Network Theorems

Network Theorems: Introduction

▪ A disadvantage of using Kirchoff’s Laws is that, for a
large, complex circuit, tedious computation is
involved.
▪ Network theorems are used to reduce a complex
circuit to a simpler one, thereby making circuit
analysis much simpler.
▪ The theorems that are most useful in analysing
networks are the superposition, Thévenin, Norton,
and maximum power transfer theorems.
▪ Since these theorems are applicable to linear circuits,
we first discuss the concept of circuit linearity.
 Linearity Property
• Linearity is the property of an element describing
a linear relationship between cause and effect.
• The property is a combination of both the
homogeneity (scaling) property and the
additivity property.
• The homogeneity property requires that if the
input (also called the excitation) is multiplied by a
constant, then the output (also called the
response) is multiplied by the same constant.
 Linearity Property
For a resistor, for example, Ohm’s law relates the input
𝑖 to the output 𝑣,
𝑣 = 𝑅𝑖
If the current is increased by a constant 𝐾, then the
voltage increases correspondingly by 𝐾; that is,
𝐾𝑖𝑅 = 𝐾𝑣
The additivity property requires that the response to a
sum of inputs is the sum of the responses to each
input applied separately.
Using the voltage-current relationship of a resistor, if
𝑣1 = 𝑅𝑖1 and 𝑣2 = 𝑅𝑖2
 Linearity Property
Applying 𝑖1 + 𝑖2 gives,
𝑣 = 𝑖1 + 𝑖2 𝑅 = 𝑖1 𝑅 + 𝑖2 𝑅 = 𝑣1 + 𝑣2
Therefore, we say that a resistor is a linear element
because the voltage-current relationship satisfies both
the homogeneity and the additivity properties.
In general, a circuit is linear if it satisfies both additive
and homogeneous properties.
A linear circuit is one whose output is linearly related
(or directly proportional) to its input
A linear circuit consists of only linear elements, linear
dependent sources, and independent sources.
 Linear Property
Note that since (making it a quadratic
function rather than a linear one), the relationship
between power and voltage (or current) is nonlinear.
Therefore, the theorems covered in this chapter are
not applicable to power.
• For the circuit shown here., check if it satisfies linear
property with 𝑣0 as output. Find 𝑣0 when is=15 and
is=30 A.
For the circuit shown in Figure, find Io when Vs=12 V and
Vs=24 V.
 Superposition Theorem
If a circuit has two or more independent sources,
one way to determine the value of a specific
variable (voltage or current) is to use nodal or mesh
analysis.
Another way is to determine the contribution of
each independent source to the variable and then
add them up. This approach is known as the
superposition.
The idea of superposition rests on the linearity
property.
 Superposition Theorem
• The superposition principle states that the voltage
across (or current through) an element in a linear
circuit is the algebraic sum of the voltages across (or
currents through) that element due to each
independent source acting alone.

• The principle of superposition helps us to analyse a

linear circuit with more than one independent
source by calculating the contribution of each
independent source separately.
 Superposition Theorem
To apply the superposition principle:
Consider one independent source at a time while all
other independent sources are set to zero. This implies
that we replace every voltage source by 0 V (or a short
circuit), and every current source by 0 A (or an open
circuit). This way we obtain a simpler and more
manageable circuit.
Dependent sources are left intact because they are
controlled by circuit variables.
 Example
• Use the superposition theorem to find 𝑣 in the
circuit shown.
Using superposition theorem find vo in
the circuit shown below.

Answer: 6 V.
 Example
Find 𝑖0 in the circuit shown using superposition.
 Source Transformation
• Source transformation is another tool for simplifying
circuits.
• A common goal in source transformation is to end up
with either all current sources or all voltage sources
in the circuit.
• An ideal independent voltage source maintains a
constant voltage between its terminals regardless of
the current that flows through it. But an ideal voltage
source does not exist. Similarly, an ideal current
source does not exist.
 Source Transformation
A practical voltage source has an internal resistance
which, to be accounted for, it is represented with an
external resistance in series with the voltage source.
Likewise a practical current source has an internal
conductance which is represented as a resistance (or
conductance) in parallel with the current source.

Figure: Practical voltage and current sources

 Source Transformation
A source transformation is the process of replacing a
voltage source 𝑣𝑠 in series with a resistor 𝑅𝑠 by a
current source 𝑖𝑠 in parallel with a resistor 𝑅𝑝 , or vice
versa.
The two circuits shown are equivalent—provided they
have the same voltage-current relation at terminals 𝑎
and 𝑏. That is, a load resistor 𝑅𝐿 in either circuits will
give same 𝑣𝑎𝑏 and 𝑖𝑎𝑏 . That is possible only when 𝑣𝑠 =
𝑖𝑠 𝑅𝑃 and 𝑅𝑠 = 𝑅𝑝

Figure: Equivalent sources

 Source Transformation: Example
Use source transformation to find 𝑣0 in the
circuit shown.

Note: In a source transformation, the head of the current source

arrow corresponds to the “+” terminal of the voltage source.
 Practice Problem
Find 𝑖0 using source transformation
 Thevenin’s Theorem
▪ We often find ourselves where a particular element
in a circuit is variable (usually called the load) while
other elements are fixed. Each time the variable
element is changed, the entire circuit has to be
analysed all over again.
▪ To handle such problems, Thevenin’s theorem
provides a technique by which the fixed part of the
circuit is replaced by an equivalent circuit.
▪ It states that a linear two-terminal circuit can be
replaced by an equivalent circuit consisting of a
voltage source 𝑽𝑻𝒉 in series with a resistor 𝑹𝑻𝒉 .
Thevenin’s Theorem

Figure: Replacing a linear

two-terminal circuit by its
Thevenin equivalent: (a)
original circuit, (b) the
Thevenin equivalent circuit.
 Thevenin’s Theorem
𝑽𝑻𝒉 is the open-circuit voltage at the terminals and
𝑹𝑻𝒉 is the input or equivalent resistance at the
terminals when the independent sources are turned
off.
𝑽𝑻𝒉 = 𝒗𝒐𝒄 and 𝑹𝑻𝒉 = 𝑹𝒊𝒏

Figure: Finding 𝑽𝑻𝒉 and 𝑹𝑻𝒉.

The following steps provide a technique that converts any
circuit into its Thévenin equivalent:
1. Identify and remove the load resistance from the
circuit and label the resulting two terminals as a and
b.
2. Determine the open-circuit voltage between the
terminals a and b. superposition theorem may use if
the circuit has more than one source.
3. Set all sources in the circuit to zero: Voltage sources
are set to zero by replacing them with short circuits
(zero volts). Current sources are set to zero by
replacing them with open circuits (zero amps).
 Thevenin’s Theorem
In finding the 𝑅𝑇ℎ , we need to consider two cases.
CASE 1:If the network has no dependent sources, we
turn off all independent sources. 𝑅𝑇ℎ is the input
resistance of the network looking between terminals 𝑎
and 𝑏.
CASE 2:If the network has dependent sources, we turn
off all independent sources and dependent sources are
not to be turned off because they are controlled by
𝑣𝑎𝑏 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ 𝑎𝑏 𝑜𝑝𝑒𝑛
circuit variables. Then 𝑅𝑇ℎ = 𝑖 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ 𝑎𝑏 𝑠ℎ𝑜𝑟𝑡𝑒𝑑 = 𝑣𝑜𝑐 /𝑖𝑠𝑐 .
𝑎𝑏
 Example
Find the Thevenin equivalent circuit of the
circuit shown, to the left of the terminals a-b.
Then find the current through 𝑅𝐿 = 6, 16, 32Ω.
 Example
Determine the Thévenin equivalent of the circuit
shown.
 Norton’s Theorem
➢ Norton’s theorem is a circuit analysis technique that
is similar to Thévenin’s theorem. By using this
theorem we reduce the circuit to a single current
source and one parallel resistor.
➢ Norton’s theorem states that a linear two-terminal
circuit can be replaced by an equivalent circuit
consisting of a current source 𝐼𝑁 in parallel with a
resistor 𝑹𝑵 .
➢ 𝑰𝑵 is the short-circuit current through the terminals
and 𝑹𝑵 is the input or equivalent resistance at the
terminals when the independent sources are turned
off.
 Norton’s Theorem

Figure 2: Finding Norton current 𝑰𝑵 .

We find 𝑅𝑁 in the same

way we find 𝑅𝑇ℎ
Therefore, 𝑅𝑁 = 𝑅𝑇ℎ .

Figure 1: (a) Original circuit,

(b) Norton equivalent circuit.
 Norton’s Theorem
The Norton equivalent circuit may also be determined
directly from the Thévenin equivalent circuit by using
the source conversion technique. 𝐼𝑁 = VTh /RTh and
𝑅𝑁 = 𝑅𝑇ℎ .
❖Find the Norton equivalent circuit of the circuit in
show here at terminals a-b.
 Practice Problem
• Using Norton’s theorem, find 𝐼𝑁 and 𝑅𝑁 of the
circuits shown at terminals a-b.

Figure: Example one Figure: Example two

Maximum Power Transfer Theorem
The maximum power transfer theorem states
A load resistance will receive maximum power from a
circuit when the resistance of the load is exactly the
same as the Thévenin (Norton) resistance looking back
at the circuit.
The Thevenin equivalent is useful in finding the
maximum power a linear circuit can deliver to a load.

Figure: The circuit used for maximum

power transfer.
Maximum Power Transfer Theorem
If the entire circuit is replaced by its Thevenin
equivalent except for the load, as shown in previous
Fig., the power delivered to the load is
𝟐
𝑽𝑻𝒉
𝒑= 𝑹𝑻𝒉 +𝑹𝑳
×𝑹𝑳

➢ For a given circuit, 𝑉𝑇ℎ

and 𝑅𝑇ℎ are fixed. By
varying the load
resistance 𝑅𝐿 , the power
delivered to the load
Figure: Power delivered to the load as a varies as illustrated in Fig.
function of 𝑹𝑳.
Maximum Power Transfer Theorem
To prove the maximum power transfer theorem, we
differentiate the power delivered to load 𝑝 with respect
to 𝑅𝐿 and set the result equal to zero.

𝑅𝑇ℎ + 𝑅𝐿 − 2𝑅𝐿 = 0
𝑹𝑳 = 𝑹𝑻𝒉
Therefore, the maximum power transferred to the load
resistance is
The variable resistor R in Fig. below is adjusted until it
absorbs the maximum power from the circuit.
(a) Calculate the value of R for maximum power.
(b) Determine the maximum power absorbed by R.
Determine the maximum power delivered to the
variable resistor R shown in the circuit of Fig.
 Reciprocity Theorem
The reciprocity theorem is a theorem that can only be
used with single-source circuits. However, this theorem
may be applied to either voltage sources or current
sources.
Reciprocity theorem for voltage sources: A voltage
source causing a current 𝐼 in any branch of a circuit
may be removed from the original location and placed
into that branch having the current 𝐼. The voltage
source in the new location will produce a current in the
original source location that is exactly equal to the
originally calculated current, 𝐼.
 Reciprocity Theorem
When applying the reciprocity theorem for a voltage
source, the following steps must be followed:
1. The voltage source is replaced by a short circuit in
the original location.
2. The polarity of the source in the new location is
such that the current direction in that branch
remains unchanged.
 Practice Problem 1
Consider the circuit of Figure shown here:
1. Calculate the current 𝐼.
2. Remove voltage source 𝐸 and place it into the
branch with 𝑅3 . Show that the current through the
branch which formerly had 𝐸 is now the same as the
current 𝐼.
Practice Problem 1 (Continuation)

After removing the

voltage source from its
original location and
moving it into the branch
containing the current 𝐼,
we obtain the circuit
shown here.
 Reciprocity Theorem: Current Source
For Current Sources: A current source causing a voltage
V at any node of a circuit may be removed from the
original location and connected to that node. The
current source in the new location will produce a
voltage in the original source location that is exactly
equal to the originally calculated voltage, V.
The following conditions must be met:
1. The current source is replaced by an open circuit in the
original location.
2. The direction of the source in the new location is such that
the polarity of the voltage at the node to which the current
source is now connected remains unchanged.
 Practice Problem2
Consider the circuit shown in Figure below:
1. Determine the voltage 𝑉 across resistor 𝑅3 .
2. Remove the current source 𝐼 and place it between
node b and the reference node. Show that the
voltage across the former location of the current
source (node a) is now the same as the voltage 𝑉.
 Practice Problem 2 (Continuation)
After relocating the current source from the original
location, and connecting it between node b and
ground, we obtain the circuit shown here.