UNIT 1: Limits and Continuity of Functions

Lesson 1: Limit of a Function

At certain value;
 We say that the limit of 𝑓(𝑥) is 𝐿 as 𝑥 approaches 𝑎 and written as
lim f ( x )=L
x →a
 provided we can make 𝑓(𝑥) as close to 𝐿 as we want for all 𝑥
sufficiently close to 𝑎, from both sides, without actually letting 𝑥 be 𝑎.

Example 1: lim ⁡x=

→4
( x ¿¿ 2+5 x+ 8)¿ = (4) ² – 5(4) + 8

= 16-20 + 8
= 4
= (5 x ¿¿ 2+ 9 x+50)¿ = 5(-3) ² + 9(-3) – 8
Example 2: lim ⁡ x→−3

= 45–27–50
= -32

Lesson 2: Theorems of the Limit of a Function

Theorem 1.
Let c, k, L and M be real numbers, and f(x) and g(x) be functions defined on
some open interval containing c, except possibly at c.

1. If lim f ( x ) exists, then it is unique. That is, if lim f ( x )=L and

x →c x →c
lim f ( x )=M ,then L=M .
x →c

2. lim
x →c
c=c

3. lim x=c
x →c

4. Suppose lim f ( x ) and lim g (x)=M .

x →c x →c

i. Constant Multiple. lim [ k·g ( x ) ]=k·M

x →c

ii. Addition/Subtraction. lim [ f ( x ) ± g ( x ) ]=L± M

x →c

iii. Multiplication. lim [ f ( x ) g ( x ) ]=LM

x →c

1
 f (x) L
iv. Division. lim = , provided M ≠ 0 .
x →c g(x ) M
p
v. Power. lim [ f ( x )] =L for p, a positive integer.
p
x →c

vi. Root/Radical. lim

x →c
√ f (x )=√ L for a positive integer n, and
n n

provided that L>0 when n is even.

Example:

x →c x→c 4 ()
lim (−4 · f ( x ) ) =−4 lim ( f ( x ) ) = -4 3 = -3

Theorem 2.
Let f be any polynomial of the form
n n−1 n−2
f ( x )=an x + an−1 x +a n−2 x + …+a 1 x +a0 .

If c is a real number, then lim f ( x )=f ( c ) .

x →c

Theorem 3.
f (x)
Let h be a rational function of the form h ( x )= where f and g are
g(x)
polynomial functions. If c is a real number and g(x )≠ 0, thn.
f ( x) f (c)
lim h(x )=lim = .
x →c x→ c g(x ) g(c)
Example 1:

( )
lim√ x 2 +3−2 lim √ 2
x +3− lim 2
lim √x 2
+3−2
= x →−1
=
x →−1 x →−1

x 2+ 1 lim ( x +1 ) lim ( x 2+1 ) + lim 1

2
x→−1
x →−1 x →−1 x →−1

( √ lim x + lim 3−2

) ( (( √( lim x ) +3−2
)( )
2 2

x →−1 x →−1 x →−1 √(−1)2 +3−2 2−2

= = = = =
lim ((−1) +1 )
2
lim ( x + 1 ) ) ) 1+1
2 2
lim x + 1 x →−1
x→−1 x →−1

0
=0
2

Lesson 3: Two-sided limit

2
If the left-hand limit and a right-hand limit of a function both exist for a
particular value and are the same, then the function is said to have a two-
sided limit at that value. Formally:

lim f ( x )=L if and only if lim ¿

x →c
−¿
x→ c f ( x ) = lim
+¿
¿¿¿ .
x →c f (x ) =L

The phrase "if and only if" means that the implication runs both ways. If a
function has a two-sided limit at a value c, then the limits from both the left
and right at c exist and are equal. Likewise, if a function has limits from both
left and right at c and the two are equal, it has a two-sided limit at c. The
important thing to remember is that we have specifically defined two-sided
limits in terms of one-sided limits.
3
Example 1: lim (3 x −15 x+ 2) = 3(2¿ ¿3−15)2 ¿
x →2

= -6

Example 2: lim x →7
⁡ (12 x=|x−17|¿ = 12(7) - |7−17|

= 74

Lesson 4: Infinite Limit

To find the limit of the function (not using table of values) in fraction form
under infinite limits, do the following steps. Suppose the limit of the function is
N (x )
of the form lim .
x →a D(x )

constant except 0
i. Check if the fraction is or undefined once x is
0
substituted.
ii. Get the limit of the numerator by direct substitution.
iii. Observe the values of the denominator as 𝑥 gets closer to 𝑎 from both
sides. Substitute an 𝑥 value closer to 𝑎. Then, observe the result if a
positive number closer to 0 or a negative number closer to 0.
Then, the limit will become any of the following;
N (x) positive constant
 lim = 0 ¿=+ ∞
x →a D ( x ) positive number closer ¿
N (x) negative constant
 lim = 0 ¿=−∞
x →a D ( x ) positive number closer ¿
N (x) positive constant
 lim = 0 ¿=−∞
x →a D ( x ) negative number closer ¿
N (x ) negative constant
 lim = 0 ¿=+ ∞
x →a D(x ) negative number closer ¿

3
Example 1: lim ¿ 2 ( 3 )+1 = 7 = + ∞
+¿
x→ 3 =¿¿ 3−3 0

Example 2: lim ¿ 4−3 x = = 4−3(7) = 4−21 = −17 =+ ∞

−¿
x→ 3 =¿¿ x−7 7−7 0 0

Lesson 5: Limit at Infinity

Theorem on limits at infinity

 Let r be any positive integer. Then:
c
i. lim r =0
x→+∞ x

c
ii. lim r =0
x→−∞ x

lim (2¿¿ 2 x−1)

( )
2x
2 −1 x →−∞
Example 1: lim ¿ x = ¿
x→−∞ 3 −1 lim (3¿¿ x−1)¿
x →−∞

lim (2¿¿ 2 x)− lim ⁡(1)

x →−∞ x →−∞
= ¿
lim (3¿ ¿ x )− lim (1) ¿
x →−∞ x→−∞

0−1
= =1
0−1
lim ¿ ¿ - √ 3+2) = lim ¿ ( √ 3−2)
Example 2: x→−∞ x→−∞

lim ¿ √ 3+2)
= x→−∞

= -∞

Lesson 6: Continuity of a Function

Three conditions of Continuity

A function f (x) is said to be continuous at x=c if the following three
conditions are satisfied:
1. f ( x ) exists;
2. lim f ( x ) exists; and
x →c

3. f ( x )=lim
x→c
f ( x ).

4
 If at least one of these conditions is not meet, f is said to be
discontinuous at x=c
 Types of Discontinuities
a) Removable Discontinuity
A function is said to have a removable discontinuity at a certain
point if only condition 2 is satisfied.
b) Jump Discontinuity
A function is said to have a jump discontinuity at a certain point
if condition 2 is not satisfied but both one-sided limits exists.
Thus, lim ¿ and lim ¿ but not equal.
−¿
x→ a f (x)¿
+¿
x→ a f (x)¿

c) Infinite Discontinuity
A function is said to have an infinite discontinuity at a certain
point if condition 2 is not satisfied because the limit from both
sides involves infinite limits.

Example 1: f ( x )= {6ax−22
, if x ≤ 1
x ,if ∧x >1

= 6 x -2 = a x 2
= 6(1)-2= a (1)
4=a

{
2
a x , if x ≤ 2
Example 2: f ( x )=
2 x+ a , if ∧x >2

= a x 2=2 x+ a

= a (2)2 =2(2)+ a
4a = 4 = a
3a 4
4
a=
3

5
 UNIT 2: Slope of the Tangent Line, Basic Rules and Technique of
Differentiation

Lesson 1: The slope of the tangent line

The tangent line is the line that touches a curve at a point. There may be
tangent lines that later cross the curve or touch the curve at some other
points. But the basic criteria for a line to be a tangent line of curve f(x) at a
point x=a if the line passes through the point (a, f(a)) (where the point is
common both to the curve and the tangent line) and the tangent line has slope
f'(a) where f'(a) is derivative of function f(x) at point a.
The slope of a tangent line can be found by finding the derivative of the
curve f(x and finding the value of the derivative at the point where the tangent
line and the curve meet.
 Slope of a Tangent Line Formula given a function at a single x value
f ( x1 +h )−f ( x 1)
mTL=lim , where x 1 is a single given x
h→ 0 h
 Equation of tangent lines (Use Point-slope form)

( y − y 1 )=m( x−x 1 )

6
Example:
Find the slope and equation of the line tangent to the following
functions at a given x value. Use the definition of slopes of tangent line.
1. h ( x )=2 x 2−3 at x=2

Solution: h ( 2 )=¿ 2(2)2−3

= 23−3
= 8-3
=5
2. h ( x )=4 x 2−16 x−7 at x=3

Solution: h ( 3 ) =4 (3)2−16(3)−7
= 4(9) – 48 – 7
= 36 – 48 – 7
= -19

Lesson 2: Fundamental theorems of differentiation

Fundamental Theorems on Derivatives

Let c be any constant number and u and v be any function.
i. Constant Rule: Dx ( c )=0

Example:
1. Dx ( 17 ) =0 2. Dx ( 100 )=0

ii. Constant Multiple Rule: Dx ( cu )=c Dx(u)

Example:
1
1. f (x)=3 x 3 2. g ( x )=−3 t 2
1
3
¿ 3 Dx( x ) ¿−3 Dx(t 2 )
1 −1
¿9 x ² ¿−3(¿ 2 t 2 )¿
❑
−3 1
= t−
2 2

7
 −3
= 1
2t 2

iii. Sum and Difference Rule: Dx ( u+ v )=Dx ( u ) + Dx (v )

Example:
1. f ( x )=3 x 2 + x 2. f ( x )=5 x 2 +10 x
¿ Dx ( 3 x 2 )+ Dx ( x ) ¿ Dx ( 5 x 2 )+ Dx(10 x)
¿ 3 D x (x ¿¿ 2)+1¿
¿ 5 D x (x ¿¿ 2)+1¿ 0 Dx(x )
¿ 3(2 x)+1 ¿ 5(2 x)+10
= 6 x +1 = 10 x+ 10

iv. Product Rule: Dx ( uv )=u Dx ( v )+ v Dx(u)

Example:
1. Dx ( 2 x 2+3 ) ( 4 x−1 )
= ( 2 x 2+3 ) Dx ( 4 x−1 ) + ( 4 x−1 ) Dx ( 2 x 2 +3 )
=( 2 x 2+3 ) ( 4 )+ ( 4 x−1 ) (4 x )
= 8 x +12+16 x2 −4 x
= 24 x 2−4 x+ 12

2. y= (3 y +1 ) ( 4 y+ 2 )
= ( 3 y +1 ) Dx ( 4 y +2 ) + ( 4 y +2 ) Dx ( 3 y +1 )
= ( 3 y +1 ) ( 2 )+ ( 2 y +2 )(3)
= 6 y +2+6 y +6
= 12 y+ 8

v. Quotient Rule: Dx ()u v Dx ( u )−u Dx (v )

v
=
v2
Example:
( 3 x +5 )
1. f(x) = 2
x −5
( x ²−5) Dx(3 x +5)−(3 x +5)Dx ( x ²−5)/(x ²−5)².
f’(x) =
x 2−5
=¿ ¿
(−3 x ²−10 x+15 )
= 2
x −5
( 2 y ³−2 )
2. f(x) =
2 y +4
= ¿¿
(2 y +4 )(6 y ²)−(2 y ³−2)(2)
=
2 y +4
= ¿¿

8
 ( 8 y ³+24 y ²+ 4 )
=
2 y+4

vi. Chain Rule: Dx ( un ) =n un−1 Dx (u)

Example:
1. y=log x ² 2. y=(x 2−4 x)6
ⅆy 1 ⅆy (x 2)
= =
ⅆu x2 ⅆu
6−1
6 ( x −4 x )
2 2−1 1−1
(2 x −4 ( 1 ) x )
1 5
= 2
x 2x = 6 ( x 2−4 x ) ¿
x
2 ⅆy 5
ⅆu ( 12 x−24 ) ( x −4 x )
5 2
= =
x

Lesson 3: Higher-order derivative

The higher order derivative is the rate of change of a function that is

calculated by differentiating it repeatedly. It is calculated by differentiating
th
(n−1) derivative of a function. The higher order derivative is used for different
purposes such as the second derivative test allows us to determine the nature
of the function.
“The higher order derivative of a function can be calculated by differentiating
the first derivative repeatedly up to n times.”
Example:
1. g ( x )=5 x 4−3 x 3 +7 x 2−9 x+ 2. Find the first, second, and third derivative
Solution: g ( x )=5 x 4−3 x 3 +7 x 2−9 x+ 2
¿ 20 x 3−9 x 2+ 14 x 1−9 1st Derivative
¿ 60 x 2−18 x 1+14 2nd Derivative
¿ 120 x−18 3rd Derivative
2. Find the first, second, and third derivative where f ( x )=52 x 6−9 x 5 +14 x 4 .
Solution: f ( x )=52 x 6−9 x 5 +14 x 4
5 4 3
¿ 312 x −45 x +56 x 1st Derivative
4 3 2
¿ 1605 x −180 x +168 x 2nd Derivative
3 2
¿ 4815 x −540 x +336 x 3rd Derivative

9
 LONG QUIZ

1. What is the lim ¿ (2x+5)?

x →3

A. 6 B. 11 C. 17 D. 21
2. Which theorem states that the limit of a sum is equal to the sum of the
limits?
A. Product Rule B. Sum Rule C. Quotient Rule D. Chain
Rule
2
x −1
3. For the function f ( x )= what is the two-sided limit as x approaches 1?
x −1

10
A. 0 B. 1 C. 2 D. Does
not exist
1
4. What is the lim ⁡ ?
x →∞ x

A. 0 B. 1 C. Infinity D.
Undefined
x
5. Which statement is true about lim x →−⁡ ∞ e ?

A. Approaches 1 B. Approaches 0
C. Approaches negative infinity D. Approaches positive infinity

( )
x
1
6. What is the limit at infinity for lim ⁡ 1+ ?
x →∞ x

A. 0 B. 1 C. e D.
Undefined
7. When is a function considered continuous at a point?
A. When it’s defined at that point
B. When the limit exists at that point
C. When the function is differentiable at that point
D. When the limit and the function value match at that point
8. Consider the function f ( x )=| x|. Is f ( x ) continuous everywhere?
A. Yes B. No
9. What is the slope of the tangent line to the curve y=x 2 at the point (2,4)?
A. 2 B. 4 C. 6 D. 8
10. Which of the following is a fundamental theorem of differentiation?
A. Product Rule B. Quotient Rule C. Chain Rule D. Sum
Rule
x

11. If f ( x )=∫ (3 t+2) dt , what is f ' ( x ) ?

2

A. 3 x +2 B. 3 x +4 C. 3 D. 2 x +3
12. What is the second derivative of f ( x )=4 x 3 +2 x 2 +1?

A. 12 x 2+ 4 x B. 24x + 4 C. 12 x 2+ 2 x D. 24 x 2+
2x

11
13. Which theorem states that the limit of a product is equal to the product of
the limits?
A. Sum Rule B. Product Rule C. Quotient Rule D.
Chain Rule
1
14. For the function of g ( x )=¿ , what is the two-sided limit as x approaches
x
0?
A. +∞ B. 0 C. -∞ D. Does not
exist
2
⁡ e ?
15. What is the lim x →∞
x
A. +∞ B. -∞ C. 0 D. 1
16. Which theorem states that the limit of a quotient is equal to the quotient of
the limits?
A. Sum Rule B. Product Rule C. Quotient Rule D.
Chain Rule
17. For the function k ( x )= √ x , k ( x ) continuous everywhere?
A. Yes B. No
18. What is the slope of the tangent line to the curve y=¿ e x at the point (0,1)
A. 0 B. 1 C. e D. Undefined
x

19. If f ( x )=∫ sin (t ) , dt , what is f ( x ) ?

1

A. cos ( x ) B. -cos ( x ) C. sin ( x ) D. -sin ( x )

20. What is the derivative of h ( x )=cos (x )?
A. -cos ( x ) B. sin ( x ) C. - sin ( x ) D. cos ( x )
21. If h ( x )=2 x 2−3 at x=3.Find the slope and equation of the line tangent to
the following functions at a given x value. Use the definition the derivative
rules.
A. 15 B. 18 C. 13 D. 19
22. If h ( x )=4 x 2−16 x−7 at x=3 Find the slope and equation of the line tangent
to the following functions at a given x value. h ( x )=4 x 2−16 x−7 at x=3.
A. 23 B. 57 C. 67 D. 77

12
 1
23. h ( x )=2 x 3 + 4 x−2−5 at x=5 . Find the slope and equation of the line tangent
to the following functions at a given x value. Use the definition the derivative
rules.
1 8 1 8 1 4
A. − B. − C. − D.
3 √x 5 √x 5 √x
3 2 3 3 2 3 4 2 3
x x x
1 7
− 3
5 √x x
3 2

24. What is the derivative of h ( x )= 3 x 2+ 2 x−1?

A. h ' ( x )=¿ 6x+2 B. h ' ( x )=¿ 6x-2 C. h ' ( x )=¿ 3x²+2 D.

2
3 x + 2 x−1
25. What is the derivative of a constant term in a function?
A. 0 B. 1
C. The constant multiplied by x D. The constant itself
26. What is the formula for Product Rule?

A. Dx ( un ) =n un−1 Dx (u) B. Dx ( uv )= v Dx ( u)−u

v
Dx (v )
2

C. Dx ( uv )=u Dx ( v )+ v Dx(u) D. Dx ( cu )=c Dx(u)

27. What does the derivative of a function represent?
A. The slope of the tangent line
B. The area under the curve
C. The function’s y-intercept
D. The curvature of the graph
28. Which notation is commonly used to represent the derivative of a function
f(x)?
A. √f(x) B. df/dx C. ∫ f (x ) D. f (x)
2 x+1
2
29. Evaluate the lim x−1 .
x→−∞ 3
A. 0 B. 1 C. 2 D. 3
30. It is the line that touches a curve at a point. There may be tangent lines
that later cross the curve or touch the curve at some other points.
A. The Slope of the Tangent Line
B. Fundamental Theorems of Differentiation
C. Limit of a Function

13
D. None of these.

Answer key

1. B 27. A
2. B 28. B
3. D 29. A
4. A 30. A
5. C
6. C
7. D
8. B
9. D
10. B
11. A
12. B
13. B
14. C
15. C
16. C
17. B
18. C
19. A
20. A
21. A
22. D
23. A
24. B
25. A
26. C.

14
 UNIT 3: TECHNIQUE OF DIFFERENTIATION

Lesson 1: Chain Rule

The chain rule provides a method, for calculating the derivative of a function
or differentiate composite functions.
d
dx
[ f ( g ( x ) ) ] =f ( g ( x ) ) g ' x
'

Other form:

dy dy du
= x
dx du dx

Where:
dy
represents the derivative of y with respect to x.
dx
dy
represents the derivative of y with respect to u.
du
du
represents the derivative of u with respect to x.
dx

Remember: A function is considered composite when it can be expressed as

f (g(x )). In terms it is a function nested within another function or a function
operating on another function.
To differentiate a function of a function lets consider the equation y=f (g( x)). . To find
dy
we can follow these steps;
dx
1. Substitute u=g (x). This allows us to express y as f ¿).
dy
2. Now we need to apply the Chain Rule, which involves finding multiplied by
du
dy
.
du

15
 3. To differentiate y=f (g( x)) we introduce u as g(x ). Then y becomes f (u). We
dy dy du
find by multiplying with .
dx du dx

Example 1:
Given y=sin(3 x)
1. Let u=3 x , so y=sin(u)
dy du
2. =cos (u) and =3
du dx
3. Applying the Chain Rule
dy dy du
= x
dx du dx
dy
¿ cos (u)× 3
dx
dy
¿ 3 cos (3 x)
dx
Therefore, the derivative of y=sin(3 x) is 3 cos (3 x).

Example 2:
2
Given y=e2 x

1. Let u=2 x 2 , so y=eu

dy u du
2. =e and =4 x
du dx
3. Applying the Chain Rule
dy dy du
= x
dx du dx
dy u
¿e ×4 x
dx
dy u
¿ 4 x( e )
dx
dy 2x
2

dx ¿ 4 x e ¿

2 2
Therefore, the derivative of y=e2 x is 4 x e 2 x .

Practice Exercises
2

1. g(x )=e 3 x +1
2. k (x)= √ cos ( 4 x )

16
 3
3. n( x)=( e2 x −1 )
1
4. p(x )=
√3 x +1
1
5. r (x )=( 2 )
x +1

Lesson 2: Derivative of a Function

Differentiating a composite function typically requires the application of the

chain rule. Failing to recognize when a function’s composite and neglecting to apply
the chain rule can lead to wrong differentiation. Conversely, applying the chain rule to
a non-composite function will also yield a wrong derivative.
5
Let’s see how the chain rule is applied by differentiating y=6 ( 2 x 3 +5 x )

1. Let u=2 x ³+5 x , so y=6 (u )5

dy 5−1 du
2. =6 ×5 ( u ) , and =6 x ²+5
du dx
3. Applying the Chain Rule
dy dy du
= x
dx du dx
dy
= 30 u4 × 6 x 2 +5
dx
dy 4
= 30 ( 2 x3 +5 x ) × ( 6 x 2+5 )
dx
5 4
Therefore, the derivative of y=6 ( 2 x 3 +5 x ) is 30 ( 2 x3 +5 x ) ×(6 x ²+5).

Now let’s use the formula

d
dx
[ f ( g ( x ) ) ] =f ( g ( x ) ) g ' x
'

d 2 2
Find the derivative of a function =sin (2 x +3).
dx
d
= sin2 (2 x 2+ 3)
dx
d
¿ 2 sin ( 2 x +3 ) × [sin ¿ ( 2 x +3 ) ]¿
2 2
dx

17
 d 2
¿ 2 sin ( 2 x 2 +3 ) cos ( 2 x 2 +3 )× [2 x +3 ]
dx
2 2
¿ 2 sin(2 x +3) cos (2 x +3) ¿
2 2
¿ 2 s ∈(2 x +3)cos(2 x +3)(2× 2 x +0)
2 2
¿ 8 x cos(2 x + 3) sin( 2 x +3)

Therefore, the derivative of sin2 (2 x 2+ 3) is 8 x cos(2 x 2+ 3)sin(2 x 2 +3).

Practice Exercises
6
1. f (x)=( 3 x2 +1 )
4
2. g(x )=( e 2 x −1 )
5
3. f ( x)=( ln ⁡( 2 x ) )
10
4. g(x )=( 4 x 2+2 x )
6
5. h( x)=( sin ⁡(3 x) )

Lesson 3: Application Problem

Problem 1: A particle moves along a path described by the equation x=3 t ² +2 and
y=2t−1, where t represents time. Find the particles acceleration at t=2 seconds.
Given:
x=3 t ² +2
y=2t−1
1.) Find velocity v (First derivatives of x and y).
dx
=3 t ²+ 2
dt
dx
= 3 ×2 t 2−1
dt
dx
=6 t
dt

dy
=2 t−1
dt
dy
=2 ×1 t 1−1
dt
dy
=2
dt

2.) Find acceleration a (Second derivatives of x and y).

2
dx
=6
dt

18
 2
dx
=0
dt
Therefore, the acceleration at t=2 seconds is constant and equal to 6 units/s².

Problem 2: A company’s production cost C is modeled by the function

C (x)=500 x ²+100 x +1000, where x is the quantity produced. Determine the rate of
change of profit with respect to the quantity produced when x=50 units.
Given:
C ¿ ) = 500 x ² +100 x +1000
R(x ) = 1200 x−5 x 2
Profit P is given by P(x ) = R(x )−C (x)
1.) Find P(x). Substitute R(x) and C(x):
P(x ) = (1200 x−5 x 2 ¿−(500 x ²+100 x+1000)
P(x ) = 1200 x−5 x 2−500 x2−100 x−1000
P(x ) = −505 x 2+1100 x−1000

dP
2.) Find ;
dx
dP d
= (−505 x 2+1100 x−1000 ¿
dx dx
dP
= −1010 x+ 1100
dx

dP
3.) Evaluate at x=50 units:
dx
dP
= −1010(50)+1100
dx
dP
= −50500+1100
dx
dP
= −49400
dx

The rate of change of profit with respect to the quantity produced when x=50
units is −49400.

Practice Exercises

19
Problem 1:
A ladder is leaning against a wall. The ladder is sliding down the wall at a rate of 0.2
meters per second while its base is sliding away from the wall at a rate of 0.15
meters per second. If the ladder is initially 5 meters long and is sliding away from the
wall at a constant rate, find how fast the top of the ladder is moving down the wall
when the base of the ladder is 4 meters from the wall.

Problem 2:
A spherical balloon is being inflated so that its volume is increasing at a rate
of 4 π
cubic centimeters per minute. Find the rate at which the radius of the balloon
is increasing when its volume is 36 π cubic centimeters.

Problem 3:
Water is draining from a conical tank with a radius of 6 meters and a height of 12
meters at a constant rate of 2 cubic meters per minute. Determine the rate at which
the water level is decreasing when the water is 4 meter deep.

Answer Key

Chain Rule
2

1. g ’( x)=6 x e 3 x + 1
−2 sin ( 4 x )
2. k ’ (x)=
√ cos ( 4 x ) 2x
2e
3. n ’ (x)=6 ( e 2 x −1 )
−3
4. p ’(x )= 2
√ ( 3 x +1 )3
3
−8 x ( x +1 )
2

5. r ’ (x)= 8
( x 2 +1 )

Derivative of a Function
5
1. f ' x=12 x ( 3 x 2 +1 )
2. g ’ x=8 e 8 x ( e2 x −1)

20
 4
5 ( ln (2 x ) )
3. f ’ x=
x
9
4. g ’ x=120 ( 4 x 3+ 2 x ) (12 x 2+ 2)
5. h ’ x=18 cos ( 3 x ) sin ( 3 x )5

Application Problem
Problem 1: -0.16m/s
1
Problem 2: cm/min
3
−1
Problem 3: m/min
9

UNIT 4: The Derivative of Trigonometric Functions

The branch of mathematics that deals with the relationships between angles and
sides of triangles, primarily focusing on trigonometric functions like sine, cosine, and
tangent is called trigonometry.
The six basic trigonometric functions include the following: sine (sin x), cosine (cos
x), tangent (tan x), cotangent (cot x), secant (sec x) and cosecant (cosec x).

Using the Quotient rule we get formulas for the remaining trigonometric ratios, To
summarize, here are the derivatives of the six trigonometric functions.

21
Theorem 4.54 – Derivatives of Basic Trigonometric Functions.

Lesson 1: Fundamentals of Trigonometry

1. Unit Circle and Trigonometric Functions.

• The unit circle, with a radius of 1, is pivotal in understanding trigonometric
functions.
• Sine (sin), cosine (cos), tangent (tan), cotangent (cot), secant (sec), and cosecant
(csc) are fundamental functions of trigonometric functions derived from the unit
circle.

2. Relationship between Trigonometric Functions and Right Triangles.

• Trigonometric functions are defined based on ratios of side lengths in right
triangles.
• Sine is opposite/hypotenuse, cosine is adjacent/hypotenuse, and tangent is
opposite/hypotenuse.

3. Periodicity and Properties.

• Trigonometric functions are periodic, with specific intervals where they repeat their
values.
• Sine and cosine functions have a period of 2 π , while tangent has a period of π.

22
Lesson 2: Basic Derivative of Trigonometry

Understanding the derivatives of trigonometric functions is fundamental. The

derivatives of the primary trigonometric functions—sine, cosine, and tangent—are
essential in various fields like physics, engineering, and mathematics.

Example 1: Finding the Derivative of y=sin ( x )

Solution:
' d
y= ( sin ( x ) )=cos ( x )
dx
Example 2: Calculating Derivative of y=cos ( x )
Solution:
' d
y= ( cos ( x ) ) =−sin ( x )
dx
Example 3: Determining the Derivative of y=tan ( x )
Solution:
' d
y= ( tan ( x ) ) =se c 2 (x)
dx

Practice Exercise

23
Quiz

Answer Key
Practice Exercises
1. y ’=3 cos (3 x)
2. y ’=−2sin (2 x )
3. y ’=4 sec ²(4 x)
4. y ’=2 sin(x)cos (x)
5. y ’=−2 cos (x)sin(x )

Quiz

24
1. y ’=cos (x )
2. y ’=−3sin (3 x)
3. y ’=2 sec ²(2 x)
4. y ’=3 sin ²(x )cos (x )
5. y ’=−3 cos ²(x )sin (x)
6. y ’=csc ²(x)
7. y ’=5 sec(5 x)tan (5 x )
8. y ’=−2 csc(2 x )cot(2 x)
9. y ’=2 tan(x )sec ²(x )
10. y ’=4(cos ²(x )– sin ²( x))

UNIT 5: The Derivative of Trigonometric Functions

Lesson 1: Fundamentals of Trigonometry

A function in the form f ( x )=a ·bˣ where a is a constant ∧b isthe base .

Derivative od Exponential Function:
The derivative of f ( x )=a ·bˣ with respect ¿ x is f ( x )=a· bˣ · ln ( b )

Exponential Function Derivatives Formula

1. Derivative of eˣ
d
( eˣ )=eˣ
dx
2. Derivative of a·eᵇˣ ( where a∧b are constants )
d
( a · eᵇˣ )=a ·b · eᵇˣ
dx
3. Derivative of a · bˣ ( where a∧b are constants )
d
( a · bˣ )=a·bˣ · ln ( b )
dx

25
Exponential Function
1. f ( x )=3 · 2 ˣ
Solution:
df
Given: f ( x )=3 · 2 ˣ , to find the derivative :
dx
df
=3· 2 ˣ · ln ( 2 )
dx
2. g ( x )=5 e 2 ˣ
Solution:
dg
Given: g ( x )=5 e 2 ˣ , to find the derivative
dx
dg
=10e² ˣ
dx
3. h ( x )=ē ³ ˣ
Solution:
dh
Given: h ( x )= ē3 ˣ , to find the derivative
dx
dh
=−3 ē ³ ˣ
dx
Practice Exercise
1. Find the derivative of y=4 · 3 ˣ
2. Calculate the derivative of z ( x ) =2 ē 4 ˣ
3. Determine the derivative of w (t )=6· 5² ͭ

Derivatives of Logarithmic Functions

Given a function f ( x )=log b (x), where is the base:
1. Derivative of Natural Logarithm ( Base e )
d 1
( ln ( x ) )=
dx x
2. Derivative of Logarithm to Any Base
d 1
( logʙ ( x ) ) =
dx x·ln ( b )

Logarithmic Function: A function of the form f ( x )=logʙ ( x ) , where b is the base .

26
Derivative of Logarithmic Function: The derivative of f ( x )=logʙ ( x ) with respect to x is
' 1
f ( x )=
x·ln ( b )
Examples:

Practice Exercises
1. Find the derivative of y=lo g4 ( 5 x )
2. Calculate the derivative of z ( x ) =ln ( 2 x2 )
3. Determine the derivative of w (t )=logₑ ( 7 t )

Quiz

27
 Answer Key
Practice Exercises
dy x
1. =4 •3 • ln (3)
dx
dz −4 x
2. =−8 e
dx
dw 2t
3. =12• 5 •ln (5)
dt

Practice Exercises
dy 1
1. = ⁡
dx x • ln (4)
dz 4
2. =
dx x
dw 1
3. =
dt t

Quiz
28
 x
1. f ’ (x)=6• 4 •ln (4)
1
2. g ’ ( x )=
x • ln ( 5 )
−2 x
3. h ’( x )=−18 e
2
4. y ’ ( x )=
x
3x
5. f ’ ( x )=6 • e
1
6. g’ ( x )=
x • ln ( 1 0 )
−4 x
7. h ’(x )=−20 •2
9
8. y ’ ( x )=
x
2x
9. f ’ (x)=8 e
1
10. g ’ ( x )=
x •ln ( 3 )

29
 UNIT 6: THE ANTI-DIFFERENTIATION AND THE FUNDAMENTAL THEOREMS
OF INTEGRATION

Lesson 1. Fundamental Theorems of Integration (Basic Rule of Integration)

Integral is the opposite of derivative. The derivative of the function f (x) is

f ’ ( x ).
Given f ’ (x ) and change of x (∆ x ¿, the process of finding the value of f (x) is called
integration.

If Dx f (x)=f ’ (x), then

∫ f ' ( x ) dx=f ( x ) + c
Note: Always put +c after integrating the integrand, it represents the constant in the
function f (x) since the derivative of constant term is zero.

Let u be a function and n be integer not equal to 0. The following are basic rule of
Integration
1. The anti-derivative of 1 du is u
∫ du=u+ c
Example:
a. ∫ dx=x+ c
b. ∫ dv=v + c
c. ∫ dz=z+ c
2. Constant Rule
The anti-derivative of a constant a du is a multiply by u
∫ adu=au+c
Example:

a. ∫ 2 dx=2 x +c
1 1
b. ∫ 2 dv = 2 v +c
c. ∫ πdz=πz +c
3. Power Rule
The integral of function with a power is the function raise to the exponent
added by one all over the value of exponent plus one.
n +1
u
∫ u du= n+1
n
+c

30
 Example:
2 +1
x
a. ∫ x 2 dx= 2+ 1
3
x 1 3
¿ +c∨ x +c
3 3
π +1
z
b. ∫ z π dz=
π+1
1 π +1
¿( ) z +c
π +1

4. Sum and Difference Rule

The sum and difference rule explains the integration of sum and difference of
two or more functions is equal to the sum and difference of integral of each
function.

∫ (g ( u ) +f ( u ) )du=∫ g ( u ) du+∫ f ( u ) du+c

∫ (g ( u )−f (u ))du=∫ g (u ) du−∫ f (u ) du+c
a. ∫ ( x 2 +1 ) dx=∫ x 2 dx+∫ 1dx + c
2 +1
x
¿ +x
2+ 1
3
x
¿ + x+ c
3
b. ∫( 1 x
x ) 1
−e dx=∫ dx−∫ e x dx
x
¿ ln |x|−e +c
x

Exercise:

Directions: Integrate the following functions using the basic rule of

integration.
1. ∫ x dx
3

2. ∫ (e ¿¿ x+2 x )dx ¿
1
3. ∫ (3 x3 − x )dx
4. ∫ (x−4 −3 x +2)dx
5. ∫ (x−2)(x+ 2)dx

31
Lesson 2. Chain Rule of Antidifferentiation/Reverse Chain Rule

As a recall, one of the techniques used in finding the derivatives of

composite functions is Chain Rule. Now in integration, we are going to work
backward using the concept of chain rule from differentiation.
Dx ¿
We have a composite function above, using the chain rule, we can
actually get the derivative of the outer function then multiply that to the
derivative of the inner function, that is why we got g ’(f (x ))(f ' (x )) .

Now if the we get the integral of the result, then we’ll have

∫ g ’ ( f ( x ) )( f ' ( x ) ) dx=g ( f ( x ) ) +c
Example #1:
Evaluate the given using reverse chain rule:

∫ ( sinx )2 cosxdx
We can let g ’ ( f ( x ) ) =( sinx )
2

f ’ ( x )=cosx
It can be gleaned above that the given is in the form of g ’(f (x ))(f '(x )). We
can now easily get the value of g(f ( x )).

∫ ( sinx )2 cosxdx
( sinx )2+1
¿
2+1

( sinx )3
¿
3
1 3
¿ ( sinx ) +c
3

32
 1 3 1 3−1
Check: Dx ( ( sinx ) +c ¿= ( 3 )( sinx ) Dx(cosx )+0
3 3
2 cosx
¿( sinx)
Example #2:

∫ sin ⁡(2 x 2) 4 xdx

2
Let g ’ (f ( x))=sin(2 x )
f ’ ( x )=4 x
The integral of sinx is −cosx , we can now have
2 2
∫ sin ⁡(2 x ) 4 xdx=−cos(2 x )+ c
Check: Dx ¿
2
¿ sin( 2 x )4 x

Note: g(f (x )) is the outer function and f (x) is the inner function.

Exercise:

Directions: Integrate the following functions using reverse chain rule.

∫ ( 3 x 4 + 4 ) ( 48 x3 ) dx
3
1.

∫ 16 x ( 2 x 2 +1 ) dx
4
2.

∫ 30 x ( 3 x2−2 ) dx
4
3.

∫ 18 x 2 ( 2 x 3 +1 ) dx
4
4.

∫ 9 x 2 ( x 3−3 ) dx
4
5.

33
Lesson 3. Logarithmic and Exponential

Some functions are in logarithmic and exponential form. There integral

formulas that can be use in this kind of functions.
For Logarithmic Functions:

1. ∫ lnudu=ulnu−u+ c
Example:
a. ∫ 2 lnxdx=2 xlnx−x +c
b. ∫ xln x2 dx
2
Let u=x
du=2 xdx1/2 du=xdx

¿ ∫ lnu ( 12 du)
1
2
∫ lnudu
¿
1
¿ ulnu−u+c
2
1 2 2 2
¿ x ln x −x +c
2
1
2. ∫ du=ln |lnu|+c
ulnu
Example:
dx
a. ∫ ( 2 x ) ln ⁡(2 x)
Let u=2 x
du=2 dx
1
du=dx
2
1 1
¿∫ ( du)
ulnu 2
1 1
¿ ∫ du
2 ulnu

34
 1
¿ ln |lnu|
2
1
¿ ln |ln 2 x|+c
2

Exponential Functions:
Exponential functions are function whose base is constant and the power is a
function. In this kind of integrand, power rule is not applicable. There are formulas
used to integrate this kind of expressions.

1. ∫ eu du=eu + c
Example:
a. ∫ 2 e dx=2 e +c
x x

∫ x e x dx
2

b.
2
Let u=x
du=2 xdx
1/2 du=xdx

1
∫ eu ( 2 du)
1
¿
2
∫ u
e du
1 u
¿ e
2
1 x 2

¿ e +c
2

u
a
2. ∫ au du= lna +c
Example:
x
a. ∫ 2 x dx= ln2 2 +c
b. ∫ π x+2 dx
Let u=x+ 2
du=dx
¿ ∫ π du
u

u
π
¿
lnπ
x+2
π
¿ +c
lnπ

3. ∫ u e u du=eu ( u−1 )+ c
Example:

35
 a. ∫ x e x dx=e x ( x−1 ) +c
b. ∫ 2 x e2 x dx
Let u=2x
du=2dx
½ du= dx
u 1
¿ ∫ u e ( du)
2
1
¿ ∫ u e du
u
2
1 u
¿ e ( u−1 )
2
1 2x
¿ e ( 2 x−1 ) +c
2

Lesson 4. Inverse and Hyperbolic Trigonometric Functions

Inverse Trigonometric Functions Formula

1. ∫ sin−1 udu=usi n−1 u+√ 1−u2 +c

Example:
a. ∫ 2 sin xdx=2 ∫ sin xdx
−1 −1

¿ 2∫ sin xdx
−1

¿ xsi n−1 x+ √ 1− x2

b. ∫¿¿
1
let u=lnx du= dx
x
¿ ∫ sin ¿ ¿¿ usi n−1 u+ √ 1−u2¿ ln x sin−1 ln x+ ¿ √ 1−¿ ¿¿
−1

2. ∫ cos −1 udu=uco s−1 u−¿ √ 1−u2 +c ¿

Example:
1
a. ∫ xco s−1 ( x 2 ) dx let u=x 2du=2 x 2 du=xdx

36
 ¿ ∫ co s−1 ( u ) ( 12 du)¿ 12 (uco s
−1
u−√ 1−u
2
)
1 2
¿ ( x co s−1 x2− √1−x 4 )
2
1 2 −1 −1
¿ x cos
2 2
√ 4
1−x + c

3. ∫ tan−1 udu=uta n−1 u−ln √1−u 2+ c

Example:
a. ∫¿¿¿
1
let u=ln ( x ) du= dx
x
¿ ∫ ¿ ¿ ¿¿ uta n−1 u−ln √ 1−u2¿ lnxta n−1 lnx−ln √ 1−( lnx )2 +c

4. ∫ cot−1 udu=uco t−1 u+ ln √1+u 2+ c

Example:
1
∫ π x 2 cot−1 ( 10 x 3 ) dxlet u=10 x 3du=30 x 2 dx 30 du=x dx
2
a.

¿ π ∫ cot−1 u ( 301 du)

π
( uco t u+ ln √ 1+u )
−1 2
¿
30
π
¿ ( 10 x co t 10 x +ln √ 1+ 10 x )
3 −1 3 6
30
π 3 π
¿ x co t 10 x + ln √ 1+10 x + c
−1 3 6
3 30

5. ∫ sec−1 udu=use c−1 u−ln ⁡∨u+√ u2−1∨+c

Example:
a. ∫ x sec ( x ) dx
2 −1 3

1 2
let u=x du=3 x dx du=x dx
3 2
3
1 1 1
¿ ∫ sec udu¿ [ use c u−ln |u+ √u −1|]¿ ¿
−1 −1 2
3 3 3
1 3 1
¿ x se c x − ln|x + √ x −1|+c
−1 3 3 6
3 3

6. ∫ csc−1 udu=ucs c−1 u+ ln ⁡∨u+ √u2 −1∨+c

Example:
a. ∫ 3 csc xdx=3 ∫ csc xdx ¿ 3[ xcs c x +ln |x + √ x −1|]
−1 −1 −1 2

¿ 3 xcs c −1 x+ 3 ln |x+ √ x 2−1|+ c

37
Exercise:
Directions: Integrate the following inverse trigonometric functions.

1. ∫ xsi n−1 ( 5 x 2 ) dx
2. ∫¿¿
3. ∫ πxta n−1 x 2 dx
1
4. ∫ 2 cot−1 xdx
5. ∫ x 2 sec−1 ( x 3 ) dx

NOTE: Integration is more complicated than derivative because it has no

definite formula for composite functions, quotient, product, and other complex
expression. You need to master manipulating functions such as
rationalization, factorization, using exponential rule, trigonometric identities,
etc. to express your expression into a new form where you can apply the
basic rule of integration and the other existing formula.

38
 UNIT 7: INTEGRATION TECHNIQUES

There are techniques that is used to integrate complex composite

functions when
none of the formula given is applicable. The idea of these integration
techniques is to transform the given expressions into a new simple function
and apply the different formula in integration.

Lesson 1: Integration by Parts

Some functions are not easy to integrate specially the complex function
that contains more than one type of function. Like for instance ∫ x e dx .
6x

It composed of two functions, the algebraic and exponential functions and

even if we use substitution method, we cannot integrate the given. From
this situation, we can use Integration by parts.

The main idea of this technique is to integrate each type of function of

a complex one. It is important to remember the word “LIATE” which stands
the different type of function: Logarithmic, Inverse trigonometric and
Hyperbolic, Algebraic, Trigonometric, and Exponential functions. The first
kind of function based on “LIATE” will be the value of u, and dv for the
remaining function.

The formula of integration by parts was derived from the derivative of the
product of two functions.
Derivation of the formula:

d /dx (uv )=dv /dx (u)+ du/dx (v)

Integrate both side:
d dv du
∫ ( dx uv= dx u+ dx v )

39
 dv du
uv=∫ u +∫ v
dx dx

−∫ udv=−uv +∫ vdu

∫ udv =uv−∫ vdu

Example #1.

∫ x e 6 x dx
Base on “LIATE”, our u must be x and dv must bee 6 x
6x
Let u=x dv =e
1 6x
du=dx v= e
6
Substitute to the given formula
1 1
∫ x e 6 x =x ( 6 e6 x )−∫ 6 e6 x dx

∫ x e 6 x =x ( 16 e6 x )− 36
1 6x
e +c

or
1 1
∫ x e 6 x = 6 e6 x (x− 6 )+c

Example #2.

∫ xsin(2 x)dx
Let u=x dv =sin(2 x)
1
du=dx v= cos (2 x )+ c
2
Using the formula:
1 1
∫ xsin(2 x)dx=x ( 2 cos ( 2 x ) )−∫ 2 cos ( 2 x ) dx
1 1
∫ xsin(2 x)dx= 2 xcos (2 x)− 4 sin(2 x)
1 1
∫ xsin(2 x) dx= [xcos ( 2 x ) − ]+c
2 2 sin ( 2 x )

40
Exercise:
Directions: Evaluate the following integral using Integration by Parts.

1. ∫ ( z 2−−5 z ) e z dz
2. ∫ z 3 lnzdz
3. ∫ 3 v 2 sinvdv
4. ∫ 8 xcosxdx
5. ∫ ( n2+ 3 n ) sin 2 ndn

Lesson 2: Integral Involving Partial Fraction

The main concept of integration by partial fraction is to decompose the

algebraic fraction expression into the sum of fractions then integrate term by
term. For instance,
1 1 1
can be written as a sum of two fractions which is +
4x x 4

There are four cases of decomposing fraction expressions

Case 1: The denominator is linear factor and is not repeated.
Example #1.
2
∫ ( z +1)(z +3) dz
2 A B
= +
( z +1)(z+3) z+ 1 z+3
2 A B
( z +1 ) ( z +3 ) [ = + ]
( z+ 1 )( z +3 ) z+ 1 z+3
2= A ( z +3 )+ B(z +1)
Let :
 z +3=0
z=−3
 z +1=0

41
 z=−1
 Solve for B, let z=−3 :
2= A (−3+ 3 ) +B (−3+1)
2=−2 B B=−1
 Solve for A, let z=-1

2= A (−1+3 )+ B (−1+1)
2=2 A
A=1
A B
 Substitute the value of A and B to +
z+1 z+3
1 −1
+
z+1 z+3
 Integrate term by term

1 −1
∫ z +1 dz +¿ ∫ z +3 dz ¿
¿ ln ∨z+ 1∨−ln∨z +3∨+ c

Case 2: The denominator is linear factor and repeated.

1
∫ ( x−1 )2 dx
1 A B
= +
( x−1 ) (x−1) ( x−1 )2
2

1 A B
( x−1 )2 [ = + ]
( x−1 ) ( x−1 ) ( x−1 )2
2

1= A (x−1)+ B
 Let x−1=0→ x=1

1= A (1−1)+B
1=B
 Let B=1 , x=0

1= A (0−1)+1
1=− A
A=−1
 Substitute A and B:

42
 −1 1
+
( x−1 ) ( x−1 )2
 Integrate each term
−1 1
∫ ( x−1 ) dx+∫ ( x−1 )2 dx
−1
¿−ln∨x−1∨ +c
x−1

Lesson 3: Integration of Algebraic Function by Trigonometric

Substitution

Another technique of integration is by Trigonometric Substitution.

Formula:

1. √ a2−x 2=asinθ
2. √ a2 + x 2=atanθ
3. √ x 2−a2=asecθ

Example #1.
1
∫ dn
√ 4 +n2
The given algebraic function is similar the formula number 2. And we can rewrite it
into

∫ √ 22 +n2 dn

 Let a=2 n=2tanθ

2
u=n f ' (n)=2 se c θ dθ

43
  Substitute the value of n and multiply the expression with 2 se c 2 θ .

∫ 1 / √22 +32 n2 dn
¿ ∫ [1 ¿ ¿ √ 2 + ( 2tanθ ) ](2 se c θdθ)¿
2 2 2

¿ ∫ [1 ¿ ¿ √ 4 +4 tan2 θ](2 se c 2 θdθ)¿

¿∫ ¿ ¿

¿ ∫ [1/(2 √ sec 2 θ ¿ )](2 se c 2 θdθ)¿

¿ ∫ ¿ ¿¿ ∫ secθdθ

¿ ln |secθ+ tanθ|+ c

√ 4 +n2
n

n
tanθ=
2

secθ= √
4+n2
2
¿ ln |secθ+ tanθ|+ c

¿ ln | √ 4+ n2 + n +c
2 2 |

Example #2.

∫ √1−x 2 dx
 Let a=1 x=1 sinθ
u=(x ) dx=cosθdθ
 Substitute the value of x and multiply the expression with the
derivative of x to change the function into in terms of theta.
∫ √1−x 2 dx
44
 ¿ ∫ √ 1−( sinθ)2 (cosθdθ)

¿ ∫ √ 1−sin2 θ(cosθdθ)

¿ ∫ √ cos2 θ(cosθdθ)

¿ ∫ cos θ (cosθ)dθ

¿ ∫ cos θdθ
2

1 1
¿ θ+ sin 2 θ+c
2 4
1 1
¿ θ+ ( 2 sinθcosθ )+ c
2 4
1 1
¿ θ+ sinθcosθ+ c
2 2
 Turn the result to in terms of x using Pythagorean identities.

1
x x=sinθ
θ
√ 1−x 2

cosθ= √
1−x 2

x
 sinθ=x
−1 −1
sin (¿ sinθ)=sin (¿ x)¿ ¿
−1
θ=sin (¿ x )¿
 Substitute the value of theta and trigonometric functions
1 1
¿ θ+ sinθcosθ+ c
2 2

¿ sin−1 (¿ x )+ (x )( √
1 1 1−x 2
)+c ¿
2 2 x
1 −1 1
¿ sin (¿ x )+ √ 1−x + c ¿
2
2 2

45
 UNIT 8: THE APPLICATION OF ANTI-DIFFERENTIATION

Lesson 1: Area of Plane Region

Definite integral is used to calculate the approximate area of region bounded

by curves. Main idea of this concept is to put infinitely many rectangles inside the
region then calculate each area and sum them up.

f (x)

g(x )
a
a dx b

46
The area formula for rectangle is A=lw .

From the illustration above, the length of each rectangle is f (x)−g ( x). Since
we are approximating the area, our width is approaching closer to zero but not equal
to zero. In derivatives, we can the rewrite the value of w as ∆ x or dx . There is also
what we call boundaries, it is the boundaries of the region that we want to calculate.
In the illustration, a and b is the boundary of the region. And integral is just same with
summation. From here, we can derive a formula to calculate the area of the given
region.

l=f ( x ) −g ( x )
w=dx
Formula:
A=lw
b
A=∫ [¿ f ( x )−g ( x ) ]dx ¿
a

There are two cases in calculating the area of a region bounded by two curves.
A. Case 1. Upper Function minus Lower Function

Let f(x) and g(x) be continuous functions over an interval [a,b] such that
f(x)≥g(x) on [a,b] . We want to find the area between the graphs of the functions,
as shown in figure below

b
A=∫ [f (x)−g (x)]dx
a
Note: Upper function is 𝑓(𝑥) while the lower function is 𝑔(𝑥).

B. Case 2: Right-most Curve minus Left-most Curve

Let f(y) and g(y) be continuous curves over an interval [c,d] such that f(y)≥g(y)
on [c,d] . We want to find the area between the graphs of the functions, as

47
 shown in figure below

Source: http://bitly.ws/rXKQ

d
A=∫ [f ( y)−g ( y )]dy
c

Note: Right-most curve 𝑓(𝑦) and a Left-most curve is 𝑔(𝑦). Also, the term “curve” was
used here in case 2 instead of a “function” because sum equations are not functions.

Example #1: Determine the area below 𝑓(𝑥)=3+2𝑥−𝑥2 and above the x-axis.

Graph

Since we weren’t given any limits on x in the problem statement, we’ll need to get those. We
can just equate the two functions then solve for x.
2
3+2 x−x =0
−(x+1)( x−3)=0
x=−1 , x=3
The area is:

48
 [ ][ ]
3
1 3 1 32
A=∫ 3+2 x−x dx A= 3 ( 3 ) + ( 3 ) − (3 ) − 3 (−3 )+ (−3 ) − (−3 ) A= sq . units
2 2 2 3

−1
3 3 3

Example #2: Determine the area to the left of g ( y )=3− y 2 and to the right of x=−1.

Graph

Since we weren’t given any limits on y in the problem statement, we’ll need to get
those.
2 2
3− y =−1 − y =−4
2
y =4
y=2, y=−2

The area is,

[ ][ ]
2 2
1 3 1
A=∫ [ ( 3− y )−(−1 ) ] dy A=∫ 3− y +1 dy A= 3 ( 2 )− ( 2 ) +2 − 3 (−2 )− (−2 ) −2
2 2 3

−2 −2
3 3
32
A= sq . units
3
Exercise:
Directions: Calculate the area of a region bounded by the following curves.

x= y − y−6 and x=2 y +4

2
1.
2
2. y=x +2, y=sin(x), x=−1 and x=2
2 2
3. x=3+ y , x=2− y , y=1∧ y=−2 .
4. 𝑓(𝑥)= 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥 and 𝑔(𝑥)=cos𝑥 over the interval [0,𝜋].
2
5. y=4 x +3 , y=6−x−2 x , x=−4∧x=2.

Lesson 2: Volumes of Solid

Another application of integration is calculating the volume of a solid revolution

generated by curves.
There are methods used in calculating the volume of solid revolution depending on
the kind of solid generated.

49
 1. Disk Method
This method is use when the solid has no shallow hole in the middle.
The formula of this method is derived from the volume formula of cylinder.

If we create a rectangle perpendicular to the x axis and revolve it 360 around

the y=0, we’ll have a cylinder. Same concept in the area, we are going to calculate
the volume of each cylinder then sum them up to solve the volume of the solid
revolution.
Volume formula of a Cylinder:
2
V =π r h; r =f ( x )−g( x ), h=dx
Volume:
b
V =∫ π [f (x)−g (x)]dx
a

Note: a and b are boundaries of the solid revolution that we are going to calculate.

1. Example #1:

Calculate the solid revolution generated by y=−6 x2 +1, x=−0.25 , x=0.25 ,

and revolved around the x-axis.
Graph:

50
 2
y=−6 x +1 Area of resolution: y=0
Boundaries: a=−0.25 ; b=0.25
Formula: r =Upper Function – Lower Function
b
V =∫ π r dx
2

Solution:
0.25
V= ∫ 10(−6 x +2) dx
2 2

−0.25

0.25

∫
2
u ( 36 x + 2 ) dx
2
V=
−0.25

0.25
V =18 ∫ ( 36 x 4−24 x2 + 4 ) dx
−0.25

[ ]
0.25
36 5
V =π x −8 x 3 + 4 x
5 − 0.25

V =¿
π
[ 36
5
(0.25)5 −8 ( 0.25 )3 +4 (0.25) −π
36
5 ] [
(−0.25)5−8 (−0.25 )3 +4 (−0.25)
]
V =¿
1129π −1129 π
1280
-
1280 [ ]
1129
V= π ≈ 5.54 cubic inches
640

2. Washer Method
This method is use when the solid revolution generated by curves has a
shallow hole at the center.

Example: f (x)=√ x , g(x )=1 , a=1 , b=4 , and the axis of revolution x−axis

51
 b
The formula for washer method is V =∫ π (r 2−r 1 )dx
2 2

a
Substitute the given to the formula.
4
V =∫ π ¿ dx
1
4
V =∫ π (x −1)dx
1
4
V =π ∫ (x −1)dx
1

[ ]
4
1 2
V =π x −x
2 1

[
1
V =π ( 4 )2−4 −π −1
2
1
2 ] [ ]
9
V = π cubic inches
2

52