Optimising Geopolymers for Carbon Capture

Case for Support - Programme of work

Investigator: Vincent Cutler

1. Background
Geopolymers are inorganic, amorphous networks of covalently bonded polymers formed by
these combination of an alkaline solution with a solid aluminosilicate source, such as calcined clay.
The term was first used to describe materials synthesised by the alkali activation of calcined clays
in the 1970s by Davidovits [1]. The properties of geopolymers make them a topic of interest in a
number of fields, and current applications include heat and fire resistant coatings, bio-technology
and as an alternative binder to portland cement in low-
carbon concretes [2]. include high compressive strength,
low shrinkage, fast or slow setting, acid and corrosion
resistance, fire resistance, and low thermal conductivity
depending on raw material selection and processing
conditions [3]. They can be synthesised using industrial
waste products as precursors, such as fly ash or ground
granulated blast-furnace slag (GGBS), making them an
environmentally low-impact material. The majority of
research on geopolymers is primarily focussed on its
potential in the construction and medicine industries, and
in recent years there has been a influx of studies gaining
looking into their micro-structural properties and how they
can be altered and change the behaviour of the material
[4]. Figure 1: Geopolymer Cement Components [2]

One such novel method recently developed for controlling the microstructure is the use of
sol-gel technology. The sol-gel process is a wet chemical process developed in the 1930’s for the
production of silica polymers. The use and effects of silica as an admixture or additive for both
OPC and geopolymer based concretes is well documented. This additive most commonly comes in
the form of silica fume, a form of micro-silica, which has been shown to strengthen geopolymer
cements through both the filler effect creating a denser material and by providing more reactive
material for hardening [5]. However, unlike silica fume, sol-gel silica forms a network of polymer
chains which not only provide reactive material for geopolymerisation, but can act as a template
from which to influence the structural organisation of geopolymers [6]. The sol-gel process is a
combination of hydrolysis and condensation and implies the creation of ‘sol’ or colloidal solution
followed by the generation of a ‘gel’ network. Unlike geopolymerisation, the sol-gel process is well
understood and easily controllable. It has been shown that the addition of a sol-gel to a
geopolymer binder can alter the porosity of a geopolymer cement, increasing the total surface area
of pores within the material [6]. Many of the properties found in geopolymers indicate they would
perform well as a physical CO2 adsorbent. These include its high abrasion resistance, stability
under large temperature and pressure swings, its intricate pore networks and its relative ease of
manufacture. This makes geopolymers a good candidate for use in carbon capture and storage
technologies.

‘Carbon Capture and Storage’ (CCS) is the process of capturing carbon dioxide (CO2) from
a large localised source and then storing it with the aim of preventing its release into the
atmosphere. Current systems typically follow a three step process:
• Capture CO2 from large localised sources such as fossil fuel plants and other industrial sources
• Transport CO2 though pipelines to storage site
• Store CO2 in underground geological sites such as deep saline formations or depleted oil and
gas fields [7]
This process is considered post-combustion capture, and is the most widely explored in research
as it is possible to retrofit existing power plants with this technology. The separation of CO2 from
the air or flue gas can be achieved through absorption, adsorption, or membrane gas capture.
Selective absorption of CO2 using aqueous amine solutions as a solvent is currently the most
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mature and market dominant technology. CO2 reacts with the amines - derivatives of ammonia, in
the solution, and thus is dissolved in the liquid. This solution can then be ‘scrubbed’, removing the
CO2 from the amines to then be stored. The amine solution can then be reused. However, this
process is highly energy intensive and faces problems with corrosion and solvent degradation,
reducing its viability for long-term industrial applications. In recent years, significant research has
therefore gone into the use of novel materials such as synthetic zeolites, Metal-Organic
Frameworks (MOFs), and Solid Amine Adsorbents (SAAs) for adsorption capture technology.

Adsorption is defined as the adhesion of atoms or molecules to the surface of a material,

and is a surface phenomenon due to a materials surface energy. This is utilised in CCS
technologies by first allowing the chosen adsorbent to collect CO2 on its surface. When the
material is saturated, CO2 can then be desorbed using a large pressure or temperature swing and
collected. Adsorption can be divided into two categories; (i) physisorption and (ii) chemisorption.
Physisorption occurs when molecules adhere to the surface of a material due to Van de Waals
forces, and in chemisorption the sorbent and adhering molecule form a new chemical bond.
Synthetic zeolites (crystalline aluminosilicate networks) are physical adsorbents and have been
shown to have an adsorption capacity of up to 4.0mmol/g at 1-bar pressure [8]. SAAs utilise both
physical and chemical adsorption, and some such as amine-mesoporous silica have exhibited
capacities of 2.6mmol/g [9]. However, large scale synthesis of these materials is currently not
possible or viable.

The two key properties for an adsorbent for CCS purposes are a high ‘capacity’ or surface
area (porosity) and strong ‘selectivity' for CO2 [10]. Selectivity refers to a materials propensity to
adsorb CO2 over other gases, and is determined by the materials surface energy. It is normally
measured as the ratio of CO2 adsorbed to N2 adsorbed in a 50/50 air stream of CO2/N2.
Geopolymers have the potential to provide these desired properties, with studies showing some
mixes adsorbing up to 0.62mmol/g at 1-bar with a CO2 selectivity of 170 [11]. In comparison, the
previously mentioned zeolite and SAA showed CO2 selectivities of 71 and 308 respectively.
Although overall they are currently outperformed by more established adsorbents, the comparative
ease of geopolymer manufacturer and the environmental credentials of the required materials for
synthesis makes them a viable material for the large scale implementation of CCS systems.

Sol-Gel technology has been chosen as an ‘optimisation tool’ as it is a well understood and
finely tuneable process which can produce materials, particularly silicas, with controlled properties.
The objective is to develop a sol-gel procedure that improves the CO2 capture performance of a
geopolymer adsorbent. This can be achieved in two ways: (i) Physically, by increasing the pore
surface area to maximise CO2 capacity; and (ii) chemically, by providing compounds that react with
CO2 to increase the CO2 selectivity of the material. In regards to physical improvements, previous
work has already shown the material properties geopolymer mixes, such as porosity and
compressive strength, can be controlled with small additions (3~5wt% geopolymer precursor) of
silica based sol-gels [6].

The synthesis of hybrid organic-inorganic epoxy-amine based sol-gels have been well
explored and understood [12]. Direct synthesis of SAAs using hybrid organic-inorganic sol-gel
technology has been explored to some extent, but once again the scaling of such processes is
proving unrealistic for commercial use [10]. However, as small additions of silica sol-gels have
been shown to impart some of their properties to geopolymers, the addition of such hybrid organic-
inorganic epoxy-amines could provide the desired chemical properties to further improve the CO2
selectivity of geopolymers. This would mean sol-gels have the potential to improve the adsorbent
capacity of geopolymers both physically and chemically.

2. National Importance
Although there has been a steady decline in coal burning power plants in the UK [13], CCS
still presents itself as an appealing option for combatting climate change and mitigating CO2
emissions. Energy production still accounts for 26% of CO2 emissions in the UK [13], and with the
governments plans to ban petrol and diesel cars by 2040, this proportion and demand is likely to
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increase further, and it is unlikely this can be covered by an increase in renewables alone. With
the introduction of the Climate Change Act 2008, the UK is legally bound to reduce emissions by
80% by 2050. Successful large scale implementation of CCS could provide part of the solution to
reduce emissions whilst increasing energy output. If used in conjunction with biofuels, a truly
carbon neutral or even carbon negative system may be possible [10]. The current major obstacle in
CCS technology is difficulty scaling the technology to a significant level [10]. The required materials
for the synthesis of geopolymers are abundant and could therefore provide the solution enabling
the large scale implementation of post-combustion adsorbents on power-plants and factories
across the country.

3. Academic Impact
The Centre for Sustainable Chemical Technologies (CSCT) is a research centre based at
the University of Bath. It brings international industrial and academic partners together with
expertise across departments including, but not limited, to chemistry, biochemistry, chemical
engineering, mechanical engineering and physics. The CSCT conducts internationally leading
research and has significant experience in the synthesis of CO2 sorbents such as zeolites and
MOFs. This project proposal will strengthen the centres existing relationships through knowledge
sharing and will provide information on a material more traditionally explored by the construction
industry as a sustainable concrete.
The BRE (Building Research Establishment) Centre for Innovative Construction Materials
(BRE CICM) is a joint collaborative partnership between BRE and the Faculty of Engineering &
Design at the University. BRE CICM conducts internationally leading research in innovative and
sustainable construction materials alongside both national and international partners. Both
geopolymers and sol-gels are topics of great interest at the centre, and this project proposal will
not only provide a significant quantity of detailed data on the structural characteristics of both, but
will also detail a relationship between sol-gel additives and the morphology of resulting
geopolymers. This information will prove valuable for the development of novel, low-carbon
concretes and cements.
The Research Councils UK (RCUK) Energy Programme has recognised CCS as a
significant research area in the energy landscape, and is currently funding the UK Carbon Capture
and Storage Research Centre (UKCCSRC). This network of expertise brought together by the
RCUK Energy Programme, EPSRC, and UKCCSRC will be exploited as far as possible as a
valuable resource to ensure that any collaborations during or after the project will be fully realised.

4. Programme and Methodology

This proposal aims to develop a geopolymer based adsorbent suitable and adaptable for
the large scale application and implementation of CCS technology. Project objectives will be met
through 5 Work Packages (WP), with each package acting as the foundations for following
packages. This method of work will also allow for clear monitoring of progression:

- WP1: Prepare and evaluate multiple geopolymer mixes and determine optimum baseline
carbon capture performance
- *WP2: Develop Sol-Gel exhibiting desirable physical and/or chemical properties for
carbon capture
- *WP3: Investigate effects of developed Sol-Gels on the physical and chemical properties
of the baseline geopolymer. Return to WP2 to refine development.
- WP4: Development of the Open-source Database on Carbon Adsorbents - ‘ODaCAd’
- WP5: Preliminary CCS scheme design proposal utilising optimised geopolymer for
industrial application

In the first instance, WP1 will lay the foundation needed to establish geopolymers as a genuine
contender for use in CCS technologies, and act as a potential baseline from which different
avenues of optimisation research may proceed. WP2 and WP3 can be considered an iterative
work procedure, with findings from WP3 providing the required information to refine the
process developed in WP2. In the latter stages of the project the WPs pivot from small scale
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testing and optimisation, to analysing the potential and providing solutions on an industrial scale.
This will provide a blueprint for future development and identify areas for following on funding and
commercial applications.

- WP1: Preparing and evaluating multiple geopolymer mixes and determining optimum
baseline performance
Geopolymers are formed by the reaction of a solid aluminosilicate with an aqueous alkali
solution. The physical/structural properties of geopolymers depend greatly on the aluminosilicate
source (Al/Si ratio), temperature of curing, water content, and the dilution proportions [4].
Geopolymers will be synthesised from both high purity metakaolin and industrial fly ash.
Characteristics such as morphology and mechanical properties will be changed through control of
dilution proportion and temperature.

INITIAL SPECIMEN CHARACTERISATION

Electron optical techniques including will be employed to analyse morphological and micro-
structural features. Transmission Electron Microscopy (TEM) will be employed to examine micro-
structure and Field Emission Scanning Electron Microscopy (FESEM) to visually examine and
confirm structural organisation. Specimens will be characterised through the use of Fourier
transform infra-red (FTIR) spectroscopy. Specific surface area and pore size distributions below
100nm of monolith samples will then be calculated by the Brunauer–Emmett–Teller (BET) method,
by means of nitrogen adsorption at 77 K. Pore size distribution between 0.0058-100µm will be
determined using Mercury Intrusion Porosimetry (MIP).

GAS ADSORPTION TESTING PROCEDURE

To determine specimen CO2 adsorption capacity and selectivity, both kinetic batch and
dynamic CO2 adsorption tests will be carried out a different temperatures and pressures. The
kinetic batch adsorption test will be completed using a glass manometric adsorption device and
pure CO2 with multiple runs complete at different initial pressures rising up to 1bar to develop a
detailed isotherm. Static CO2 chemisorption tests will also be completed to determine if any
irreversible chemisorption occurs. Specimens will be degassed in vacuum prior to testing.
Dynamic tests simulating flue gas conditions will be completed in a purpose built lab-scale
fixed-bed adsorption column using a mixture of CO2 and N2. Gas flow rates will be controlled by
two mass controllers, providing control over CO2 concentration. Tests will be carried out by feeding
the column, charged with a fixed adsorbent amount, with a constant gas stream of N2 + CO2 at a
fixed temperature and pressure (293K, 1atm). A non-dispersive infra-red (NDIR) gas analyser will
then be utilised to determine CO2 concentration of the outlet gas, and the adsorption isotherm can
then be determined through the material balance of CO2. Adsorption capacity can then be
confirmed by removing CO2 inlet and providing pure N2 as a desorbing agent and continuing to
monitor CO2 outlet concentrations and confirm values with findings from the static chemisorption
test. Specimens will undergo multiple adsorption/desorption cycles to determine potential capacity
degradation.

WORK PACKAGE COMPLETION

Performance of design mixes will then be analysed and compared, and a peak geopolymer
baseline performance will be determined. Data will be compared to existing literature to confirm
desirable characteristics such as high pore surface area or determine any unusual findings. A
minimum of one pure metakaolin and one industrial fly ash mix will then be selected for further
optimisation. Results will also be preliminarily compared to existing technologies to assess the
desired level of improvement.

- *WP2: Developing Sol-Gel exhibiting desirable properties for carbon capture

In the first instance of WP2, both inorganic and hybrid organic-inorganic sol-gel silicas will
be synthesised for testing. Synthesised silica characteristics such as morphology will be changed
through control of temperature, catalysts, and precursor. The initial precursors to be tested will be
Tetraethyl-orthosilicate (TEOS) (inorganic) and 3-Glycidyloxypropyltrimethoxysilane (GPTMS)
(hybrid organic-inorganic). All sol-gels will be base-catalysed to ensure compatibility with
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geopolymers. Specimens will be cured to full gelation and subsequently dried and ground prior to
testing. Specific surface area of powder samples will then be calculated by the Brunauer–Emmett–
Teller (BET) method, by means of nitrogen adsorption at 77 K. A static chemisorption test will also
be completed to determine chemical CO2 adsorption capacity of the hybrid organic-inorganic
specimen compared to the inorganic specimen. WP2 is part of an iterative process refining sol-gel
properties, and as such a detailed database of properties for different sol-gels will be produced
and added to upon each iteration.

- *WP3: Investigating the effects of Sol-Gels on the physical and chemical properties of the
baseline geopolymer. Return to WP2 to refine development.

Promising sol-gels will be used as an admixture to the chosen geopolymer mixes. Both
inorganic and hybrid organic-inorganic sol-gels will be tested, as this will help determine the
magnitude of added chemical effects from hybrid organic-inorganic specimens. Variables
controlled will include weight added by mass and gelation times of chosen sol-gels. Care must be
taken at this stage to ensure temperature compatibility between the selected geopolymer and sol-
gel mix. Samples will then undergo the same testing procedure outlined in WP1. Results will then
be compared to the baseline performance to determine:
• The effects of the sol-gel on the physical and chemical properties of the geopolymer
• The carbon capture performance of the novel geopolymer mix
• A relationship between sol-gel admixture, physical and chemical properties, and carbon capture
performance

As previously stated, WP2 and WP3 are iterative, but as the project is focussed on optimisation,
each cycle of these WP’s will be progressively more refined and have fewer samples to test.

- WP4: Development of the Open-source Database on Carbon Adsorbents - ‘ODaCAd’

Whereas WP1, WP2, and WP3 are primarily data gathering and experimentation, WP4 can
be considered a more focussed analytical exercise. At this stage of the project, enough data will
have been obtained to critically compare the performance of different geopolymer/sol-gel mixes to
each other and to existing alternative technologies. Viability for large scale production will be
determined and compared based on a metric considering CO2 capture capacity and selectivity at
appropriate temperatures and pressures, durability of the material, ease of manufacture, cost of
production, and a cradle to grave life cycle assessment. Findings will then be compiled into the
Open-source Database on Carbon Adsorbents, or ‘ODaCAd’. ODaCAd will provide a useful
standard from which to compare CCS sorbent technologies and its open-source nature will
encourage the incorporation of further results from other novel technologies. This is a key WP in
regards to dissemination of results, and once completed will be the primary resource for the
publication to relevant journals for PDRA’s and the means of presentation of the wider findings of
the project.

- WP5: Preliminary CCS scheme proposal utilising optimised geopolymer for industrial
application

The objective of the final WP will be to act as a stepping stone from an academic
endeavour to a commercially viable CCS solution. With the input of industry expertise from power
generation companies and the UKCCSRC, a preliminary scheme for a CCS system utilising the
proposed geopolymer solution will be designed. As the primary project objective is to develop a
genuine and viable sorbent, WP5 is a key final package for the completion of this objective. In
combination with WP4, it will also leave a clear pathway to further progression of this project in
future.

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5. Summary

The novelty of this proposal is demonstrated in its cross-disciplinary nature. Communication

between researchers in departments across CSCT will enhance output, increase accuracy, and
provide a significant body of data for both fields thereby maintaining continuos relevance. The
introduction of an in-house rigorous testing regime and equipment for carbon capture performance
will allow for the continuing development and analyses of novel solid sorbents. The focus on
Geopolymers with and without added Sol-Gel contents will not only provide an important set of
data for carbon capture behaviour, but will also provide in-depth analysis of the potential large
scale implementation of CCS to which all new and existing solutions will have to compare to. The
compilation of wider findings into ODaCAd will provide avenues for future development of this and
other projects and will provide a valuable resource for academics and industry alike.

6. Programme of work and project management

A three year project will be necessary to develop a significant body of work from which to
base and refine a model of the relationship between geopolymer mixes, added sol-gels, and
carbon capture potential. Post-Doctoral Research Assistants (PDRAs) from both the Civil and
Chemical Engineering departments will work across and within both departments. Meetings
between PDRAs and the project supervisor (Cutler) will be held on a fortnightly basis. Formal
meetings with project partners at UKCCSRC will take place every 6 months.

7. Dissemination and Exploitation

The University of Bath has well established avenues for the dissemination and exploitation
of results arising from research. As the project objective is ultimately to develop a commercially
viable CCS scheme, a dedicated staff member from Enterprise@Bath, which is responsible for the
the protection and commercial exploitation of research findings, will be available for the latter
stages of the project. An agreement will be reached and signed between all collaborating partners
protecting the interests of involved parties prior to commencement of the project. Wider findings
from the project will be both reported with the intention of publication in appropriate journals by
PDRAs, and collated in ODaCAd.

References
[1] Davidovits, J., 1991. Geopolymers. J. of Thermal Analysis, 37(8), pp. 1633-1656.
[2] Davidovits, J., 2008. Geopolymer chemistry and Applications. Saint-Quentin: Institut Geopolymere.
[3] Duxson, P. et al., 2007. The effect of alkali and Si/Al ratio on the development of mechanical properties. Colloids and
Surface A, 292(1), pp. 8-20.
[4] Duxson, P. et al., 2005. Understanding the relationship between geopolymer composition, microstructure, and
mechanical properties. Colloids and Surfaces A, Volume 269, pp. 47-58.
[5] Detwiler, R. J. & Mehta, P. K., 1989. Chemical and physical effects of silica fume on the mechanical behaviour of
concrete.. Materials, 86(6), pp. 609-614.
[6] Cutler, V, Controlling the porosity of Geopolymers using Sol-Gel technology. (2018). Masters. University of Bath.
[7] Carbon Capture and Storage Association (2018) What is CCS?, Available at: http://www.ccsassociation.org/what-is-
ccs/ (Accessed: 19th April 2018).
[8] Cavenati et al., 2004, Adsorption equilibrium of methane, carbon dioxide, and nitrogen on zeolite 13X at high
pressures, J. Chem. Eng. Data, 49 (2004), pp. 1095-1101
[9] Belmabkhout et al., 2010, Adsorption of CO2-containing gas mixtures over amine-bearing pore-expanded MCM-41
silica: application for gas purification
Ind. Eng. Chem. Res., 49, pp. 359-365
[10] Sanz-Perez et al., 2016, Direct Capture of CO2 from Ambient Air, Chem. Rev. 2016, 116, 11840−11876 [11] Minelli
et al., 2013, Vapor and liquid sorption in matrimid polyimide: experimental characterization and modeling, Ind. Eng.
Chem. Res., 52 (2013), pp. 8936-8945
[12] Innocenzi, P. et al., 2009. Sol-gel reactions of 3-glycidoxypropyltrimethoxysilane in a highly basic solution. Dalton
Trans., Issue 42, pp. 9146-9152.
[13] Department of Business, Energy, and Industrial Strategy, 2017, UPDATED ENERGY AND EMISSIONS
PROJECTIONS 2017

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 PATHWAYS TO IMPACT

Optimising Geopolymers for Carbon Capture

Investigator: Vincent Cutler

Impact and Beneficiaries

As outlined in the ‘Case for Support’, this ambitious, cross-disciplinary project aims to: 1)
develop a geopolymer optimised using sol-gel technology for use in carbon capture and storage
technologies; and 2) develop an open-source database and testing procedure for the purpose of
standardising the comparison of novel carbon capture adsorbents focussed on commercial
viability. This is expected to bring short/medium and long term benefits for both academia and
industry on a national and international level.

Academia
In the short/medium (up to 5 years) term, the project is expected to provide valuable data
for both chemical and civil engineers. Geopolymers are a key research area for low carbon
cements and concretes. Despite showing favourable properties compared to Ordinary Portland
Cement (OPC), it is still not widely used due to the greater understanding and body of research
behind OPC based concretes. Research increasing the understanding of geopolymers and their
properties is therefore valuable and the information gathered for different geopolymer/sol-gel mixes
will provide potential starting points for the optimisation of geopolymers for other purposes, such as
for high strength, low carbon concretes. The geopolymerisation process is still not fully understood,
and the data gathered on the sol-gel/geopolymer interactions will benefit both inorganic chemists
and chemical engineers in academia.

UK Industry
The wider, longer term benefits will be realised over 5-10 years and beyond. Carbon
Capture technology has been recognised by Research Councils UK (RCUK) as a key research
landscape for the UK energy sector, and is currently funding the UK Carbon capture and Storage
Research Centre (UKCCSRC). The development of a viable carbon capture material and
associated system will benefit the UK energy sector both directly by providing a blueprint from
which to design carbon capture retrofit solutions, and indirectly through the creation of the Open-
source Database on Carbon Adsorbents (ODaCAd) and the standardisation of testing from which
the industry can reliably compare potential novel carbon capture materials and solutions. This will
benefit all industries with localised CO2 emissions, but will likely benefit the biofuels industry
greatest, as the implementation of carbon capture will push the technology to be carbon neutral or
even carbon negative. These measures should also contribute directly to the UK meeting its
emissions target under the 2008 Climate Change Act.

Dissemination and Public Engagement

Dissemination of the data gathered during the project will maximise the impact of advances
made as much of the work is iterative. Findings from the project will be for presentation at events
organised by the UKCCSRC such as the CO2GeoNet Open Forum and associated workshops.
Data can also be presented at appropriate construction materials events and conferences such as
the Annual IOM3 Cement and Concrete Science conference. Wider findings and results can be
published in a range of journals, such as the Journal of Materials Chemistry, Journal of Materials
Chemistry, Journal of Physical Chemistry and Cement and Concrete Research.

The large amount of publishable data gathered in ODaCAd will provide a valuable resource for
both the in-house academics and external researchers. Post-Doctoral Research Assistants
(PDRA’s) will gain valuable experience in producing work for journal publication, and in the latter
stages of the proxies will be able to organise and lead workshops with assistance from the
investigator (Cutler). PDRA’s and other young academics working on the project will also be able to
benefit from the UKCCSRS Early Career Researchers (ECR) fund, which supports young
researchers working on potential CCS solutions.

The Open-source Database on Carbon Adsorbents - ODaCAd

Much of the success of the project in terms of dissemination, exploitation, and the future
development of the project rely on the success of ODaCAd. The success of ODaCAD in turn rests
on the quality and quantity of data gathered within the project, but also the willingness of other
institutions to contribute to its total output. For large quantities of data to be valuable, it is important
that testing and reporting procedure are as standardised as far as appropriate. A key early
objective of the project is to work alongside the UKCCSRC, the Centre of Sustainable Chemical
Technologies (CSCT), and other institutions to further develop a suitable testing and reporting
procedure that can be easily replicated and followed by other institutions. This will encourage both
the use of and contribution to ODaCAd.

The database also requires ease of use and transparency if it is to be widely adopted. For
this reason, it has been decided to follow an open-source approach to the software and associated
data. This means the initial development of the user-interface or other features can be simple and
optimised for visual/comparative purposes, but allows for further development of the database to
include more complex features such as performance simulation of materials both for the duration of
the project and beyond. These updates would be able to be complete in-house and externally by
users, and would keep ODaCAd relevant and adaptable for future use even after the duration of
the project.