence of these ions. The role of this method
of water softening is to eliminate undesirable minerals from the water.
The use of ion exchange (I-EX) and/or the addition of chemicals that cause insolu-
ble precipitates are two methods for softening water. On a small scale, ammonia,
borax, calcium hydroxide (slaked lime), and trisodium phosphate, in combination
with sodium carbonate (soda ash), are used for softening. To remove the precipitates,
sedimentation and filtration must come after the lime-soda method of water soften-
ing. By adding just enough lime to precipitate the calcium as the carbonate and the
magnesium as hydroxide, followed by sodium carbonate to eliminate the remaining
calcium salts, water can be chemically softened on a large scale.
By passing the water through columns of a natural or synthetic resin that ex-
change sodium ions for calcium and magnesium ions, I-EX is often done. In the follow-
ing paragraphs, we will go into more detail about those softening techniques as well
as others such as chelating agents, distillation, and reverse osmosis (RO).
Water softening makes it possible to:
– Reduce the amount of hard water deposits or stains in your baths and showers
– Have simple and quick household cleaning
– Lower energy expenses due to greater water heater efficiency
– Put on whiter, brighter, and softer apparel
– Extend the life of water-using equipment
9.4 Softening 93
9.4.1 Softening Methods
9.4.1.1 Chemical Precipitation Methods

Lime softening: It is a water treatment method that softens water by eliminating cal-
cium and magnesium ions using calcium hydroxide (limewater, Ca(OH)2). Hydrated
lime is added to the water during this process to raise the pH and precipitate the ions
that produce hardness. Lime addition removes only magnesium hardness and cal-
cium carbonate (CaCO3) hardness.
That means it will act on CaCO3 hardness and also magnesium carbonate and mag-
nesium non-carbonate hardness, such as magnesium sulfate, as shown in Figure 9.8.
Ca (HCO3)2 + Ca (OH)2 2 CaCO3 + 2H2O
Mg (HCO3)2 + 2 Ca (OH)2 Mg (OH)2 + 2 CaCO3 + 2 H2O
Mg SO4 + Ca (OH)2 Mg (OH)2 + CaSO4
Figure 9.8: Lime softening reactions.
Soda (soda ash, Na2CO3) softening: It is a treatment process that turns calcium and
magnesium chlorides and sulfates into their corresponding carbonates, which precipi-
tate as shown in Figure 9.9.
Ca SO4 + Na2CO3 CaCO3 + Na2SO4
Mg SO4 + Na2CO3 MgCO3 + Na2SO4
Mg Cl2 + Na2CO3 CaCO3 + 2 NaCl
Figure 9.9: Soda softening reactions.
Due to the poor solubility of CaCO3 and Mg(OH)2, lime soda softening cannot produce
water that is completely devoid of hardness. Thus, the lowest attainable calcium hard-
ness is around 30 mg/L as CaCO3, while the lowest achievable magnesium hardness is
around 10 mg/L as CaCO3.
9.4.1.2 Nonprecipitation Methods

There are various nonprecipitation methods for softening water. Here are five examples:
I-EX softening: The I-EX resin technique is one of the most used softening procedures.
It softens water by replacing calcium and magnesium ions with sodium ions (and
maybe anions for chloride ions) in sodium chloride (Figure 9.10). It can also demin-
eralize water by substituting H+ ions for cations and OH− ions for anions.
Na + Ca + +
Na +
Mg + + Mg + +
Na +
Na +
RESIN Ion exchange Ca + + RESIN Ca + +

Na +
Na +
Na + Mg + +
+
Mg + +
Na
Ca + +
+ +
Figure 9.10: Ion exchange.
I-EX is done by flowing water through a resin column that exchanges sodium ions for
calcium and magnesium ions as shown in Figure 9.11. If calcium and magnesium
begin to appear in the water departing the column, cleaning the exchanger bed with
water and column regeneration by slowly running a concentrated solution of com-
mon salt through are required.
Hard water
CaCl2 MgSO4
Na
NaCa Na
Na Na Na
NaCl Resin
NaCl Na2SO4
Soft water
Figure 9.11: Ion exchange process.
The demineralization (DM) plant is a common example of the I-EX process. By this
technique, deionized water is produced by combining cation and anion resins.
This is performed in two stages, with raw water first passing through a column
containing a strong cation resin and then passing through a column having a strong
anion resin.
DM or the removal of dissolved mineral solids by an I-EX process is based on the
foundations of an I-EX reaction, in which minerals and salts dissociate into their con-
stituent ions in the presence of water. These dissolved solids contain anions (nega-
9.4 Softening 95
tively charged ions) and cations (positively charged ions), both of which are attracted
to counterions (or ions with opposing charges).
A resin formed of plastic beads with an ionic functional group bonded to them is
used in an I-EX column. These functional groups loosely retain ions with opposing
charges by mutual electrostatic attraction. Two-bed or dual-bed ion exchangers or
mixed-bed ion exchangers can be used to accomplish water DM.
A two-bed (also known as dual-bed) ion exchanger, shown in Figure 9.12, treats
water with two I-EX resin beds or columns, each containing a different type of I-EX
resin. Water is initially treated with a strong acid cation (SAC) resin, which collects
dissolved cations and releases hydrogen (H+) ions in return. The mineral acid solution
is then transferred to the resin bed for the strong base anion (SBA). This second step
removes dissolved anions while also producing water by releasing hydroxide (OH−)
ions, which combine with hydrogen (H+) ions.
Raw water
Ca (HCO3)2
Mg(HCO3)2
CaSO4
Strong acid Strong base
MgSO4
cation resin anion resin
CaCl2
NaCl
Soft water
Ca2+ HCO3-
Mg2+ HSO3-
Na + SO42-
Figure 9.12: Two-bed or dual-bed ion exchanger.
A mixed-bed ion exchanger has multiple I-EX resins accommodated in a single I-EX
column, as depicted in Figure 9.13. When water enters the unit, the cation and anion
exchange activities occur simultaneously.
Zeolite softening: Zeolites are microporous crystalline aluminosilicates that absorb

water and other cations, filling the micropores. They are a category of minerals that
comprise aluminosilicates, which are produced by AlO4 and SiO4 tetrahedrons linked
by oxygen vertices and contain interchangeable positive ions (cations) such as Na+,
K+, Ca2+, and Mg2+ (Figure 9.14).
Zeolites contain the chemical formula M2/nO·Al2O3·xSiO2·yH2O, where n is the va-
lence of the charge-balancing non-framework cation M, x is 2.0 or greater, and y is the
mole of water in the voids. For the water softening process, sodium-hydrated alumi-
nosilicates (Na2O·Al2O3·xSiO2·yH2O) are utilized, which can reversibly exchange so-
dium ions with the cations in the water.
Raw water
Ca (HCO3)2
Mg(HCO3)2
CaSO4
MgSO4 Mixed Resin
CaCl2
NaCl
Soft water
HCO3- Ca2+
HSO3- Mg2+
SO42- Na +
Figure 9.13: Mixed-bed ion exchanger.
Al3+
O O
Si Si
Na+ Na+
O O
AlO4 and SiO4
Al3+ Tetrahedral Arrangement Al
3+
O O
Na+ Na+
O Si Si O
O O
O Al3+ O
O O
Figure 9.14: Sodium zeolite chemical structure.
When hard water is allowed to stand in sodium zeolite, Ca2+ and Mg2+ ions replace Na+
ions, softening the water that comes out of this column and making it free of hardness-
causing ions. When all of the exchangeable Na+ in the zeolites (Z) are exchanged with
hardness-causing ions in the water, such as Ca2+ and Mg2+, it becomes depleted and
must be regenerated by treating with a concentrated NaCl solution (brine), as shown in
Figure 9.15.
Chelating agent softening: Chelating agents are organic compounds that may extract
ions from aqueous solutions and convert them to soluble complexes. Calcium disodium
ethylenediamine tetraacetic acid (CaNa2EDTA, Figure 9.16A) is the most commonly used
chelating agent. It is an EDTA (ethylenediamine tetraacetic acid) derivative. Another ex-
ample is the biodegradable natural chelating agent fulvic acid (Figure 9.16B), which is
the most powerful natural chelating agent.
Zeolites regeneration by concentrated NaCl

solution
CaZe + 2NaCl Na2Ze + CaCl2
Hard water in
MgZe + 2NaCl Na2Ze + MgCl
Na2Ze + CaCl2 CaZe + 2NaCl

Zeolites
Na2Ze + MgSO4 MgZe + Na2SO4
Sodium zeolite softening reactions
Soft water out Waste out
Figure 9.15: Sodium zeolite softening and regeneration.
O O HO O
Ca2+ O
O O HO
O O O
N N OH
Na O O Na HO O
CH3
Figure 9.16: Chelating agents.
Distillation softening: Distillation is the separation of the components of a liquid

mixture by evaporating the liquid at its boiling point and condensing its vapors. Sepa-
ration is accomplished through the difference in vapor pressures (volatilities) of the
various components. It can be used to soften water by extracting large amounts of
dissolved particles, such as calcium and magnesium, from it during evaporation as
shown in Figure 9.17.
Membrane softening: Membrane filtration, such as RO, softens water while removing
any remaining particles. Figure 9.18 depicts how a RO system removes contaminants
and dissolved minerals from water by forcing them through a filter (membrane). RO
systems can help by eliminating the source of the stench. It is more environmentally
friendly than other water filtration systems because it does not require chemicals. It
can also eliminate scents and unusual colors caused by contaminants in water and dis-
solved minerals.
9.5 Stabilization
Water stabilization is a method of decreasing and controlling water contamination. It

entails lowering the amount of contamination entering bodies of water via physical,
Cooling system
Cold
Vapors
Salts
Soft water Hot Raw water
Figure 9.17: Water softening by distillation.
Membrane Membrane pores
Raw water Soft water
Figure 9.18: Water softening by reverse osmosis.
chemical, and biological mechanisms. These toxins can be found in agricultural run-
off, sewage discharge, industrial waste, and stormwater runoff. Water stabilization
works to keep water safe for human consumption and aquatic ecosystems well-being,
and ensures that the treated water is not corrosive or toxic. Before delving into how
various indicators and indices reflect the degree of CaCO3 deposition, it is necessary
to understand the terms corrosion, scaling, and depositing.
9.5.1 Scale Formation or Deposition
Scale formation on surfaces is typically divided into two distinct processes: a “deposi-
tion process” that refers to the process of heterogeneous nucleation and growth at
surface asperities, and an “adhesion process” that refers to the sticking of preexisting
crystals that have nucleated in the bulk.
Scale deposition is the buildup of various elements within undesirable locations.
This process is depicted in Figure 9.19, which involves mineral ion clustering, nucle-
ation, crystal development, flocculation, and depositing.
Mineral ions Mineral ions Nucleation Crystals Flocculation Scale
Figure 9.19: Scale deposition process.
9.5.2 Corrosion
Corrosion is an electrochemical process that predominantly transforms metals and al-

loys into oxides, hydroxides, and aqueous salts. During the rusting process, two reac-
tions occur. In one reaction, the anodic reaction, metal atoms are ionized and flow
into solution, but their electrons stay on the original metal surface. In the second, the
cathodic step, the metal’s freed electrons are taken up by chemical species such as O2
and H2O in the reduction processes. The simplified chemical reactions and the rusting
process are depicted in Figure 9.20.
O2 from air
Overall reaction
2Fe(s) + O2(g) + 2H2O (l) 2Fe (OH)2 (s) WATER
(H2O)
2Fe2+ Rust
IRON Cathodic site
(Fe) O2(g) + 2H2O + 4e- 4 OH- (aq)
Anodic site
2Fe(s) 2Fe2+ + 4e-
Figure 9.20: Simplified chemical reactions and the rusting process.

9.5.2.1 Corrosion Types

There are various types of corrosion, each with its own set of effects and causes. Table 9.4
summarizes some of them.
Table 9.4: Corrosion types.
Physical corrosion Pipe surface corrosion, caused by the high velocity of particulate particles
or distributed gas bubbles. It happens when two different metals in
physical or electrical contact are immersed in a shared electrolyte (such as
salt water) or when a metal is exposed to different electrolyte
concentrations.
Galvanic or bimetallic Happens when two different metals, such as lead and copper or stainless
corrosion steel and zinc, are linked in water lines.
Stray current corrosion Generated through direct current distribution lines, railroad systems,
substations, and alternating current sources; these currents then cause
corrosion when they pass through steel structures or piping systems.
Localized corrosion or Regarded as one of the most damaging types of corrosion; it begins at a
pitting corrosion single location and progresses to the production of a corrosion cell,
surrounded by a regular metallic surface. It begins when an area-coated
metal surface becomes exposed as a result of poor coating, corrosion, or
stress. This region becomes anodic and produces a pit, while the
surrounding region acts as a cathode. The pit expands as rusting
progresses.
Bacterial corrosion or Microbiologically produced corrosion that is caused by organisms such as

microbial corrosion sulfur-oxidizing bacteria, iron-reducing bacteria, sulfate-reducing bacteria,
and acid-producing bacteria.
Stress corrosion cracking The metal’s cracking, as a result of its corrosive surroundings and the
(SCC) tensions exerted on it; it frequently happens in hot environments.
9.5.2.2 Factors Affecting Corrosion

– pH: A lower pH indicates a higher level of acidity and a higher rate of corrosion.
– Alkalinity: When the alkalinity is higher, more CaCO3 is deposited and the water
is less corrosive.
– Hardness: The more the hardness, the more CaCO3 is deposited and less corrosive
is the water.
– Temperature: A greater temperature results in a more rapid corrosion response
and rate.
– Dissolved gas: The corrosion rate increases with the amount of gas present.
9.5.3 Sequestration or Sequestering
Sequestration is the ability to create a complex with metal ions that allows these
metal ions to remain in solution in the presence of precipitation agents (Figure 9.21).
This is an extremely useful and one-of-a-kind water softening feature that provides
water stabilization by mixing with hardness ions naturally found in water supplies
such as calcium, magnesium, iron, and manganese.
Sequestering Sequestering
Agent Agent Fe+
Figure 9.21: Sequestering or sequestration.
One use of sequestration is the regulation of groundwater iron and manganese with-
out their elimination. Because chlorination of water that contains low amounts of
iron results in the development of insoluble iron oxide or iron chlorides, sequencers
are normally added to groundwater at the wellhead or pump intake before it comes
into contact with chlorine to prevent the formation of “red water.” Soluble manganese
compounds react similarly to generate “black water.”
Sequestering chemicals can also be used to lower hardness in water. They com-
bine with calcium, magnesium, and other heavy metal ions in hard water to build
molecules that bind the ions so tightly (sequester them) that they can no longer react.
Tetrasodium phosphate (tetrasodium pyrophosphate, Figure 9.22A), sodium hex-
ametaphosphate (Figure 9.22B), and disodium EDTA (Figure 9.22C) are common se-
questering agents.
9.5.4 CaCO3 Deposition Determination
Aside from visual inspection of pipe sections and filter media, the degree of CaCO3
deposition is determined by a number of indicators and indices. They are as follows:
Na+ Na+ Na+

- O O-
O- O O
O P P O
O O P O O
O
O O OH
O O P
P P
P N O- Na+
P HO N
Na+ -O O O- Na+ -O - O
Na+ -O
-O O O+ O
Na+ O- O- Na+ + O + Na
Na Na O
Figure 9.22: Sequestering agents.
9.5.4.1 Marble Test

Marble test (CaCO3 stability test) determines if water is saturated with CaCO3, and has
two applications in general. It is useful for testing the stability of water that has been
softened using the lime and soda ash method. It also measures the total alkalinity re-
quired by water to avoid corrosion by the development of a CaCO3 protective coating.
The marble test is often performed by soaking the water in CaCO3 and leaving it over-
night. The sample’s alkalinity is evaluated both before and after saturation. The nature
of water is determined by the difference between original and ultimate alkalinity. If the
difference is greater than zero, the water is depositing; if equal to zero, the water is
stable; and if less than zero, the water is corrosive.
9.5.4.2 Baylis Curve

Utilities strive to keep the water balanced in order to keep it from becoming too caus-
tic or creating too much scale. This is performed by balancing the water’s pH and al-
kalinity to produce stable, noncorrosive water. Some alkalinities in the form of
hydroxides, carbonates, and bicarbonates should remain in water to absorb acids and
prevent corrosive conditions.
Alkalinity is measured in laboratories as CaCO3 and is an indicator of calcium
hardness. The Baylis curve, shown in Figure 9.23, is one approach for checking if the
pH and alkalinity are adequately adjusted to provide stable, noncorrosive water.
Water in the top zone causes excessive scale; water in the lower zone is corrosive;
and water in the equilibrium (stability) zone contains enough alkalinity to stabilize,
but not enough to induce scaling.
9.5.4.3 Langelier Index

The Langelier index or Langelier saturation index (LSI) is an unbiased measure of
water balance. This index helps to identify when water becomes corrosive or scale-
forming. As shown in Figure 9.24, the ideal saturation is 0.00 LSI, and the allowed
range is −0.30 to +0.30 LSI.
10
9
Scaling zone
8
pH
7 Equilibrium or stability zone
6
Corrosive zone
5
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350
Figure 9.23: Baylis curve.
Water is aggressive if the LSI is −0.31 or lower because it is undersaturated with

CaCO3. The water is desperate for calcium and will go to any length to obtain it. Above
+0.31, the water contains too much dissolved CaCO3, causing it to precipitate CaCO3.
Carbonating scale, plaster dust, or other types of CaCO3 could arise. Perfectly balanced
water has an LSI of zero (0.00).
Corrosive Acceptable range Scale-forming

“Balanced water”
- 0.3 0 + 0.3
Figure 9.24: Langelier saturation Index.
9.5.4.4 Ryznar Stability Index

The Ryznar Stability Index (RSI) is an improved version of the LSI. It employs the
same argument. 2 × pHs-pH, where pHs denotes the saturation pH. In this index, 6.0 is
neutral; above 6.0, there is an increasing corrosion tendency; below 6.0, there is an
increasing scaling tendency. The RSI correlates higher values with more corrosive
water and lower values with water that is potentially scaling. Its value range is also
different from that used by the Langelier saturation index. The Ryznar index is ori-
ented toward protecting equipment’s metallic surfaces and it is designed to allow a
slight coating of calcium to accumulate on metallic equipment, where it acts as a pro-

tective insulator.
9.6 Filtration
Filtration is the mechanical removal of turbidity or suspended particles from water

by passing it through a porous material, such as a granular bed or a membrane.
9.6.1 Granular Media (Bed) Filtration
Granular medium filtration (GMF) is a popular physical method for removing par-
ticles from wastewater. Water travels through the granular material, while suspended
solids are retained during granular filtering.
Granular media filtration enhances clarity by eliminating particles, ranging in
size from coarse sediment to 10.0 μm.
The filter bed is a rectangular concrete structure containing sand or a combina-
tion of sand, garnet, and activated carbon deep media. A layer of gravel supports the
medium. A drainage system for filtered water is installed beneath the gravel, as
shown in Figure 9.25.
Raw water
Sand-Garnet-Activated carbon
Gravel
Underdrains Water for
backwash
Figure 9.25: Granular media filtration.
9.6.1.1 Types of Granular Filters

– Slow sand filters
– Rapid sand filters
– High-rate sand filters
– Granular activated carbon multimedia filters
– Pressure filters
9.6 Filtration 105
9.6.1.2 Factors Affecting the Granular Media Filtration

– The lower the turbidity in the filter influent, the longer the filter will last and
function better.
– The coarser the media, the less head loss and the longer the run, and vice versa.
– The deeper the bed, the better the filtration.
– Improper washing can result in media loss, media mixing, and the development
of mud balls and crackers. All of these will result in insufficient filtration.
– The higher the loading, the shorter the filter runs and the less efficient it is.
– The higher the temperature, the better the performance.
– A greater polymer dose creates fissures in the filter mat, while a smaller amount
does not form an efficient micro-floc.
9.6.2 Membrane Filtration
Membrane filtration is the process of passing pretreated water under pressure through
a membrane to remove particles of a certain size.
Membranes are made of cellulose acetate and synthetic materials such as poly-
propylene, and are either hollow tiny fibers or spiral wound structures.
9.6.2.1 Particle Removal Mechanism

– Sieving: Removes all particles larger than the pore size.
– Selective diffusion: Only certain dissolved particles travel through the membrane.
– Charge repulsion: Direct electric current is used in filtration. Anions move to the
anode, while cations go to the cathode.
9.6.2.2 Types of Membranes

The four categories of membranes used in membrane filtration are shown in Figure 9.26
and their usages are briefly addressed in Table 9.5.
Figure 9.26: Membrane types and pore sizes.

Table 9.5: Filtration membrane types and uses.
Microfiltration Removes all particles larger than  μm as well as all bacteria
Ultrafiltration Removes all particles larger than the pore size of the filter, including viruses and
other pathogens
Nanofiltration Removes virtually all viruses, dissolved solids such as inorganic salts, and tiny
organic molecules, and is frequently used to soften water and groundwater
Reverse osmosis Removes common chemical contaminants, including sodium, chloride, copper,
chromium, and lead
9.7 Disinfection
Disinfection is the eradication of water-borne microorganisms that enter the source

water via sewage and runoff from the watershed. Disinfection is accomplished
through the use of chemicals such as chlorine, chloramine, or chlorine dioxide. Other
methods of disinfection, including ozonation, ultraviolet radiation, and photocatalytic
disinfection, can be used.
9.7.1 Chlorination
Chlorination is the most used form of disinfection since it is inexpensive, effective,

and useful in reducing taste and odors. It is the most commonly used disinfectant in
water treatment around the world. It can be used directly as a gas or as a concen-
trated solution in water. It creates hypochlorous acid, a potent germicide that works
by inactivating the enzymes of microorganisms. A simple water chlorination system is
depicted in Figure 9.27.
9.7.2 Chloramination
Chloramination is the process of disinfecting drinking water by adding chloramine to

destroy viruses, bacteria, and other organisms that cause illness. It is occasionally
used instead of chlorination. Monochloramine (Figure 9.28), a type of chloramine
used to disinfect drinking water, is added to the water at levels that are safe to con-
sume, while eradicating hazardous organisms.
Chloramines are essential for residual protection in the distribution system.
Water with up to 4 milligrams per liter (mg/L) of chloramine, or 4 parts per million
(ppm), is safe for drinking, bathing, cooking, and other home applications. Chlora-
mine, like other disinfectants, has pros and cons. Table 9.6 summarizes these findings.
Chlorine Gas
Regulator
Cl2 Gas
Injector
Chlorinated
Liquid Water
Chlorine
Raw Water
Figure 9.27: A simple water chlorination system.
HOCl NH3 NH2Cl H2O
Figure 9.28: Monochloramine formation.
Table 9.6: Pros and cons of chloramine, as water disinfectant.
Pros Cons
Chloramine is more stable, lasting longer in To generate monochloramine on-site, chlorine gas or
water, offering longer-lasting protection hypochlorite, as well as safety procedures, are
against dangerous germs. required.
Because chloramine has a low oxidation To prevent ammonia vaporization and the creation of
potential, it does not form harmful nitrogen trichloride, further safety precautions are
disinfection by-products. required.
In large-scale applications, chloramine is As a disinfectant against pathogens, chloramine is less

simple to utilize and is economical. effective than chlorine, necessitating longer contact
durations with water to get the same results.
In water, chloramine does not have a Metal pipes are more corroded by chloramine.
significant chemical taste or odor.
9.7.3 Chlorine Dioxide
Chlorine dioxide (ClO2, Figure 9.29) is a versatile, broad-spectrum biocide that has
been used safely and effectively in the treatment of drinking water, industrial water,
and wastewater. It selectively oxidizes microorganisms while emitting no trihalome-
thanes, bromates, or other potentially harmful disinfection by-products.
2x 2x 2x
2 NaClO2(aq) Cl2(g) 2ClO2(g) 2NaCl(aq)

Sodium chlorite Chlorine
Figure 9.29: Chlorine dioxide formation.
9.7.4 Ultraviolet Light Water Treatment
UV treatment, shown in Figure 9.30, is used in the treatment of wastewater, drinking

water, and aquaculture. UV light kills bacteria by altering their biological components,
specifically the chemical connections in nucleic acids and proteins. UV treatment is
less effective in high-turbidity water, but more successful in water with fewer dis-
solved solids and organic materials.
Water inlet
H2O
H2O
UV Light Water outlet
Figure 9.30: Ultraviolet light water treatment.
9.7.5 Ozonation
Ozone is produced using either ambient air or pure oxygen. The gas (oxygen) is then con-
verted into ozone using an electric field. Adding ozone to the contact tank (Figure 9.31)
and letting water dissolve it completes the disinfection process. By oxidizing the bacterial
cell walls and causing them to disintegrate (lyse), ozone kills bacteria. Ozone is a nontoxic
Bubbles from ozone

injector
Air or oxygen feed
Sand
Ozone generator
Ozone contact tank
Purified water
Ozone injector
Activated
carbon
Figure 9.31: Water ozonation.
gas that completely removes flavor, color, and odor. This is due to the fact that ozone is
unstable and decomposes into oxygen.
9.7.6 Photocatalytic Disinfection
Photocatalysis is nothing more than a photoreaction with a catalyst. It employs a light

source to accelerate the disinfection process through the use of a catalyst. It is a com-
plex oxidation technology that is both environmentally friendly and one of the most
important green chemistry technologies today. This approach has a remarkable ability
to kill a wide variety of dangerous microorganisms. Figure 9.32 depicts how photocata-
lysts employ solar energy to break down organic pollutants in water, thus cleansing
wastewater efficiently and passively of dangerous substances. After cleaning the water,
Sunlight
Catalyst
Water
Pure
Raw or Non-bioactive
Wastewater water
Organic contaminants and microorganisms
Figure 9.32: Photocatalytic disinfection.

the photocatalyst is completely recovered and can be used endlessly to produce addi-
tional clean water with no waste.
9.8 Fluoridation
The procedure of adding fluoride to the water supply in order to maintain a fluoride
level of 0.7 ppm (milligrams) per liter of water is known as fluoridation. By demineral-
izing and remineralizing teeth, fluoride protects them against decay. Fluoride levels in
drinking water must be kept under control and should not exceed a certain level, since
too much fluoride might cause dental or skeletal fluorosis. The three chemicals most
commonly used to fluoridate drinking water are sodium fluoride (NaF, Figure 9.33A),
sodium fluorosilicate (Na2SiF6, Figure 9.33B), and fluorosilicic acid (H2SiF6, Figure 9.33C).
F F
F F F F
Na+ Si2- Na+ H+ Si2- H+
F F F F
Na+ F- F F
Figure 9.33: Chemicals used to fluoridate drinking water.
9.9 Questions
9.9.1 Provide some examples of organic coagulants.

9.9.2 What pH range is best for precipitation with aluminum salts?
9.9.3 What is the function of a coagulant aid?
9.9.4 Name three different types of sedimentation basins.
9.9.5 Define the term “water softening.”
9.9.6 Demonstrate how I-EX softening works.
9.9.7 Explain the process of zeolite regeneration.
9.9.8 Draw the chemical structure of fulvic acid, a chelating agent.
9.9.9 What is the effect of water in the upper zone of the Baylis curve?
9.9.10 Explain the water ozonation process in detail.
Chapter 10
Stormwater Management and Green Infrastructure
10.1 Introduction
Green infrastructure (GI) is a stormwater runoff control strategy that relies on natu-
ral processes to slow down, clean up, and occasionally reuse stormwater to keep it
from overburdening sewage systems and hurting waterways. GI attempts to emulate
the natural world by using plants, trees, and other features. It is considered as a pre-
ventative measure in the management of stormwater runoff contamination. The bet-
ter the arrangement of GI, the better the management of stormwater (rainwater), the
less runoff contamination, as shown in Figure 10.1.
Good layout
of green
infrastructure
Less runoff
contamination
Better
management
of
stormwater
Figure 10.1: Stormwater management, green infrastructure, and runoff contamination relationship.
GI keeps waterways clean and healthy by capturing rain where it falls and allowing it
to filter into the Earth, return to the atmosphere via evapotranspiration, or be reused
for another purpose, such as landscaping. GI also improves water quality by lowering
stormwater runoff into rivers and removing contaminants from that runoff.
Soil and plants help capture and remove pollutants from stormwater through ad-
sorption, filtration, plant uptake, and organic matter decomposition. These mecha-
nisms break down or trap many common pollutants in runoff, ranging from heavy
metals to oil to microorganisms.
GI, in addition to affecting the quantity and quality of runoff that enters water-
ways, provides the following benefits, as summarized in Table 10.1.
112 Chapter 10 Stormwater Management and Green Infrastructure
Table 10.1: Green infrastructure benefits.
Lowering or decreasing Heavy rains are becoming more common and more intense. Climate change is
flooding exacerbating the problem by increasing the likelihood of flooding and sewer
system overflows. Another growing issue is urban flooding induced by
excessive rain on impermeable surfaces. Green infrastructure decreases flood
hazards and increases community climate resilience by catching rain where it
falls and diverting it away from sewers and rivers.
Enhancing water supply More than half of the rain that falls in urban areas with impermeable surfaces
ends up as runoff. Green infrastructure initiatives decrease runoff by absorbing
stormwater and recharging groundwater sources or harvesting it for uses such
as landscaping.
Reducing heat and Vegetation is used in green infrastructure such as green roadways, green roofs,
smog and other types to enhance air quality and reduce smog. In addition to offering
shade, plants also aid in carbon sequestration by absorbing pollutants like
carbon dioxide and reducing air temperatures through evapotranspiration and
evaporation.
Strengthening public Green infrastructure has numerous positive effects on public health by
health lowering air pollution and temperatures, enhancing water quality, and
enhancing the availability of open areas. In addition to encouraging physical
exercise, greener spaces can enhance mental health while enhancing
neighborhood livability.
Lowering expenses Green infrastructure can be considerably less costly than more typical water
management systems. It is less expensive to create a rain garden to address
drainage difficulties than to build tunnels and install pipes.
Green roofs can last twice as long compared to conventional roofs, and
permeable pavement is an excellent long-term investment because it does not
require maintenance.
Improving life quality Green infrastructure creates jobs in numerous ways while also increasing the
value of local real estate. Furthermore, pleasant, green environments
encourage people to congregate outside.
10.2 Types of Green Infrastructure
GI can take numerous forms, from blossoming rooftop gardens to the absorbent pave-
ment to tree-lined streets. Here are some typical examples:
10.2.1 Green Roofs
Green roofs are living vegetation settings that offer a lush haven for birds, butterflies,
and humans. Green roofs reduce cooling and heating energy usage and expenditures
10.2 Types of Green Infrastructure 113
by giving an extra layer of insulation to a home or structure. On hot summer days, a

typical dark-colored roof transfers the heat it absorbs to the building below, whereas
a green roof can stay cooler than the ambient air temperature around it. Figure 10.2
shows a basic design for these green roofs.
Green plants
Grown medium
Filter membrane
Drainage
Protection layer
Thermal insulation
Roof
Figure 10.2: Green roof’s basic design.
Green roofs also aid in the reduction of rain and carbon pollution. Furthermore,
water is progressively released from a green roof, reducing the amount of runoff that
enters a watershed all at once, and averting flooding and erosion. Additionally, green
roof flora absorbs CO2 and stores it in plants and soil.
10.2.2 Rain Gardens
Rain gardens are commonly composed of native plants, perennials, and grasses
planted in a shallow basin and can be used in a variety of settings ranging from street
medians to small yards as shown in Figure 10.3.
They are intended to catch and absorb roof, sidewalk, and street runoff. Rain gar-
dens can also recharge underground aquifers, limit stormwater from reaching rivers,
provide habitat for wildlife, and beautify a highway or yard in addition to allowing
rainfall to evapotranspire or gently filter into the ground.
10.2.3 Permeable Pavement
Permeable pavement (also known as porous pavement) is a pavement system (Fig-

ure 10.4) which allows rainfall to seep through to underlying layers of pollutant-
114 Chapter 10 Stormwater Management and Green Infrastructure
Rainwater
House
downspout
drainage
Small yard rain

Rainwater runoff
garden
Deep soil layer absorbs

and filter runoff Less water enters to the storm
drainage system
Figure 10.3: Small yard rain garden.
filtering soil before reaching groundwater aquifers. It is commonly used for side-
walks, parking lots, and driveways.
Plants between paving stones for infiltration
Paving stones
Gravel layer
Crushed stones
Existing natural soil
Figure 10.4: Permeable pavement layout.
10.3 Questions
10.3.1 Demonstrate the connection between stormwater management, GI, and run-
off pollution.
10.3.2 What is stormwater runoff?
10.3.3 What causes stormwater runoff to be a problem?
10.3.4 What is GI?
10.3.5 Does GI cost more?
10.3 Questions 115
10.3.6 What are the primary goals of GI?

10.3.7 What are the three forms of GI?
10.3.8 What are the overall advantages of GI?
10.3.9 How does GI affect life quality?
10.3.10 Explain briefly how green roofs absorb rain and carbon emissions.
Chapter 11
Water as a Renewable Energy Source
11.1 Introduction
Renewable energy sources include any source that can deliver energy without deple-
tion, as long as it is not used faster than it can renew. Wood, for example, is a renew-
able energy source if it is consumed at a rate equal to or lower than its rate of
regeneration. Hydropower, often known as hydroelectric power, is a renewable en-
ergy source that creates electricity by altering the natural flow of a river or other
body of water using a dam or a diversion construction. Water is considered renew-
able and produces the least solid waste during energy production when compared to
other resources utilized to generate energy and power.
11.2 Endless Energy Sources
Air movement, sunlight, and water are the three primary sources of energy used in
wind, solar, and hydroelectric power. These processes will continue continuously as
long as there is life on Earth, meaning that energy can be taken from them. Because
geothermal energy is generated by the heat of the planet’s core, it is basically limit-
less. Unlimited energy sources, unlike renewable energy sources, never run out of
energy.
11.3 Natural Resources
Minerals and other substances, classified as natural resources, are those that can be
used for economic gain. Water, fertile soil, minerals, and forests are a few examples.
Water and soil are two examples of natural resources that are necessary for life.
Natural resources come in both renewable and nonrenewable forms. The distinc-
tion between them is whether the resource can be replenished naturally while we are
still alive or if it is permanently lost after being used up. As with trees in some areas
or resources like oil and minerals that take hundreds, thousands, or even millions of
years to refill, the fight with renewability is brought on by the realization that many
of our resources are being used up too quickly to replenish themselves naturally.
11.5 Hydroelectric or Hydropower Stations 117
11.4 Renewable Energy Resources
Crude oil will likely remain one of the most significant energy sources for decades,
but the drive toward renewable energy has accelerated due to pollution from combus-
tion engines, and depleting reserves. The rapid development of new renewable en-
ergy sources is a blessing. Table 11.1 lists a few of these renewable energy.
Table 11.1: A few renewable energy sources.
Biomass Biomass fuels include agricultural products, wood, solid waste, landfill gas,
biogas, and alcohol fuels such as ethanol or biodiesel.
Solar Solar energy can now be converted and stored using today’s batteries,
resulting in an increase in solar plants and the usage of solar panels on
anything, from street lamps to private residences.
Wind Wind energy is being harvested all over the planet. Wind energy turbines
require only an average wind speed of  km/h to generate energy. One
commercial wind turbine can power up to , homes.
Geothermal Geothermal energy generates energy and heat by utilizing the Earth’s interior
heat. This is especially important in volcanic areas or countries with extensive
Sahara regions.
Hydropower or Hydroelectric energy, commonly referred to as hydroelectric power or

hydroelectric power hydroelectricity, is a form of energy that produces electricity by using the
force of moving water, such as water flowing over a waterfall.
11.5 Hydroelectric or Hydropower Stations
Similar to factories, hydroelectric generating stations use the energy of moving or fall-
ing water to produce electricity or hydroelectric energy. A “drop,” or passage of water
from one elevation to another, generates speed and power. The natural drop of a
river, like a waterfall or rapids, is frequently used by hydro stations as a source of
water power. Other stations elevate the water level to provide the drop by building a
dam across a river. A third kind, known as “run-of-river,” uses only the river’s natural
flow and has no drop; hence having the least negative effects on the ecosystem.
The fundamentals of harnessing hydroelectric energy are largely unchanged de-
spite several technological advances.
– Source: A dam, canal, or pump placed on, or close to, a moving body of water
changes the direction of the water’s flow.
– Harness: The water is redirected into a conduit that passes one or more turbines
before coming out the other side and heading back in the original direction.
118 Chapter 11 Water as a Renewable Energy Source
– Generate: The turbines are spun by the force of the flowing water and are connected
to a generator, which harnesses the spinning power of the turbines to produce energy.
– Distribute: The electricity is provided to homes and businesses via the electrical
grid, which uses only clean, renewable energy.
11.6 Types of Hydropower Energy Plants
To create energy, three basic types of hydroelectric power plants are used. Each type
employs a distinct way of propelling a turbine and generating power for use by the
grid. Table 11.2 summarizes these categories.
Table 11.2: Major types of hydroelectric power plants.
Impoundment An impoundment system is the most typical type of hydroelectric energy. It uses a
dam to fill a reservoir to store water and then releases the water to flow through a
turbine to produce power.
Diversion A diversion system diverts some water from its natural course and directs it into a canal
or penstock where it flows through a turbine to produce energy. Diversion systems are
frequently utilized in waterfalls and rivers that flow down from hills or mountains.
However, they can also be used to harness the energy of ocean waves and tides.
Pumped A natural battery is essentially what a hydropower system with pumped storage is. A
storage pump that transfers water from a lower reservoir to an upper reservoir is powered by
electricity produced elsewhere, as from a solar farm or a wind farm. The released
water from the top reservoir is then sent via a turbine, which spins in order to
produce energy.
11.7 Questions
11.7.1 Which types of energy can be used at any time?

11.7.2 What are some of the primary benefits and drawbacks of solar energy over
fossil fuels?
11.7.3 What is the difference between conventional and nonconventional energy
sources?
11.7.4 What exactly are hydroelectric or hydropower plants?
11.7.5 Give three examples of never-ending energy sources.
11.7.6 Which of the natural resources is required for life to exist?
11.7.7 What is the distinction between renewable and nonrenewable natural resources?
11.7.8 Give three examples of renewable energy sources.
11.7.9 Define geothermal energy in a few words.
11.7.10 What are the fundamentals of producing hydroelectric energy?
Essential Terms
Chelating agents: Organic compounds that may extract ions from aqueous solutions and convert them
to soluble complexes.
Chemical contaminants: Substances that are toxic to aquatic plants and animals.
Chloramination: The process of disinfecting drinking water by adding chloramine to destroy viruses,
bacteria, and other organisms that cause illness.
Coagulation: The use of coagulants and coagulant aids to precipitate colloidal turbidity particles.
Contaminant: Anything other than water molecules. Any physical, chemical, biological, or radiological
substance or matter in water.
Corrosion: An electrochemical process that predominantly transforms metals and alloys into oxides,
hydroxides, and aqueous salts.
Density: The weight of water per unit volume, which fluctuates with temperature.
Desalination: A common method to obtain fresh water by condensation of vapors produced by heating
the seawater.
Disinfection: The eradication of water-borne microorganisms that enter the source water via sewage and
runoff from the watershed.
Electrodialysis: A method of extracting ions from water by using current.
Euphotic zone: The warmest upper water layer that receives the most sunlight in the lake.
Filtration: Mechanical removal of turbidity or suspended particles from water by passing it through a
porous material, such as a granular bed or a membrane.
Flocculation: The separation of a solution, commonly the removal of sediment from a fluid.
Flocculants: Substances that cause small particles in a solution to clump together, resulting in the
development of a floc that floats to the surface or sinks to the bottom.
Fluoridation: The procedure of adding fluoride to the water supply in order to maintain a fluoride level of
0.7 ppm (milligrams) per liter of water.
Green roofs: Living vegetation settings that give a lush haven for birds, butterflies, and humans. Green
roofs reduce cooling and heating energy usage and expenditures by giving an extra layer of insulation to
a home or structure.
Green infrastructure: A stormwater runoff control strategy that relies on natural processes to slow
down, clean up, and occasionally reuse stormwater to keep it from overburdening sewage systems and
hurting waterways.
Hard water: Water that contains a high concentration of mineral ions.
Hardness: The amount of measured divalent metal cations.
120 Essential Terms
Hydroelectric energy or hydroelectric power or hydroelectricity: A form of energy that produces

electricity by using the force of moving water, such as water flowing over a waterfall.
Hydrophobic materials: Are “water-fearing.” Do not combine or mix with water. They are insoluble in
water.
Hydrophilic materials: Are “water-loving” and can be wetted by water. They are miscible with water.
Lentic water or lentic ecosystem: Aquatic system that moves so slowly that the water seems static or
nearly so.
Limnetic zone: The lake’s surface or open water area.
Littoral zone: The shoreline of a lake or pond.
Lotic water: The flowing waterways that have steady water movement with high oxygen concentration
and clear water.
Maximum contaminant level: The highest level of a contaminant permitted in drinking water.
Maximum contaminant level goal: The highest contamination level in drinking water at which no
known or predicted harmful effect on human health will occur, allowing for an adequate margin of safety.
Membrane filtration: The process of passing pretreated water under pressure through a membrane to
remove particles of a certain size.
Microbial contaminants: Bacteria, viruses, and fungi.
Permeable pavement: A pavement system that allows rainfall to seep through to underlying layers of
pollutant-filtering soil before reaching groundwater aquifers.
Radioactive waste: Any pollutant that emits more radiation than the environment normally does.
Rain gardens: Native plants and grasses planted in a shallow basin and used in a variety of settings
ranging from street medians to small yards.
Reference dose: A safe dose based on research findings that have been extrapolated to humans from
outcomes of animal tests.
Residual chlorine: The quantity of chlorine that remains in water after a specific period of time or contact
time.
Reverse osmosis: A method of obtaining fresh water that involves filtering seawater under pressure via a
semi-permeable membrane.
Safe drinking water act: Standards and regulations to provide access to safe, clean, and reliable
drinking water, as well as adequate wastewater treatment.
Scale deposition: The buildup of various elements within undesirable locations.
Scum: A precipitate that is formed when hard water reacts with other substances in a solution, such as
soap.
Sedimentation: The separation of flocs from flocculated water by gravity.

Essential Terms 121
Sequestration: The ability to create a complex with metal ions that allows these ions to remain in
solution in the presence of precipitation agents.
Sewage: The fraction of wastewater that contains feces or pee.
Spring: A location where underground water finds its way to the land surface and emerges.
Thermal stratification: A phenomenon that causes some lakes and ponds in temperate regions to divide
into three distinct thermal layers or zones: the epilimnion, metalimnion, and hypolimnion.
Turbidity: A measure of how much transparency the water loses due to the presence of suspended
particulates.
Water autoionization: The act of functioning in solution as both an acid and a base.
Water cycle: Is the constant movement of water both inside the earth and in the atmosphere.
Water hydrate: Any chemical that contains water in the form of H2O molecules.
Water softening: A process of removing calcium, magnesium, and iron ions from water.
Water stabilization: A method of decreasing and controlling water contamination.
Well: A hole bored into the ground to gain access to water in an aquifer.
Zeolites: Microporous crystalline aluminosilicates that absorb water and other cations, filling the
micropores.
Abbreviations
ARS Acute radiation syndrome
BaCl2 Barium chloride
Ba(NO3)2 Barium nitrate
BaSO4 Barium sulfate
BGA Blue-green algae
BOD Biochemical oxygen demand
CaCO3 Calcium carbonate
CaNa2EDTA Calcium disodium ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid
Ca(OH)2 Calcium hydroxide (limewater)
CCL Contaminant candidate list
CFU Colony-forming unit
ClO2 Chlorine dioxide
COD Chemical oxygen demand
CNS Central nervous system
DM Demineralization
CRI Cutaneous radiation injuries
D2O Deuterium oxide
DO Dissolved oxygen
DNAPLs Dense nonaqueous phase liquids
DPD Diethyl-p-phenylene-diamine
DST Defined substrate technology
EBT Eriochrome Black T
EC Electrical conductivity
ED Electrodialysis
EDTA Ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid
EHEC Enterohemorrhagic Escherichia coli
EIEC Enteroinvasive Escherichia coli
ETEC Enterotoxigenic Escherichia coli
FTUs Formazin turbidity units
GI Green infrastructure
GMF Granular medium filtration
HPC Heterotrophic plate count
H2SiF6 Fluorosilicic acid
I-EX Ion exchange
LI Langelier index
LNAPLs Light nonaqueous phase liquids
LSI Langelier saturation index
MED Multiple-effect distillation
MF Membrane filter
MgCO3 Magnesium carbonate
MgCl2 Magnesium chloride
MgSO4 Magnesium sulfate
MCL Maximum contaminant level
MCGL Maximum contaminant level goal
MEE Multiple effect evaporation
Mg/L Milligrams per liter
MSF Multistage flash
124 Abbreviations
MTF Multiple tube fermentation

MUG 4-Methylumbelliferyl-β-D-glucuronide
Na2CO3 Sodium carbonate (soda ash)
NaF Sodium fluoride
NaOH Sodium hydroxide
Na2SiF6 Sodium fluorosilicate
NFR Nonfilterable residue
NTUs Nephelometric turbidity units
ONPG o-Nitrophenyl-β-D-galactopyranoside
PAH Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon
PCB Polychlorinated biphenyl
PCU Platinum color units
DBPs Potentially harmful disinfection byproducts
PPM Parts per million
RfD Reference dose
RNA Ribonucleic acid
RO Reverse osmosis
RSI Ryznar Stability Index
SAC Strong acid cation
SBA Strong base anion
SDWA Safe Drinking Water Act
SPC Standard plate count
SPM Suspended particulate matter
TDS Total dissolved solids
TOC Total organic carbon
TON Threshold odor number
THMs Trihalomethanes
TS Total solid
TSM Total suspended matter
TSS Total suspended solids
TTN Threshold taste number
UV Ultraviolet
WHO World Health Organization
VSS Volatile suspended solids
Resources and Further Readings
Books
[1] Guidelines for Drinking-Water Quality, 4th Edition Incorporating the First Addendum. World Health
Organization, 2017. ISBN 9789241549950.
[2] Darshan SS. Water Treatment Made Simple: For Operators. New Jersey: Wiley & Sons, Inc., 2006.
ISBN: 9780471740025.
[3] Bitton G. Microbiology of Drinking Water: Production and Distribution. New Jersey: John Wiley &
Sons, Inc., 2014. ISBN:9781118743928.
[4] Summers JK. Water Quality – Science, Assessments and Policy. London: IntechOpen Limited, 2020.
ISBN 9781789855784.
[5] Meschke JS and Sobsey MD. Norwalk-like viruses: detection methodologies and environmental fate.
In Encyclopedia of Environmental Microbiology, Bitton G (editor-in chief), New York: Wiley-
Interscience, 2002, 2221–2235.
[6] Drinan JE and Spellman F. Water and Wastewater Treatment. A Guide for Non-engineering
Professional, 2nd edition. Florida: CRC Press, 2012. eBook ISBN 9780429104879.
[7] Quevauviller P, Thomas O and Beken AVD. Wastewater Quality Monitoring and Treatment.
New York: Wiley & Sons, Inc., 2006. ISBN: 9780471499299.
[8] Venkateswarlu KS. Water Chemistry, Industrial and Power Station Water Treatment. New Delhi: New
Age International (P), Ltd., 1996. ISBN 9788122424997.
[9] Stoddard A, Harcum JB, Simpson JT, Pagenkopf JR and Bastian RK. Municipal Wastewater Treatment:
Evaluating Improvements in National Water Quality. New York: Wiley & Sons, Inc., 2002. ISBN
9780471243601.
[10] Wetzel RG. Limnology: Lake and River Ecosystems, 3rd edition. San Diego: Academic Press, 2001.
ISBN 9780127447605.
Journals
– Gleick PH and Palaniappan M. Peak water limits to freshwater withdrawal and use. Proceedings of the
National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 2010, 107(25), 11155–11162. https://doi.
org/10.1073/pnas.1004812107.
– Gliozzi A, Relini A and Chong PG. Structure and permeability properties of biomimetic membranes of
bolaform archaeal tetraether lipids. Journal of Membrane Science, 2002, 206, 131–147. https://doi.org/
10.1016/S0376-7388(01)00771-2.
– Greenlee LF, Lawler DF, Freeman BD, Marrot B and Moulin P. Reverse osmosis desalination. Water
sources, technology, and today’s challenges. Water Research, 2009, 43(9), 2317–2348. https://doi.org/
10.1016/j.watres.2009.03.010.
– Khawaji AD, Kutubkhanah IK and Wie JM. Advances in seawater desalination technologies. Desalination,
2008, 221, 47–69. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.desal.2007.01.067.
– Chapman JM, Proulx CL, Veilleux MAN, Levert C and Bliss S, et al. Clear as mud: A meta-analysis on the
effects of sedimentation on freshwater fish and the effectiveness of sediment-control measures.
Water Research, 2014, 56, 190–202. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.watres.2014.02.047.
– Reid AJ, Carlson AK, Creed IF, Eliason EJ and Gell PA, et al. Emerging threats and persistent conservation
challenges for freshwater biodiversity. Biological Reviews of the Cambridge Philosophical Society,
2018, 94(3), 849–873. https://doi.org/10.1111/brv.12480.
126 Resources and Further Readings
– Wyn-Jones AP and Sellwood J. Enteric viruses in the aquatic environment. Journal of Applied
Microbiology, 2001, 91(6), 945–962. https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1365-2672.2001.01470.x.
– Rochman CM. Plastics and priority pollutants: multiple stressors in aquatic habitats. Environmental
Science Technology, 2013, 47(6), 2439–2440. https://doi.org/10.1021/es400748b.
– Tian H, Alkhadra MA and Bazant MZ. Theory of shock electrodialysis I: Water dissociation and
electroosmotic vortices. Journal of Colloid and Interface Science, 2021, 589, 605–615. https://doi.org/
10.1016/j.jcis.2020.12.125.
– Wiegerinck HTM, Kersten R and Wood JA. Influence of charge regulation on the performance of shock
electrodialysis. Industrial and Engineering Chemistry Research, 2023, 62(7), 3294–3306. https://doi.
org/10.1021/acs.iecr.2c03874.
– Zhao Y, Zheng Y, Peng Y, Hea H and Sun Z. Characteristics of poly-silicate aluminum sulfate prepared by
sol method and its application in Congo red dye wastewater treatment. RSC Advances, 2021, 11,
38208–38218. https://doi.org/10.1039/D1RA06343J.
– Ng M, Liana AE, Liu S, Lim M, Chow CWK, Wang D, Drikas M and Amal R. Preparation and
characterisation of new-polyaluminum chloride-chitosan composite coagulant. Water Research, 2012,
46(15), 4614–4620. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.watres.2012.06.021.
– Gamage J and Zhang Z. Applications of photocatalytic disinfection. International Journal of Photoenergy,
2010, 2010, Article ID 764870. https://doi.org/10.1155/2010/764870.
Internet Resources
– Seawater desalination. Accessed on 01-05-2023. https://www.ctc-n.org/technologies/seawater-

desalination.
– Water Pollution: Everything You Need to Know. Accessed on 08-05-2023. https://www.nrdc.org/stories/
water-pollution-everything-you-need-know#prevent.
– Water pollutants. Accessed on 05-05-2023. https://www.pca.state.mn.us/air-water-land-climate/water-
pollutants.
– Water Microbiology. Accessed on 09-05-2023. https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/ doi/10.1002/
9781118743942.ch10.
– Water Quality Parameters. Accessed on 30-05-2023. https://www.intechopen.com/chapters/69568.
– Water Chemistry. Accessed on 30-05-2023. https://www.intechopen.com/books/8178.
– Testbook. Accessed on 30-05-2023. https://testbook.com/question-answer/activated-carbon-is-used-for
--63d97beb31adf2a06f9a50f3.
– Types of Drinking Water Contaminants. Accessed on 12-06-2023. https://www.epa.gov/ccl/types-drinking
-water-contaminants.
– Contaminant Candidate List (CCL) and Regulatory Determination. Accessed on 12-06-2023 https://www.
epa.gov/ccl/contaminant-candidate-list-1-ccl–1.
– The Sources of Chemical Contaminants in Food and Their Health Implications. Accessed on 13-06-2023.
https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fphar.2017.00830/full.
– Unique properties of water. Accessed on 14-06-2023. https://www.khanacademy.org/science/ap-biology
/chemistry-of-life/structure-of-water-and-hydrogen-bonding/a/hs-water-and-life-review.
– Properties of Water. Accessed on 14-06-2023. https://bio.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Introductoryand_
General_Biology/Map%3A_Raven_Biology_12th_Edition/02%3A_The_Nature_of_Molecules_and_the_
Properties_of_Water/2.05%3A_Properties_of_Water.
– Hard Water. Accessed on 15-06-2023. https://chem.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Inorganic_Chemistry/Sup
plemental_Modules_and_Websites_(Inorganic_Chemistry)/Descriptive_Chemistry/
Main_Group_Reactions/Hard_Water.
Internet Resources 127
– Heavy water. Accessed on 16-06-2023. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heavy_water.

– The Natural Sources of Water. Accessed on 16-06-2023. https://www.aquafil.com.au/natural-sources-
water.
– Rainwater. Accessed on 07-07-2023. https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/engineering/rainwater.
– Rainwater harvesting. Accessed on 07-07-2023. https://sustainabletechnologies.ca/home/urban-runoff-
green-infrastructure/low-impact-development/rainwater-harvesting.
– Aquatic Science Lotic Ecosystems. Accessed on 08-07-2023. https://slideplayer.com/slide/8256457.
– Threats on Aquatic Ecosystem- Mitigation and Conservation Strategies. Accessed on 08-07-2023.
https://www.heraldopenaccess.us/openaccess/threats-on-aquatic-ecosystem-mitigation-and-
conservation-strategies.
– Groundwater. Accessed on 08-07-2023. https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/documents/groundwa
ter.pdf.
– Causes and Effects of Agricultural Pollution. Accessed on 10-07-2023. https://www.earthreminder.com/
causes-and-effects-of-agricultural-pollution.
– Oil spills. Accessed on 10-07-2023. https://www.noaa.gov/education/resource-collections/ocean-coasts
/oil-spills.
– Groundwater Contamination. Accessed on 11-07-2023. https://groundwater.org/threats/contamination/.
– Water Microbiology. Bacterial Pathogens and Water. Accessed on 12-07-2023. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.
gov/pmc/articles/PMC2996186.
– Water Analysis. Accessed on 13-07-2023. https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/agricultural-and-
biological-sciences/water-analysis.
– Experiment-8 to determine odor and taste in water sample. Accessed on 13-07-2023. https://nitsri.ac.in/
Department/Civil%20Engineering/CIV-701_P_Water_Quality_Lab_Exp_8.pdf.
– Get Informed Color, Taste, and Odor (Smell). Accessed on 13-07-2023. https://www.knowyourh2o.com/
indoor-6/color-taste-odor#:~:text=Odor%20(Smell) %20%2D%20Phenolic%2F, Hydrogen %20Sulfide%
2C%20microbiological %20 contaminants%3B%20Perfume.
– How to Measure Turbidity of Water. Accessed on 13-07-2023. https://waterfilterguru.com/how-to-
measure-turbidity-of-water.
– What Is Alkalinity? Accessed on 15-07-2023. https://blog.orendatech.com/what-is-alkalinity.
– Water Hardness. Accessed on 17-07-2023. https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/biochemistry-genetics-
and-molecular-biology/water-hardness.
– Temporary and Permanent Hardness of Water. Accessed on 17-07-2023. https://watertreatmentbasics.
com/temporary-and-permanent-hardness-of-water.
– What Is Residual Chlorine? Accessed on 19-07-2023. https://apureinstrument.com/blogs/what-is-residual-
chlorine.
– Test for Residual Chlorine. Accessed on 19-07-2023. https://www.thewatertreatments.com/disinfection/
test-residual-free-chlorine.
– The Winkler Method – Measuring Dissolved Oxygen. Accessed on 21-07-2023. https://serc.carleton.edu/
microbelife/research_methods/environ_sampling/oxygen.html.
– Green Infrastructure: How to Manage Water in a Sustainable Way. Accessed on 21-07-2023.
https://www.nrdc.org/stories/green-infrastructure-how-manage-water-sustainable-way#whatis.
– What’s in Your Water: Total Dissolved Solids (TDS) in Drinking Water. Accessed on 21-07-2023.
https://quenchwater.com/blog/tds-in-drinking-water.
– Total Suspended Solids. Accessed on 22-07-2023. https://www.rocker.com.tw/en/application/sus
pended_solid_test.
– How to Test Your Well Water for Coliform Bacteria – The Invisible Danger. Accessed on 23-07-2023.
https://www.health-metric.com/blogs/water-quality-blog/how-to-test-your-well-water-for-coliform-
bacteria-the-invisible-danger#:~:text=Testing%20your%20well%20water%20for%20coliform%20bacter
ia&text=The%20at%2Dhome%20test%20uses,is%20positive%20for%20coliform%20bacteria.
128 Resources and Further Readings
– Membrane Filtration Method. Accessed on 23-07-2023. https://biologyreader.com/membrane-filtration-

method.html#:~:text=Purpose%3A%20The%20main%20objective%20of,of%20colonies%20through%
20colony%20counter.
– Presence Absence (P-A). Accessed on 23-07-2023. https://www.uwyo.edu/molb2021/virtual-edge/lab22/
exp_22a_pa.html.
– Heterotrophic Plate Count. Accessed on 23-07-2023. https://water.mecc.edu/courses/ENV295Micro/les
son9.htm.
– Three Main Types of Water Quality Parameters Explained. 20 Parameters. Accessed on 24-07-2023.
https://sensorex.com/three-main-types-of-water-quality-parameters-explained/#:~:text=There%20are
%20three%20water%20quality,chemical%20parameters%2C%20and%20biological%.
– Water Quality Parameters. Accessed on 24-07-2023. https://www.ysi.com/parameters.
– Color measurement. Accessed on 25-07-2023. https://assets.thermofisher.com/TFS-Assets/LPD/Applica
tion-Notes/an_034_tip_color_measurement_1120.pdf.
– Hydrogen Peroxide – Wastewater. Accessed on 25-07-2023. https://www.usptechnologies.com/hydro
gen-peroxide/.
– Inorganic Coagulants for Water Treatment. Accessed on 25-07-2023. https://www.kemira.com/products/
inorganic-coagulants-for-water-treatment/?utm_source=google&utm_medium=ad&utm_campaign=
iw-chemicals&utm_content=coagulants-offering&gclid=CjwKCAjwlJimBhAsEiwA1hrp5nW7_NYPjXAIh
BIkBGmQEBL7YDPIuVqIDhnGwEBJKkISTWRmZllV5hoCiSMQAvD_BwE.
– What Is Sedimentation in Water Treatment? Accessed on 31-07-2023. https://aosts.com/what-is-
sedimentation-in-water-treatment-types-settling-tanks/
– Solids Contact Clarifiers. Accessed on 02-08-2023. https://www.monroeenvironmental.com/water-and-
wastewater-treatment/circular-clarifiers-and-thickeners/solids-contact-clarifiers/
– Water Softening. Accessed on 02-08-2023. https://www.britannica.com/technology/water-softening.
– Manufacturers Require Additional Water Balance Index. Accessed on 02-08-2023. https://www.poolspa
news.com/how-to/maintenance/manufacturers-require-additional-water-balance-index_o.
– Scaling. Accessed on 03-08-2023. https://www.cmu.edu/cee/research/cooling/scaling.html.
– Corrosion. Accessed on 03-08-2023. https://saylordotorg.github.io/text_general-chemistry-principles-
patterns-and-applications-v1.0/s23-06-corrosion.html.
– Demineralization Plants (DM Plants). Accessed on 03-08-2023. https://soniwatercare.com/demineraliza
tion-plants/.
– Fundamentals of granular media filtration. Accessed on 07-08-2023. https://ca-nv-awwa.org/canv/down
loads/sc16/Session9/pdfs/FundamentalsGranularMediaFiltration.pdf.
– Disinfection Methods. Accessed on 07-08-2023. https://www.intechopen.com/chapters/63788.
– Water Treatment. Accessed on 08-08-2023. https://www.frankgulab.com/water-treatment.
– Hydroelectric power: how it works. Accessed on 08-08-2023. https://www.opg.com/powering-ontario/
our-generation/hydro/how-it-works/.
– What Is Hydroelectricity? Accessed on 08-08-2023. https://www.greenmountainenergy.com/why-
renewable-energy/renewable-energy-101/hydro.
– How Is Water a Renewable Resource? Accessed on 09-08-2023. https://sciencing.com/about-5251373-
water-renewable-resource-.html.
– Green Infrastructure Plan. Accessed on 10-08-2023. https://www.dcwater.com/green-infrastructure.
– Layers of a green roof. Accessed on 10-08-2023. https://blog.denbow.com/greenroof-layers.
– 5 Steps for Creating a Rain Garden. Accessed on 10-08-2023. https://www.hillsboroughcounty.org/en/
newsroom/2018/04/10/a-rain-garden-is-an-attractive-way-to-improve-water-quality.
– Permeable Paving. Accessed on 10-08-2023. https://water.phila.gov/gsi/tools/permeable-paving/.
Index
activated carbon 49 density 8
Acute radiation syndrome 39 deposition process 99
agricultural pollution 36 desalination 80
agriculture 36 deuterated water 17
alkalinity 56 deuterium 16
ARS 39 diethyl-p-phenylene-diamine test 60
autoionization 11 digital colorimeter 62
Azithromycin 47 disinfection 106
DPD 60
Bacterial pathogens 49 draining 2
barium chloride 64 drilled well 33
barium sulfate 64 drinking water 2
Baylis curve 102 driven or sand point well 33
bimetallic corrosion 100 DST 70
biochemical oxygen demand 73, 76 dug well 33
biomass 117
blue-green algae 77 EBT 59
boiler scale 15 EDTA 59
bored well 33 EDTA solution 59
EHEC 48
calcium chloride 59 EIEC 48
calcium sulfate 59 electrical conductivity 75
CCL 4 electrodialysis 81
chelating agent softening 96 enterohemorrhagic E. coli 48
chemical contaminants 4 enteroinvasive E. coli 48
chloramination 106 enterotoxigenic E. coli 48
chloroscope test 60 epilimnion 26
cholera 45 Eriochrome Black T 59
cholera symptoms 45 Escherichia coli 44
ciprofloxacin 47 ETEC 48
circular basins 89 evaporation 22
coagulation 85
cohesive and adhesive forces 14 flocculation 86
Colilert test 68 fluoridation 110
collection 22 formazin turbidity units 53
condensation 22
contaminant 3 geothermal 117
Contaminant Candidate List 4 granular medium filtration 104
corrosion 3, 99 green infrastructure 111
CRI 39 green roofs 112
crystal lattices 1 groundwater 22, 29
Cutaneous radiation injuries 39
hand-dug wells 32
defined substrate technology 70 hard water 14
deionization 49 heavy metals 5, 37
demineralization 94 heavy water 16
130 Index
heterotrophic plate count 70 ONPG 70

high-level waste 39 orthotolidine 61
high-rate basins 89 orthotolidine test 60
HPC 70 ozonation 49
hydrate 17
hydroelectric power 117 PCU 74
hypolimnion 26 permanent hard water 16
permeable pavement 113
ion exchange softening 93 physical contaminants 4
pitting corrosion 100
jar test 55 plate settler basins 90
platinum color units 74
lakes 19 pocket colorimeter 62
Langelier saturation index 102 polarity 10
lentic water 24 ponds 19
lime softening 93 precipitation 22
lotic water 27
low-level waste 39 radioactive waste 38
rain gardens 113
magnesium chloride 59 rainwater 22, 35
Marble test 102 rectangular sedimentation tanks 89
maximum contaminant level 5 redox reactions 13
maximum contaminant level goal 5 reference dose 7
MCL 5 renewable energy 116
MCLG 5 residual chlorine 60
membrane filter 68 RfD 7
membrane softening 97 rivers 19
metalimnion 26 Ryznar Stability Index 103
MF 68
microbial contaminants 4 Safe Drinking Water Act 3
microbial corrosion 100 Salmonella 44
microfiltration 49, 106 salmonellosis 45
mineral ion clustering 99 sand filtration 49
MTF 68 saturated zone 30
MUG 68 SDWA 3
multiple effect distillation 80 Secchi disks 54
multiple effect evaporation 80 sedimentation 88
multiple tube fermentation 68 sequestration 101
multistage flash 80 sewage 37
shigellosis 45
nanofiltration 106 soda ash 93
nephelometer 53 soft water 16
nephelometric turbidity units 53 solar 117
NFR 67 SPC 70
noncarbonates hardness 58 SPM 67
nonfilterable residue 67 springs 32
NTU 53 standard plate count 70
nuclear waste 39 stress corrosion cracking 100
nucleation 99 sulfamethoxazole 47
Index 131
surface water 22 Vibrio cholerae 45

suspended particulate matter 67
wastewater 37
TDS 66, 75 water 1
temporary hard water 15 water cycle 21
TOC 77 water hardness 58
total hardness 59 water pollution 36
total organic carbon 77 water quality 72
total suspended matter 67 water resources 19
total suspended solids 67 water softening 92
transparency tubes 54 water solubility 9
transuranic waste 39 water stabilization 97
TSM 67 waterborne pathogens 42
TSS 67 waterfalls 19
tube settler basins 90 well 32
turbidity meter 53 WHO 3
ultrafiltration 106 zeolite softening 95

universal solvent 36
unsaturated zone 30

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Mohamed Elzagheid

Water Chemistry, Analysis and Treatment

Library of Congress Control Number: 2023945078

Bibliographic information published by the Deutsche Nationalbibliothek

© 2024 Walter de Gruyter GmbH, Berlin/Boston

Dr. Mohamed Ibrahim Elzagheid, Chemistry Professor

11.5 Hydroelectric or Hydropower Stations 117

Essential Terms 119

Resources and Further Readings 125

1.2 Water Importance

Improves skin health

Keeps you energized

Improves your workout

Elevates one's mood

Promotes kidney health

Aids in weight loss

Figure 1.1: Drinking water health benefits.

1.3 Safe Drinking Water Act

1.4 Water Contaminants or Pollutants

cules. Some pollutants could be reasonably expected to be present in drinking water.

1.4.1 Contaminant Candidate List

1.4.1.1 Microbial Contaminant Candidates

1.4.1.2 Chemical Contaminant Candidates

Microbial Contaminant Candidates

Cyanobacteria Aeromonas Hydrophila

Echoviruses Helicobacter Pylori

Figure 1.2: Selected examples of microbial contaminants.

inate in a variety of places, including industrial and municipal discharges, natural

1.4.1.3 Contaminants Levels

Table 1.1: Examples of chemical contaminants.

,,,-Tetrachloroethane ,-Dichloropropane Bromobenzene

Figure 1.3: Chemical structures of selected chemical contaminants.

2.1 Properties of Water (Physical and Chemical Properties)

Possesses both cohesive Has a high vaporization

Has a high thermal

Has a lower density as a

Figure 2.1: Unique features of water.

Table 2.1: The density of water for different

Temperature Density (g/cm)

Water solubility is a measurement of how much a chemical compound may dissolve in

Figure 2.2: Simple water solubility curve.

Hydrogen bonds between H Alcohol

Figure 2.3: Hydrogen bond formation due to water polarity.

2.1.4 Acid–Base Behavior

Figure 2.4: Water autoionization process.

Figure 2.5: An illustration of the amphoteric characteristic of water.

2.1.5 Water States

2.1.6 Water Redox Reaction (Water Redox Process)

2H2O → O2 + 4H+ + 4e− (Oxidation)

4H+ + 4e− → 2H (Reduction)

Figure 2.6: Water redox process.

2.1.7 Water’s Cohesive and Adhesive Properties

Surface tension is usually promoted by cohesion. When water is dropped on a

Figure 2.7: Water adhesion by capillary action.

2.2 Hard Water

Iron Hard water

Figure 2.8: Hard water.

2.3 Soft Water

Figure 2.9: Soft water.