Unit III

Quantum Mechanics
Heat & Radiation
Heat is form of energy and it is associated with temperature. Heat energy transfers from
a body at higher temperature to a body at lower temperature.
The transfer of heat from one body to another may takes place by conduction,
convection and radiation. The process of the transfer of heat from one place to another
place without heating the medium is called thermal radiation.
Heat & light have the similar properties and obey identical laws. Heat waves are called
thermal radiation. Thermal radiation belongs to the electromagnetic spectrum of
radiation.
• Heat : A kind of energy
• Radiation: Mode of heat transfer.
Q. What do you mean by black body? Explain black body spectrum with
proper diagram.
Or
How the wavelength changes with increase of temperature?

Solution: A perfectly black body is that which absorbs completely the radiations of all
wavelengths incident on it.

A perfectly black body can’t be realized in practice. However, the nearest example of
an ideal blackbody is the Ferry’s black body. It is a doubled walled spherical cavity
with black painted inner wall. The space between the walls is evacuated to prevent the
loss of heat by conduction and radiation. There is a fine hole in it. The entire radiations
incident upon this hole are absorbed by this black body. If this black body is heated to
high temperature then it emits radiations of all wavelengths here, the hole is regarded as
a black body and not the total enclosure.

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Note: A black body cannot be realized normally, but materials like Platinum black or
Lamp black come close to being ideal black bodies. Such materials absorb 96% to 98%
of the incident radiations.

Black body-Important Terms

If temperature of a body is more than it's surrounding then body emits thermal
radiation. In view of this, let us understand some basic terms.

Emissive power (E) :

For a given surface, it is defined as the thermal radiant energy emitted per unit area per
second or radiant power emitted by a body per unit area in a given wavelength region.
This is also known as energy density or intensity or emitted radiation.

Absorptive power (a):

It is defined as the total amount of thermal radiant energy absorbed per unit time, per
unit area of the body for all possible wavelengths.

Emissivity () : It is defined as the ratio of the total emissive power of the body(e) to
the total emissive power of a perfect black body (E) at given temperature .

e
i.e.
= (→ read as epsilon)
E

(i) For perfectly black body  = 1

(ii) For highly polished body  = 0

(iii) But for practical bodies emissivity () lies between zero and one

(0 << 1).

Emission spectrum of black body radiation

A perfectly black body emits radiation of all possible wavelengths. Lummer and
Pringsheim investigated the distribution of energy amongst the different wavelengths in
the thermal spectrum of a black body radiation. The results are as follows:

2
➢ At a given temperature, intensity of radiation increases with wavelength and
reaches a maximum value at a particular wavelength and decreases further as
wavelength increases.

➢ The wavelength at which intensity becomes high is known as λmax.

➢ The wavelength region below λmax is known as shorter wavelength and above it
is called longer wavelength region.

➢ For all wavelengths, intensity increases with temperature.

T3 > T2 > T1

➢ As temperature of body is increased then λmax shifts towards shorter wavelength

region.

➢ The area under the curve will represent the total intensity of radiation or energy
density at a particular temperature i.e.

𝑨𝒓𝒆𝒂 𝒖𝒏𝒅𝒆𝒓 (𝑬𝝀 − 𝝀) 𝒄𝒖𝒓𝒗𝒆 𝒈𝒊𝒗𝒆𝒔 ∫ 𝑬𝝀 𝒅𝝀

The wavelength corresponding to maximum emission of radiations shifts from

longer wavelength to shorter wavelength as the temperature increases. Due to
this the color of a body appears to be changing with temperature.

3
Q. What is Stefan’s law?

Stefan’s law of radiation

When a black body is heated, it emits the radiation of all possible wavelengths. The
scientist Stefan gave the law for the energy distribution among the different
wavelengths. Stefan’s law gives the total energy radiated by a black body. According to
Stefan’s law, the total amount of the radiant energy by a black body per unit area per
unit time due to all wavelengths is directly proportional to the fourth power of absolute
temperature. E α T4
E= σ T4

Where, the constant of proportionality σ is called the Stefan Boltzmann constant and
has a value of σ = 5.6704×10−8 watt / (meter 2 Kelvin4)

Q. What is Wien’s displacement law?(2017-18)

Solution : Wien’s law of thermal radiation:

Wien’s law of radiation: Wien proposed two laws of thermal radiation.
(1)Wien’s first law or Wien’s displacement law of radiation
Wien observed that there is wavelength at which radiation has maximum intensity at a
given temperature. The value of λmax is inversely proportional to the absolute
temperature of the body.
𝟏
. λmax α
𝑻
λmax T = b(constant)
λmaxT = 0.0029 m K

Where λmax is the wavelength corresponding to maximum energy emission from a

black body at absolute temperature T.
b = Wien's displacement constant = 0.0029 m-K
(2)Wien’s second law of radiation - According to this law, the total energy density
Eλdλ i.e. Amount of radiant energy emitted by a black body per unit area per unit time
for a given wavelengths range λ and λ+dλ , at a given temperature is expressed as:
𝟖𝝅𝒉𝒄 𝒅𝝀
Eλdλ= 𝒉𝒄
𝝀𝟓 𝝀𝒌𝑻
(𝒆 −𝟏)
4
h = 6.63  10−34 ( J − S )
c = 3  108 ( m / s )
k = 1.38  10−23 ( J / K )
The law is applicable for shorter wavelength region.

Q. What is Rayleigh-Jeans?

Rayleigh-Jeans law: Lord Rayleigh used the classical theories of electromagnetism

and thermodynamics to show that the blackbody spectral energy distribution is given
by:

𝟖л𝒌𝑻
𝐄𝛌 = Where k is Boltzmann’s constant
𝝀𝟒
Limitation----It approaches the data at longer wavelengths, but it deviates at short
wavelengths.

Q. What are the basic assumptions of quantum theory?

Basic assumptions of quantum theory of radiation and Planck’s law:

In 1900 Planck developed a theory of blackbody radiation that leads to an equation for
the energy density of the radiation. This equation is in complete agreement with
experimental observations. He assumed that the atoms of the wall of a black body
behave as oscillators and each has characteristic frequency of oscillation. The
assumptions about atomic oscillator are,
1. The energy of an oscillator can have only certain discrete values En
En = nhν
Where, n is a positive integer called the quantum number, ν is the frequency of
oscillation, h is Planck’s constant
The energy is quantized i.e, has discrete energy values.
2. The oscillators emit or absorb energy only in the form of packets of energy (hν) not
continuously, when making a transition from one quantum state to another. The entire
energy difference between the initial and final states in the transition is emitted or
absorbed as a quantum of radiation,
E2 – E1 = (n2 – n1) hν
∆E = ∆nhν

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Q. Establish Planck radiation formula and show that the Wien’s formula and
Rayleigh-Jeans formula are special cases of Planck’s formula.
Planck’s law: To derive the Planks law, we shall first calculate the average energy of
the a Plank oscillator of frequency v. if N be the total no of oscillators and E is their
total energy,
Then average energy of an oscillator is given by,
𝑬
Eavg = …(1)
𝑵
The number of oscillator having energy nhv is given by the Maxwell Boltzmann
formula
𝑛ℎ𝑣
Nn=N0𝑒 − 𝑘𝑇 …(2)
The total no. of oscillator is given by
N = N0+ N1+ N2+ N3+ N4+…..
ℎ𝑣 2ℎ𝑣 3ℎ𝑣
= N0+ N0𝑒 −𝑘𝑇 +N0𝑒 − 𝑘𝑇 +N0𝑒 − 𝑘𝑇 +…..
ℎ𝑣 2ℎ𝑣 3ℎ𝑣
N = N0 [1+𝑒 −𝑘𝑇 +𝑒 − 𝑘𝑇 +𝑒 − 𝑘𝑇 +……]
1 1
N= N0 ℎ𝑣 ...(3)[1+x+x2+x3+……. = ]
− (1−𝑥)
1−𝑒 𝑘𝑇

Total energy of all oscillators is given by

E = N0×0+ N1× hν+ N2×2hν+ N3×3 hν+ N4×4 hν+…..
ℎ𝑣 2ℎ𝑣 3ℎ𝑣
=0+ N0𝑒 −𝑘𝑇 × hν + N0𝑒 − 𝑘𝑇 ×2hν + N0𝑒 − 𝑘𝑇 × 3 hν+………
ℎ𝑣 ℎ𝑣 2ℎ𝑣
= N0𝑒 −𝑘𝑇 × hν (1 +2 𝑒 −𝑘𝑇 +3𝑒 − 𝑘𝑇 ………)
1
Since 1+2x+3x2+4x3+……. =
(1−𝑥)2
ℎ𝑣
ℎ𝑣
E = N0𝑒 −𝑘𝑇 ℎ𝑣 2
…(4)
−
(1−𝑒 𝑘𝑇 )

Substituting the value of N and E from Eq. 3 & Eq. 4 in Eq. 1

𝑬
Eavg =
𝑵

𝒉𝒗
Eavg = 𝒉𝒗 …(5)
𝒆𝒌𝑻 −𝟏
This is the expression for average energy of Planck ‘oscillator.
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Now the energy density of radiation in frequency range v and v+dv is given by
uvdv = no. of oscillator per unit volume ×average energy

8𝜋𝑣2 𝑑𝑣 ℎ𝑣
=
𝑐3
( 𝒉𝒗 )
𝒆𝒌𝑻 −1

𝟖𝝅𝒉𝒗𝟑 𝒅𝒗 𝟏
uvdv = 𝒉𝒗 …(6)
𝒄𝟑
(𝒆𝒌𝑻 −𝟏)
This is the Planck’s radiation formula in terms of frequency.
To express it in terms of wavelength, we put
𝑐 𝑐
v= and dv = − 2 𝑑𝜆
𝜆 𝜆
Therefore uλdλ= uvdv
𝟖𝝅𝒉𝒄 𝒅𝝀
uλdλ= 𝒉𝒄
𝝀𝟓
(𝒆𝝀𝒌𝑻 −𝟏)
This is Planck’s radiation formula in terms of wavelength.

Deduction of various laws using Planck’s radiation formula

1. Wien’s law from Planck’s formula.
Planck’s radiation formula in terms of wavelength for black body spectrum is given by
8𝜋ℎ𝑐𝑑𝜆 1
uλdλ= ℎ𝑐 …(1)
𝜆5
(𝑒 𝜆𝑘𝑇 −1)
ℎ𝑐
For short wavelengths or when λ is small, (𝑒 𝜆𝑘𝑇 ≫ 1, so 1may be neglected
in the denominator of above equation. Thus,
8𝜋ℎ𝑐 − ℎ𝑐
uλdλ= 𝑒 𝜆𝑘𝑇 𝑑𝜆 …(2)
𝜆5
Substituting8𝜋ℎ𝑐 = 𝑐1 and hc/k=c2, equation 2 becomes
𝑐1 − 𝑐2
uλdλ= 𝑒 𝜆𝑇 𝑑𝜆
𝜆5
This is Wien’s law which agrees with experimental curve at short wavelengths region.
2. Rayleigh-Jeans law from Planck’s formula:
ℎ𝑐
ℎ𝑐
For long wavelengths or λ is large, 𝑒 𝜆𝑘𝑇 ≈1+ (neglecting terms with
𝜆𝑘𝑇
higher power of λ in denominator), therefore equation 1 becomes,
8𝜋ℎ𝑐𝑑𝜆 𝟖𝝅𝒌𝑻𝑑𝜆
uλdλ= ℎ𝑐 =
𝜆5 (1+𝜆𝑘𝑇−1) 𝝀𝟒
This is Rayleigh-Jeans law which agrees with experimental curves at long wavelengths
region.
Q. What do you mean by wave particle duality?

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Wave particle duality- A particle means an object with a definite position in space
which cannot be simultaneously occupied by another particle & specified by their
properties such as mass, momentum, kinetic energy, velocity etc. On the other hand, a
wave means a periodically repeated pattern in space which is specified by its
wavelength, amplitude, frequency, energy, momentum etc. Two or more waves can
coexist in the same region and superimpose to form a resultant wave. The particle &
wave properties of radiation can never be observed simultaneously. Radiation,
sometimes behave as a wave (Interference, Diffraction etc) & at some other time as
a particle (Photoelectric effect, Compton Effect etc), i.e., it has a wave particle
dualism.

Q. What is de-Broglie hypothesis of Matter Waves? Explain.

de-Broglie hypothesis of Matter waves

The wave associated with a moving material particle is called matter waves or de-
Broglie waves. According to de-Broglie’s concept (1924), a moving particle always has
a wave associated with it & motion of the particle is guided by that wave in similar
manner as photon is controlled by wave. If a particle of mass m has momentum p and
wavelength λ of the wave associated with it, then according to de-Broglie hypothesis
𝒉 𝒉
λ= =
𝒑 𝒎𝒗

Fig.1.1
Expression for de-Broglie-
According to Planck’s theory of radiation, the energy of a photon is given by
𝑬 = 𝒉𝝂 …….(1)
According to Einstein energy-mass relation
𝑬 = 𝒎𝒄𝟐 ……..(2)
From eqs. (1) & (2), we get
ℎ𝑣 = 𝑚𝑐 2

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 𝑐
ℎ = 𝑚𝑐 2 (since c=vλ)
𝜆

ℎ
= 𝑚𝑐
𝜆
ℎ
or 𝜆=
𝑚𝑐

For materialistic Particle

If we consider the case of a material particle of mass m and moving with a valocity v
then the wavelength associated with this particle is given by
ℎ ℎ
λ= =
𝑝 𝑚𝑣

Different expressions: -
1. If E is then kinetic energy of the material particle, then,
1 𝑚2 𝑣 2 𝑝2
Ek= mv2 = =
2 2𝑚 2𝑚
p=√2𝑚𝐸𝑘
𝒉
Therfore λ =
√𝟐𝒎𝑬𝒌
2. When a charged particle carrying a charge e is accelerated by a potential
difference V volts, then E is given by
E = eV
Hence,the de-Broglie wavelength is given by
ℎ ℎ
λ= =
𝑝 𝑚𝑣
𝒉 𝒉
λ= =λ=
√𝟐𝒎𝑬𝒌 √𝟐𝒎𝒆𝑽

3. When a material particle is in thermal equilibrium at a temperature T, then

𝟑
E= 𝒌𝑻
𝟐
Where k = Boltzmann’s constant = 1.38 × 10-23 J/K
So, de-Broglie wavelength at temperature T is given by
𝒉 𝒉 𝒉
λ= = λ= or λ=
√𝟐𝒎𝑬𝒌 √𝟐𝒎 𝒌𝑻
𝟑 √𝟑𝒎𝒌𝑻
𝟐

4. De-Broglie wavelength associated with electrons (Non-Relativistic case):- let

us consider the case of an electron of rest mass mo& charge e which is
accelerated by a potential V volt from rest to velocity v, then
1
mv2=eV or v =√2𝑒𝑉/𝑚0
2
ℎ ℎ 𝒉
λ= = =√𝟐𝒆𝑽𝒎
𝑝 𝑚0 𝑣 𝟎

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 6.63 × 10−34
λ=
√2×1.6 ×10−19 × V× 1.91×10−31
𝒉 𝟏𝟐.𝟐𝟖
λ= = Å
√𝟐𝒎𝒒𝑽 √𝑽

Q. What are the Properties of Matter Waves?

Properties of Matter Waves

1. Lighter is the particle, greater is the wavelength associated with it.
2. Smaller is the velocity of the particle, greater is the wavelength associated with it.
3. When v = 0 then λ = ∞, i.e., wave becomes indeterminate & if v = ∞ then λ = o.
This shows that matter waves are generated by the motion of particles.
4. The matter waves are not electromagnetic in nature.
5. The de-Broglie wavelength is independent of charge of the particle, therefore, the
matter waves are generated by moving charged particles as well as by moving
neutral particles.
What is the Difference between Electromagnetic Wave and Matter Wave?

1. Matter waves are associated with moving particle and does not depend on the
charge. On the other hand EM wave associated with accelerated charge particle.
2. Electromagnetic waves are a type of wave that travels through space, carrying
electromagnetic radiant energy while matter waves are the waves that consist of
particles.
3. The key difference between electromagnetic wave and matter wave is that
electromagnetic waves have electric and magnetic fields associated with them,
whereas matter waves don’t have any associated electric or magnetic field.
4. Moreover, as another important difference between electromagnetic wave and
matter wave, we can say that electromagnetic wave consists of photons (which
have no mass or volume), while matter wave contains particles (which have mass
and volume).

Q. What do you mean by group velocity? (2017-18)

Or What is the difference between phase velocity and group velocity? (2013-14)
Or What do you mean by phase velocity and group velocity? (2014-15)

Wave velocity or Phase velocity:- When a monochromatic wave travels through a

medium, its velocity of advancement of wave in the medium is called as wave velocity
or the velocity of propogation of the planes of constant phase through medium is known
as wave velocity (phase velocity).
𝝎
vp =
𝒌
where a is the amplitude, ω is angular frequency (2πυ) and k (2π/λ) is the propogation
constant of the wave.
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Group velocity:- The pulse consists of a number of waves slightly differing in
frequency from one another. The superposition of such waves is called wave group.
When such a group travels in the medium, the phase velocities are different for different
components. Thus, the group velocity is the velocity with which the group (wave
𝒅𝝎
packet) is transmitted. vg =
𝒅𝒌

Phase velocity of de-Broglie waves:- According to de-Broglie’s wave concept the

wavelength of matter wave associated with moving particle is given by
𝒉
Λ= , Where h is Planck’s constant
𝒎𝒗
𝟐л 𝟐л𝒎𝒗
And wave propagation constant k = = ……(1)
𝝀 𝒉
𝑬
If E is the energy of the particle then E = hν or ν =
𝒉
𝑬
And ω = 2πν = 2π
𝒉
According to Einstein’s mass energy relation
𝟐𝝅𝒎 2
E = mc2, therefore ω = c ……(2)
𝒉
𝝎
Therefore phase velocity of matter wave is given by- vp =
𝒌
Substituting the values of ω and k from equation 1 and 2
𝒄𝟐
vp =
𝒗
vp .v = c2 or vp .vg = c2, since v = vg
Since the particle velocity is always less than the velocity of light c, therefore the
phase velocity is greater than the velocity of light. This is contradictory result because it
means the matter wave travels much faster than the particle with which it is associated
and would leave particle far behind. This difficulty was overcome by considering that
the moving particle is associated with a wave packet rather than a single wave.
Q. Write the characteristics of wave function.(2015-16)

Q. Give the physical significance of wave function ψ in quantum mechanics?

(2011-12)
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 Born interpretation of wave function & its Physical Significance
The quantity whose variation builts up matter waves is called wave function (ψ). The
value of wave function associated with a moving particle at a particulat point (x, y, z) in
space at the time t is related to the possibility of finding the particle there at that time.
Wave fuction is a complex quantity and can be given as
Ψ = A+iB
Its complex conjugate is given by, Ψ* = A - iB
Therefore Ψ Ψ* = A2 + B2 =|ψ|2
Which a real number
The physical significance of the wave function is that the square
of its absolute value at a point is proportional to the probability of experimantally
finding the particle described by the wave function in a small element of volume dτ
(dxdydz) at that point. According to Max Born|ψ|2 gives the probability of finding the
particle in the state ψ, i.e., |ψ|2 is a measure of probability density. For the total
probability of finding the particle somewhere is unity, i.e., particle is certainly to be
found somewhere in space.
∭|ψ|2 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑧 = 1
Ψ satisfying above requirement is said to be normalised.

Characteristic of wave function:-

Besides being normalized , an acceptable wave function mut also fulfill the
following conditions:
1. It must be finite everywhere.If it is infinite for a particular point, it would mean
an infinitely large probability of finding the particle at that point, which is not
possible.
2. It must be single valued. If state function has more than one value at any point,
it would mean that there are more than one probability of finding the particle at
that point which is obviously inaccessible.
3. It must be continuous throughout the entire space of the system.Its first
derivative should also be continous.

Q. Derive Schrödinger’s Time dependent equation.

Solution: - Schrodinger proposed that the wave function describing the matter waves
associated with a particle satisfies a partial differential equation with second
derivatives with space and time. He discovered an eqaution for the propogation of wave
function representing a quantum system.

Equation of motion of matter waves

(a) Schrodinger time dependent wave equation-The probability of
a transition between one atomic stationary state and some other state can be
calculated with the aid of the time-dependent Schrödinger equation. The differential
equation of a wave motion of a particle in one-dimension can be written as

12
 𝝏𝟐 𝝍 𝟏 𝝏𝟐 𝝍
= 𝟐 𝟐 .…….(1)
𝝏𝒙𝟐 𝐯 𝝏𝒕
The general solution of eq.(1) is given by
𝝍(𝒙, 𝒕) = 𝑨𝒆−𝒊𝝎[𝒕−(𝒙⁄𝐯)] ……..(2)
We know that ω = 2πν and v = νλ. So, eq.(2) can be written As,
𝝍(𝒙, 𝒕) = 𝑨𝒆−𝟐𝝅𝒊[𝝂𝒕−(𝒙⁄𝝀)] .…….(3)
Put ν = E/h and λ = h/p in eq.(3), we get
𝟐𝝅𝒊
−( )(𝑬𝒕−𝒑𝒙)
𝝍(𝒙, 𝒕) = 𝑨𝒆 𝒉 ..……(4)
Now, differentiating eq.(4) twice with respect to x, we get
𝝏𝟐 𝝍 −(
2𝜋𝑖
)(𝐸𝑡−𝑝𝑥) 2𝜋𝑖𝑝 2
= 𝑨𝑒 ℎ ( )
𝝏𝒙𝟐 ℎ

4π2 p2
=− 𝛙
h2
𝟏 𝒉𝟐 𝝏𝟐 𝝍
𝒑𝟐 = − ..……(5)
𝛙 𝟒𝛑𝟐 𝝏𝒙𝟐

Now, differentiate eq.(4) with respect to t, we get

𝝏𝝍 𝟐𝝅𝒊
−( )(𝑬𝒕−𝒑𝒙) 𝟐𝝅𝒊𝑬
= 𝑨𝒆 𝒉 (− )
𝝏𝒕 𝒉
𝟐𝝅𝒊𝑬
=− 𝝍
𝒉
𝟏 𝒉 𝝏𝝍 𝟏 𝒊𝒉 𝝏𝝍
𝑜𝑟 𝑬 = − = …….(6)
𝛙 𝟐𝛑𝐢 𝝏𝒕 𝛙 𝟐𝛑 𝝏𝒕

If E & V be the total & potential energies of the particle respectively, then its
𝟏
kinetic energy 𝒎𝒗𝟐 is given by
𝟐
𝟏 𝒑𝟐
𝑬 = 𝒎𝒗𝟐 + 𝑽 𝒐𝒓 𝑬 = + 𝑽 …….(7)
𝟐 𝟐𝒎
Putting the values from eqs.(5) & (6) in eq.(7), we get

1 𝑖ℎ 𝜕𝜓 ℎ2 1 𝜕 2 𝜓 ℎ2 𝜕 2 𝜓 𝑖ℎ 𝜕𝜓
= +𝑉 𝑜𝑟 − 2 + 𝑉ψ =
ψ 2π 𝜕𝑡 8𝜋 2 𝑚 ψ 𝜕𝑥 2 8𝜋 𝑚 𝜕𝑥 2 2π 𝜕𝑡
ℎ
Substituting ћ = , we get
2𝜋

ћ2 𝜕 2 𝜓 𝜕𝜓
− + 𝑉𝜓 = 𝑖ћ ………(8)
2𝑚 𝜕𝑥 2 𝜕𝑡
This is the required shrodinger time dependent equation in one dimension. In three
dimension the above equation can be written as-

ћ𝟐 𝟐 𝝏𝝍
𝑜𝑟 (− 𝜵 + 𝑽) 𝝍 = 𝒊ћ
𝟐𝒎 𝝏𝒕
𝜕2 𝜕2 𝜕2
where 𝜵𝟐 = 2
+ 2
+
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 2

13
 𝐻𝝍 = 𝑬 𝝍
𝟐
ћ
𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒, 𝐻 = − 𝛁 𝟐 + 𝑽, 𝐻𝑎𝑚𝑖𝑙𝑡𝑜𝑛𝑖𝑎𝑛 𝑜𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑟
𝟐𝒎
𝒊𝒉 𝝏
E= , Energy Operator
𝟐𝛑 𝝏𝒕

Q. Derive Schrödinger’s Time independent equations.

Solution: Schrodinger time independent wave equation-
The shrodingers time independent equation can be obtained with help of time
dependent equation. The differential equation of a wave motion of a particle in one-
dimension can be written as
𝝏𝟐 𝝍 𝟏 𝝏𝟐 𝝍
= .…….(1)
𝝏𝒙𝟐 𝐯 𝟐 𝝏𝒕𝟐

The general solution of eq.(1) is given by

𝛙(𝒙, 𝒕) = 𝑨𝒆−𝒊𝝎[𝒕−(𝒙⁄𝐯)] ……..(2)

We know that ω = 2πν and v = νλ. So, eq.(2) can be written as

𝛙(𝒙, 𝒕) = 𝑨𝒆−𝟐𝝅𝒊[𝝂𝒕−(𝒙⁄𝝀)] ……..(3)
Put ν = E/h and λ = h/p in eq.(3), we get
𝟐𝝅𝒊
−( )(𝑬𝒕−𝒑𝒙)
𝛙(𝒙, 𝒕) = 𝑨𝒆 𝒉 ..……(4)
The wave function can be seperated into time dependent and space dependent parts.
𝟐𝝅𝒊𝒑𝒙 𝟐𝝅𝒊𝑬𝒕
( ) −( )
𝛙(𝒙, 𝒕) = 𝑨𝒆 𝒉 𝒆 𝒉

𝟐𝝅𝒊𝒑𝒙
( )
If 𝜓(𝑥) = 𝜓˳= 𝑨𝒆 𝒉 then,
𝟐𝝅𝒊𝑬𝒕
−( )
𝛙(𝒙, 𝒕) = 𝜓˳𝒆 𝒉 ……(5)
Now differentiating equation (5) twice with respect to x, we get
𝟐
𝝏𝟐 𝛙 𝝏 𝜓˳ −(𝟐𝝅𝒊𝑬𝒕)
𝝏𝒙𝟐
= 𝝏𝒙𝟐
𝒆 𝒉 ……(6)

differentiating equation 5 with respect to t, we get

𝝏𝛙 𝟐𝝅𝒊𝑬𝒕
𝟐𝝅𝒊𝑬
= 𝜓˳𝒆−( 𝒉
)
(- ) ……(7)
𝝏𝒕 𝒉

The well known Shrodinger time dependent equation in one dimension is given by-

14
 ћ𝟐 𝝏𝟐 𝛙 𝒊𝒉 𝝏𝛙
− + 𝑽𝛙 =
𝟐𝒎 𝝏𝒙𝟐 𝟐𝛑 𝝏𝒕
𝜕2 ψ 𝜕ψ
Subtituting the values of ψ, and from equations 5,6,7 in above equation,
𝜕𝑥 2 𝜕𝑡
𝟐𝝅𝒊𝑬𝒕 𝟐𝝅𝒊𝑬𝒕 𝟐𝝅𝒊𝑬𝒕
ћ𝟐 𝝏𝟐 𝜓˳ −( ) −( ) 𝒊𝒉 −( ) 𝟐𝝅𝒊𝑬
− 𝒆 𝒉 + 𝑽𝜓˳𝒆 𝒉 = 𝜓˳𝒆 𝒉 (- )
𝟐𝒎 𝝏𝒙𝟐 𝟐𝛑 𝒉

ћ𝟐 𝝏𝟐 𝜓˳
− + 𝑽𝜓˳ = 𝐸𝜓˳
𝟐𝒎 𝝏𝒙𝟐
𝝏𝟐 𝜓˳ 𝟐𝒎
+ 𝟐 (𝑬 − 𝑽)𝜓˳ = 𝟎
𝝏𝒙𝟐 ћ
Or in general we can write above equation
𝝏𝟐 𝝍 𝟐𝒎
+ 𝟐 (𝑬 − 𝑽)𝝍 = 𝟎
𝝏𝒙𝟐 ћ
This is the required time independent equation in one dimension . In three
dimension the above equation can be written as-
𝟐𝒎
𝛁𝟐 𝝍 + 𝟐 (𝑬 − 𝑽)𝝍 = 𝟎 ……..(8)
ћ
For a free particle V = 0, hence the Schrodinger wave equation for a free particle
can be expressed as
𝟐𝒎
𝛁𝟐 𝝍 + 𝟐 𝑬𝝍 = 𝟎
ћ

Q. Find the expression for Energy Eigen values and Eigen function for
particle in one dimensional box.

or Obtaion normalized Wave function for particle in one dimensional box.

Solution: Particle in one-dimensional Box
The first application of shrodingers time independent equation is to a particle bouncing
back and forth inside the box having infinitely high and hard walls.
Let us consider the case of a particle of mass m moving along x-axis between two rigid
walls A & B at x = 0 & x = a.The particle is free to move between the walls.Suppose
the walls are infinitely hard so that the particle does not lose energy when bounce back
from the walls. The potential function is defined in the following way:

V(x) = 0 for 0 < x < a

and V(x) = ∞ for 0 ≥ x and x ≥ a
Under this condition, particle is said to move in an infinitely deep potential well or
infinite square wall.
15
The Schroedinger equation for the particle within the box (V= 0) is,
𝝏𝟐 𝝍 𝟐𝒎
+ 𝑬𝝍 = 𝟎………(1)
𝝏𝒙𝟐 ћ𝟐
𝝏𝟐 𝝍
+ 𝒌𝟐 𝝍 = 𝟎.………(2)
𝝏𝒙𝟐
where
2𝑚𝐸
𝑘2 = ………(3)
ћ𝟐
The general solution of eq.(2) is of the for
𝝍 = 𝑨 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝒌𝒙 + 𝑩 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝒌𝒙. .……..(4)

Apply the boundary condition, ψ = 0 at x = 0 & x = a to eq.(4)

𝟎 = 𝑨 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝒌. 𝟎 + 𝑩 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝒌𝟎
B=0
Again at x = a , ψ = 0
𝟎 = 𝑨 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝒌𝒂
𝒌𝒂 = ± 𝒏𝝅 where n=1,2,3,…. …(5)
n≠ 0, 𝑏𝑒𝑐𝑎𝑢𝑠𝑒 for n = 0, k =0
𝒏𝟐 𝒉𝟐
From eq.(3) & eq.(5), we get, 𝑬𝒏 = ……….(6)
𝟖𝒎𝒂𝟐
From eq.(6), it is clear that the particle can not have an arbitrary energy, but can have
certain discrete energy corresponding to n = 1, 2, 3,…….. Each permitted energy is
called eigen value of the particle & constitute the energy level of the system. The
corresponding eigenfunction is given by
𝝍 = 𝑨 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝒌𝒙
To find the value of constant A we apply normalisation condition,
𝑎
∫ |𝝍𝑛 |2 𝑑𝑥 = 1
0
𝑎
𝒏𝝅𝒙
𝐴2 ∫ 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝑑𝑥 = 1
0 𝑎
1−𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝜃
[since 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃 = ( )
2

𝑎
2
1 2𝒏𝝅𝒙
𝐴 ∫ {1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠 ( )} 𝑑𝑥 = 1
0 2 𝑎
𝑎𝐴2 𝐴2 𝑎 2𝒏𝝅𝒙
2
+
2
∫0 {𝑐𝑜𝑠 ( 𝑎
)} 𝑑𝑥 = 1
𝑎𝐴2
=1
2
2
𝐴=√
𝑎
Therefore, the normalised wavefunction for nth state is given by
2 𝒏𝝅𝒙
𝝍𝑛 = √ 𝑠𝑖𝑛 (
𝑎 𝑎
) ………(7)

16
Energy levels are not equally spaced for the particle in one dimensional box
𝑊𝑒 𝑘𝑛𝑜𝑤 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑎 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑙𝑒 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑖𝑛 𝑜𝑛𝑒 𝑑𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑏𝑜𝑥 𝑖𝑠 𝑔𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝑏𝑦
𝑛2 ℎ 2
𝐸𝑛 =
8𝑚𝑎2
1ℎ2
𝐸1 =
8𝑚𝑎2
4ℎ2
𝐸2 = = 4 𝐸1
8𝑚𝑎2
9ℎ2
𝐸3 = = 9 𝐸1
8𝑚𝑎2
16ℎ2
𝐸4 = = 16 𝐸1
8𝑚𝑎2
25ℎ2
𝐸5 = = 25 𝐸1
8𝑚𝑎2
The difference between energy in various states
𝐸2 − 𝐸1 = 3 𝐸1
𝐸3 − 𝐸2 = 5 𝐸1
𝐸4 − 𝐸3 = 7 𝐸1
𝐸5 − 𝐸4 = 9 𝐸1
From above equationsit is clear thar that difference between energy in consecutive
energy state is not constant. This difference is increases with increase in value of n.
Therefore it is concluded that that energy levels are not equally spaced as shown in
below figure (a).

Fig. (a) Energy levels (b) wave function (c) Probability density
Q. What is Compton effect? Derive expression for Compton shift.

Solution : In 1921, Professor A.H. Compton discovered that when a monochromatic

beam of high frequency radiation is scattered by electrons, the scattered radiation
contain the radiations of lower frequency or greater wavelength along with the
radiations of unchanged frequency or wavelength, the radiations of unchanged
wavelength in the scattered light are called unmodified radiations while the radiations
17
of greater wavelength are called modified radiations. This phenomenon is called the
Compton Effect. It provided evidence for the particle nature of light and Planck’s
postulates.
Quantum Explanation: The explanation was given by Compton which was based on
Quantum theory of light. According to quantum theory when photon of nergy hυ strikes
with the substance, some of the energy of photon is transferred to the electrons,
therefore the energy (or frequency) of photon reduces and wavelength increases.
Various assumptions were made for explaining the effect these were:
(i) Compton Effect is the result of interaction of an individual particle and free electron
of target.
(ii) The collision is relativistic and elastic.
(iii) The laws of conservation of energy and momentum hold good.

The energy of the system before collision= ℎ𝑣 + 𝑚𝑜 𝑐 2

The energy of the system after collision = ℎ𝑣′ + 𝑚𝑐 2

According to the principle of conservation of energy

ℎ𝑣 + 𝑚𝑜 𝑐 2 = ℎ𝑣′ + 𝑚𝑐 2

or 𝑚𝑐 2 = (ℎ𝑣 - ℎ𝑣′)+𝑚𝑜 𝑐 2 ..............(1)

According to the principle of conservation of linear momentum along and perpendicular

to the direction of incident photon (i.e., along x and y axis), we have
ℎ𝑣 ℎ𝑣′
+0= cos 𝜃 + 𝑚𝑣 cos 𝛷
c c
𝑚𝑣𝑐 cos 𝛷 = ℎ𝑣 − ℎ𝑣 ′ cos 𝜃 ..........(2)

And (for y-axis)

18
 ℎ𝑣′
0+0= sin 𝜃 − 𝑚𝑣 sin 𝛷
c

𝑚𝑣𝑐 sin 𝛷 = ℎ𝑣 ′ sin 𝜃 ............(3)

Squaring (2) and (3) and then adding, we get

𝑚2 𝑣 2 𝑐 2 = ( ℎ𝑣 − ℎ𝑣′ cos 𝜃)2 + (ℎ𝑣′ sin 𝜃)2

𝑚2 𝑣 2 𝑐 2 = ( ℎ𝑣)2 + (ℎ𝑣′ cos 𝜃)2 − 2(ℎ𝑣)(ℎ𝑣 ′ ) cos 𝜃 + (ℎ𝑣′ sin 𝜃)2

𝑚2 𝑣 2 𝑐 2 = ( ℎ𝑣)2 + (ℎ𝑣′)2 ( [(cos 𝜃)2 + (sin 𝜃)2 ] − 2(ℎ𝑣)(ℎ𝑣 ′ ) cos 𝜃

𝑚2 𝑣 2 𝑐 2 = ( ℎ𝑣)2 + (ℎ𝑣′)2 − 2(ℎ𝑣)(ℎ𝑣 ′ ) cos 𝜃 ……….(4)

Squaring equation (1), we get

𝑚2 𝑐 4 = 𝑚𝑜 2 𝑐 4 + ( ℎ𝑣)2 + (ℎ𝑣′)2 − 2(ℎ𝑣)(ℎ𝑣 ′ ) + 2𝑚𝑜 𝑐 2 (ℎ𝑣 − ℎ𝑣 ′ ) ……(5)

Subtracting (4) from (5), we get

𝑚2 𝑐 4 − 𝑚2 𝑣 2 𝑐 2 = 𝑚𝑜 2 𝑐 4 + 2(ℎ𝑣)(ℎ𝑣 ′ )(𝑐𝑜 𝑠 𝜃 − 1) + 2𝑚𝑜 𝑐 2 (ℎ𝑣 − ℎ𝑣 ′ ) ……(6)

According to the theory of relativity

𝑚0 𝑚𝑜 2 𝑣2
𝑚= or 𝑚2 = 𝑣2
or 𝑚2 (1 − ) = 𝑚𝑜 2
2 𝑐2
√1−𝑣2 (1− 2 )
𝑐
𝑐

Thus 𝑚2 𝑐 2 − 𝑚2 𝑣 2 = 𝑚𝑜 2 𝑐 2

Multiplying both sides by c2, we get

𝑚2 𝑐 4 − 𝑚2 𝑣 2 𝑐 2 = 𝑚𝑜 2 𝑐 4 ……(7)

Using equation (7), equation (6) becomes

𝑚𝑜 2 𝑐 4 = 𝑚𝑜 2 𝑐 4 + 2(ℎ𝑣)(ℎ𝑣 ′ )(𝑐𝑜 𝑠 𝜃 − 1) + 2𝑚𝑜 𝑐 2 (ℎ𝑣 − ℎ𝑣 ′ )

0 = 2(ℎ𝑣)(ℎ𝑣 ′ )(𝑐𝑜 𝑠 𝜃 − 1) + 2𝑚𝑜 𝑐 2 (ℎ𝑣 − ℎ𝑣 ′ )

2(ℎ𝑣)(ℎ𝑣 ′ )(𝑐𝑜 𝑠 𝜃 − 1) = 2𝑚𝑜 𝑐 2 (ℎ𝑣 − ℎ𝑣 ′ )

(𝑣 − 𝑣 ′ ) ℎ
= (1 − 𝑐𝑜 𝑠 𝜃)
𝑣′𝑣 𝑚𝑜 𝑐 2
1 1 ℎ
− = ((1 − 𝑐𝑜 𝑠 𝜃) ……(8)
𝑣′ 𝑣 𝑚𝑜 𝑐 2

19
 𝑐 𝑐
To find the relation in term of wavelength, let us substitute 𝑣 ′ = and, 𝑣 =
𝜆′ 𝜆

ℎ
We thus have, ∆𝜆 = 𝜆′ − 𝜆 = ((1 − 𝑐𝑜 𝑠 𝜃)
𝑚𝑜 𝑐

ℎ
Compton shift, ∆𝜆 = 𝜆′ − 𝜆 = ((1 − 𝑐𝑜 𝑠 𝜃) .........(9)
𝑚𝑜 𝑐

From above equations (8) and (9) following conclusions can be drawn

1. The wavelength of the scattered photon λ’ is greater than the wavelength of

incident photon λ.
2. ∆ λ is independent of the incident wavelength.
3. ∆ λ have the same value for all substance containing free electron
4. ∆ λ only depend on the scattering angle .

1. when 𝜃= 0; cos 𝜃= 1

∆ λ = λ’ – λ = 0

λ’ = λ, the scattered wavelength is same as the incident wavelength in the direction

of incidence.

2. when 𝜃=90° ; cos 𝜃 =0

ℎ
∆ λ = λ’ – λ =
𝑚𝑜 𝑐

ℎ 6.63×10−34
∆ λ = λ’ – λ = = =0.0243Å= λc
𝑚𝑜 𝑐 9.1×10−31 ×3×108

Where λc is called the Compton wavelength

3. When 𝜃=180° ;
2ℎ
∆ λ = λ’ – λ = = 0.04652 Å)
𝑚𝑜 𝑐

Direction of Recoil electron- Dividing equation (3) by (2) direction of recoil electron
is given by
ℎ𝑣′ sin 𝜃
tan𝛷 =
ℎ𝑣−ℎ𝑣′ cos 𝜃

𝑣′ sin 𝜃
tan𝛷 =
𝑣−𝑣′ cos 𝜃

𝑐
sin 𝜃
λ’
tan𝛷 = 𝑐 𝑐
− cos 𝜃
λ λ’

20
 λ sin 𝜃
tan𝛷 =
λ’−λ cos 𝜃

Kinetic energy of recoiled electron:

𝐸 = ℎ𝑣 − ℎ𝑣′
𝑐 𝑐
𝐸=ℎ −ℎ
𝜆 𝜆′

1 1
𝐸 = ℎ𝑐 ( − ′ )
𝜆 𝜆

𝜆′ −𝜆
𝐸 = ℎ𝑐 ( )
𝜆′ 𝜆

Q. Why Compton Effect is not observed in visible spectrum

The maximum change in wavelength ∆ λ max is 0.04652 Å or roughly 0.05 Å. This is

very small, therefore cannot be observed for wavelength longer than few angstrom
units.

For example- For X-ray, the incident radiation is about 1 Å , ∆ λ max is 0.05 Å therefore
the percentage of incident radiation is about 5%(detectable)

For Visible radiation, the incident radiation is about 5000 Å, ∆ λ max is 0.05 Å therefore
the percentage of incident radiation is about 0.001% (undetectable)

21
 NUMERICALS
Q1. What is the wavelength of maximum intensity radiation, radiated from a source having
temperature 3000K? The Wien’s constant is 0.3×10-2m-K. (M.IMP)
Solution- According to Wien’s law
𝑏
λmT = b or λm=
𝑇

Given that T = 3000K and b= 0.3×10-2 m-K

𝟎.𝟑×𝟏𝟎−𝟐
λm= =0.1×10-5 m =10000Å
3000

Q2. Using Wien’s displacement law, estimate the temperature of sun. Given λm= 4900Å and the
Wien’s constant is 0.3×10-2m-K. (IMP)

Solution- According to Wien’s law,

𝑏
λmT = b or T=
𝜆𝑚

𝟎.𝟑×𝟏𝟎−𝟐
T= =6122 K
49×10−8

Q3.A body at 1500 K emits maximum energy at wavelength 20,000 Å. If the sun emits
maximum energy at wavelength 5500 Å, what would be the temperature of sun?(M.IMP)

Solution-Wien’s displacement law- λmT = (constant)

If the sun emits maximum energy at wavelength λ′𝑚 ,

The temperature of sun is 𝑇 ′ , then (Constant) = 𝑇 ′ λ′𝑚

λmT
λmT= λ′𝑚 𝑇 ′ or 𝑇 ′ =
λ′𝑚

λm= 20,000 Å, T= 1500K, λ′𝑚 = 5500 Å

The temperature of sun is 𝑇 ′ = 5454K

Q4. Calculate the energy of an oscillator of frequency 5.6 ×1012 sec-1at 300K, treating it as (i)
classical oscillator (ii) Planck’s oscillator (h=6.6× 𝟏𝟎−𝟑𝟒 𝐉 𝒔𝒆𝒄 k=1.4× 𝟏𝟎−𝟐𝟑 𝑱/𝒌).( V.IMP)

Solution: (i) 𝐸𝑐𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 = 𝑘𝑇 = 1.4 × 10−23 × 300 = 4.2 × 10−21 𝐽

ℎ𝑣
(ii) 𝐸𝑃𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑘 = ℎ𝑣
(𝑒 𝑘𝑇 −1)

ℎ𝑣 = 3.7 × 10−21 𝐽 𝑎𝑛𝑑 ℎ𝑣⁄ = 0.88

𝑘𝑇
ℎ𝑣
𝑒 𝑘𝑇 − 1 = 2.41 − 1 = 1.41
ℎ𝑣
Therefore, 𝐸𝑃𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑘 = ℎ𝑣 = 𝟐. 𝟔𝟐 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟐𝟏 𝑱𝒐𝒖𝒍𝒆
(𝑒 𝑘𝑇 −1)

22
Q5. Find the quantity of energy radiated from 1 cm2 of a surface in one second by black body if
maximum energy density corresponding to a wavelength of 4840 Å ( Wien’s constant is 0.3×10-2
m-K, Stefan’s constant σ =5.67×10-8 Wm-2K-4)

Solution- According to Wien’s law

𝑏
λmT = b or T=
𝜆𝑚
0.3×10−2
T= = 6198 K
4840×10−10
The quantity of energy radiated from 1 cm2 of a surface in one second by black body is given by
Stefan’s law, E = σT4
E= 5.67×10-8 × (5992)4 =7.31×107 J-m-2-sec-1
E = 7.31×103 J-cm-2-sec-1
Q6. The radius of the first Bohr orbit hydrogen atom is 0.53× 𝟏𝟎−𝟏𝟎 m. find the velocity of
electron in that orbit using de- Broglie theory (h=6.6× 𝟏𝟎−𝟑𝟒 𝐉 𝒔𝒆𝒄m=9.1× 𝟏𝟎−𝟑𝟏 𝒌𝒈). ( IMP)

Solution: We know that 2𝜋𝑟 = 𝑛λ

ℎ ℎ
For first Bohr orbit n=1 and λ = 𝑝= 𝑚𝑣

h 6.6×10−34
We get v = 2πrm = 2×3.14×0.53×10−10 ×9.1×10−31 = 2.18× 106 m/s

Q7. Calculate the de- Broglie wavelength associated with a proton moving with a velocity equal
𝒕𝒉
to(𝟏⁄𝟐𝟎) velocity of light. (M.IMP)
h h
Solution: we know that λ= p = mv and we know that

h = 6.6× 10−34 J sec m = 9.1× 10−31 𝑘𝑔, v = c/20= 3 × 108 /20

ℎ 6.6×10−34
λ = 𝑚𝑣 = = 2.643× 10−14 m.
9.1×10−31 x 3×108 /20

Q8. Calculate the de-Broglie wavelength associated with nitrogen at 3.0 atmospheric pressure
and 27° C mass of nitrogen atom =4.65× 𝟏𝟎−𝟐𝟔 kg. (IMP)

Solution: de-Broglie wavelength at temperature T is given by

ℎ ℎ ℎ
λ= =λ= or λ=
√2𝑚𝐸𝑘 √2𝑚 𝑘𝑇
3 √3𝑚𝑘𝑇
2

m = 4.65× 10−26 kg, T = 27° C = 27+273 = 300K, k =1.38 × 10-23 J/K,

h = 6.6× 10−34 Jsec
λ = 0.2754 Å.
Q9. The kinetic energy of of an electron is 4.55 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟐𝟓 𝑱. Calculate velocity momentum and
wavelength of electron. (V.IMP)

23
 1
Solution: The kinetic energy of an electron (k) = 2 m0 v 2
2k
From above equation v 2 =
m

m0 = 9.1× 10-31 kg
4.55 ×10−25 ×2
Velocity v 2 = = 106 or v = 103 m/sec
9.1× 10−31

Momentum p=m0 v = 103 × 9.1× 10-31

p = 9.1 × 10−28 kg − m/sec

h 6.6×10−34
We know that λ = = 9.1× 10−28 = 7.286× 10-7
p

Wavelength of the electron = 7.286× 10-7 m = 0.0073 Å

Q10. Calculate wavelength of an α particle accelerated through a potential difference of 200
Volts. (2004, 2010) (M.IMP)

Solution-The de-Broglie’s wavelength of an α-particle accelerated through a potential difference V is

ℎ
given by, λ=
√2𝑚𝑞𝑉

For α-particle q= 2e = 2×1.6×10-19 coulomb

And the mass of α-particle= 4×mass of proton = 4×1.67×10-27 kg

ℎ
λ=√2×4×1.67×10−27 = 7.16×10-13 m
× 2×200×1.6×10−19

λ= 7.16×10-3 Å =0.00716Å

Q11. A particle at rest mass mo has kinetic energy K. show that its de-Broglie wavelength is
𝒉𝒄
given by, λ= (IMP)
√𝑲(𝑲+𝟐𝒎𝟎 𝒄𝟐 )

ℎ
Solution- The de-Broglie wavelength associated with moving particle is given by λ = 𝑚𝑣 …(1)

𝑚0
𝑚=
𝑣2
√1 −
𝑐2

𝑣2 𝑚0 2 𝑣2 𝑚0 2
1− =( ) or =1−( )
𝑐2 𝑚 𝑐2 𝑚

or 𝑚𝑣 = 𝑐√𝑚2 − 𝑚𝑜 2
Substituting this value in equation (1)
ℎ ℎ𝑐
λ= = ……(2)
𝑐√𝑚2 −𝑚𝑜 2 𝑐 2 √𝑚2 −𝑚𝑜 2
24
 But 𝑐 2 √𝑚2 − 𝑚𝑜 2 = 𝑐 2 √(𝑚 − 𝑚𝑜 )(𝑚 + 𝑚𝑜 )

=√𝑐 4 (𝑚 − 𝑚𝑜 )(𝑚 + 𝑚𝑜 )

=√𝑐 2 (𝑚 − 𝑚𝑜 ){𝑐 2 (𝑚 + 𝑚𝑜 )}

=√𝑐 2 (𝑚 − 𝑚𝑜 ){𝑐 2 (𝑚 − 𝑚𝑜 + 2𝑚𝑜 )}

=√𝑐 2 (𝑚 − 𝑚𝑜 ){𝑐 2 (𝑚 − 𝑚𝑜 ) + 2𝑚𝑜 𝑐 2 }

= √𝐾(𝐾 + 2𝑚0 𝑐 2 ) [where(𝑚 − 𝑚𝑜 ) 𝑐 2 = 𝐾]

Therefore equation (2) becomes,

ℎ𝑐
λ=
√𝐾(𝐾+2𝑚0 𝑐 2 )

Q12. Calculate the de-Broglie wavelength associated with an electron subjected to a potential
difference of 50 volts. (2001)(V.IMP)

Solution- The de-Broglie’s wavelength of an electron subjected to a potential difference V is given

ℎ 12.28
by, λ= = Å
√2𝑚𝑞𝑉 √𝑉

12.28
λ= =1.7336 Å
√50

Q13. Calculate the de-Broglie wavelength of neutron having kinetic energy, 1 eV. (2001,
2009)(V.IMP)

Solution- The rest energy of neutron is m0c2 =1.67×10-27× (3×108)2

1.503×10−10
= = 1.503 × 10−10 joule = eV
1.6×10−19

= 939.4 MeV

The Kinetic energy of the given neutron is 1eV=1.6×10-19 joule , is very small as compared to its rest
mass energy, therefore the relativistic consideration may be ignored.

So the de-Broglie’s wavelength of an neutron of rest mass m0 is give by-

ℎ 6.63×10−34
λ= = =2.87×10-11 m
√2Em0 √(2×1.67×10−27 ×1.6×10−19 )

Q14. Find the expectation value <x> of the position of a particle trapped in a box of length L.

Solution- The expectation value of the position of a particle with wave function is given by,

25
 +∞
∫ 𝑥|𝝍𝑛 |2 𝑑𝑥 =< 𝑥 >
−∞

As the particle trapped in box of length,

2 𝒏𝝅𝒙
𝝍𝑛 = √𝐿 𝑠𝑖𝑛 ( )
𝐿

2 𝐿 𝒏𝝅𝒙
∫ 𝑥 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝑑𝑥 =< 𝑥 >
𝐿 0 𝐿

2 𝐿1 2𝒏𝝅𝒙
∫ [𝑥 {1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠 ( )}]𝑑𝑥 =< 𝑥 >
𝐿 0 2 𝐿
1 𝐿 2𝒏𝝅𝒙
∫ [𝑥 {1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠 ( )}]𝑑𝑥 =< 𝑥 >
𝐿 0 𝐿
1 𝐿2
Integrating above term and solving < 𝑥 > = (2)
𝐿
𝑳
<𝑥 >=
𝟐
Q15. A particle is moving in one dimensional potential box of width 25 Å. Calculate the
probability of finding the particle within an interval of 5 Å at the centre of the box when it is in
state of least energy. (V.IMP)

2 𝒏𝝅𝒙
Solution-Since we know that 𝝍𝑛 = √𝐿 𝑠𝑖𝑛 ( )
𝐿

2 πx
For lowest energy state n=1 , wave function will be ψ = √L sin ( L )

L
At the centre of box x =2 therefor probability of finding the particle at the center of box
L
2 πx 2 π 2 π 2
|ψn |2 = sin2 = sin 2 2
= L sin2 2 = L
L a L L

Probability in the interval is given by,

2
P= |ψn |2 ∆x = L∆x

Here L = 25 Å= 25 × 10−10 m and ∆x = 5 Å = 5 × 10−10 m

𝟐×𝟓×𝟏𝟎−𝟏𝟎
P= = 0.4
𝟐𝟓×𝟏𝟎−𝟏𝟎

Q16.A particle confined to move along x-axis has the wave function 𝝍 = 𝒂𝒙, between x=0 and
x=1.0 and 𝛙 = 𝟎 elsewhere. Find the probability that the particle can be found between x=0.35
and x=0.45. Also find the expectation value < 𝑥 > 𝒐𝒇 𝒑𝒂𝒓𝒕𝒊𝒄𝒍𝒆 𝒑𝒐𝒔𝒊𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏. (IMP)

Solution- Probability of finding the particle is given by.

+∞
P = ∫−∞ |𝝍𝑛 |2 𝑑𝑥
0.45 0.45
P = ∫0.35 (𝑎𝑥)2 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑎2 ∫0.35 (𝑥)2 𝑑𝑥

26
 𝑥3
P= 𝑎2 ( 3 ) within limit 0.35 to 0.45.

𝑎2 𝑎2
P= [(0.45)3 − (0.35)3 ] = [ 0.0911 − 0.0428]
3 3

P = 0.0161𝒂𝟐

The expectation value < 𝑥 >of the position of a particle described by a wave function
𝝍𝑛 (𝑥)𝑖𝑠 𝑔𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝑏𝑦
+∞
2
<𝑥 ≥=∫ 𝑥|𝝍𝑛 | 𝑑𝑥
−∞

The particle is trapped between x = 0 and x= 1

1 𝑎2
1 2 1 3 𝑎2 𝑥4
< 𝑥 > = ∫0 𝑥 (𝑎𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑎2 ∫0 (𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 = ( 4 ) =
0 4
< 𝑥 > = 0.25 𝑎2

Q17.Find the probabilities of finding a particle trapped in a box of length L in the region from
0.45 L to 0.55 L for the ground state and first excited state. (M.IMP)

Solution- The eigen function of a particle trapped in a box of length L is given by

2 𝒏𝝅𝒙
𝝍𝑛 = √ 𝑠𝑖𝑛 ( )
𝐿 𝐿

Probability of finding the particle between x1 and x2 for nth state is given by
𝑥
P = ∫𝑥 2|𝝍𝑛 |2 𝑑𝑥
1

𝑥 2 𝒏𝝅𝒙 2 𝑥 1 𝟐𝒏𝝅𝒙
P = ∫𝑥 2 𝐿 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 ( ) 𝑑𝑥 = 𝐿 ∫𝑥 2 2 (1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠 ) 𝑑𝑥
1 𝐿 1 𝐿

1 x2 𝟐𝒏𝝅𝒙
P= ∫ (1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠
𝐿 x1 𝐿
) 𝑑𝑥

1 𝐿 𝟐𝒏𝝅𝒙 𝑥2
P= [𝑥 − 𝟐𝒏𝝅 𝑠𝑖𝑛 ]𝑥
𝐿 𝐿 1

Here 𝑥1 = 0.45 L, 𝑥2 = 0.55 L, for ground state n = 1

1 𝐿 𝐿
P = 𝐿 [(0.55 𝐿 − 𝟐𝝅 sin(1.10𝝅)) − (0.45 𝐿 − 𝟐𝝅 sin(0.90𝝅))]

1 1
P = [(0.55 − sin(198° )) − (0.45 − sin(162° ))]
𝟐𝝅 𝟐𝝅

1
= (0.55 − 0.45) − 𝟐𝝅(sin 198° − sin 162° )
1
= 0.10 - 𝟐𝝅 (sin 198° − sin162° )
1
= 0.10 - 𝟐𝝅 (-0.309− 0.309)
1
=0.10 - 𝟐𝝅 (-0.618)

=0.10 +0.0984

27
 = 0.1984 = 19.84%
Similarly, for first excited state (n = 2) we get P = 0.65%
Q18. Find the energy of an electron moving in one dimension in an infinitely high potential box
of width 1 Å. (2001, 2005, 2007). (M.IMP)

Solution- the energy of a particle of mass m moving in one dimension in an infinitely high potential
𝑛2 ℎ 2
box of width L is given by- E = 8𝑚𝐿2
The minimum energy can be obtained by substituting n=1in above formula
ℎ2
E = 8𝑚𝐿2
Here m= 9.1×10-31Kg h=6.63×10-34 joule-sec and L= 1 Å =10-10m
(6.63×10−34 )(6.63×10−34 )
E=
8×9.1×10−31 ×10−20

E=6.03×10-18 joule = 37.69 eV

Q19. An electron is bound in one dimensional which has width 2.5 Å. Assuming the height of box
to be infinite calculate the lowest two permitted energy values of the electron. (2001)(M.IMP)

Solution-The energy of a particle of mass m moving in one dimension in an infinitely high potential
𝑛2 ℎ 2
box of width L is given by- E = 8𝑚𝐿2

Here m = 9.1×10-31Kg h = 6.63×10-34 joule-sec and L= 2.5 Å = 2.5×10-10m

𝑛2 (6.63×10−34 )(6.63×10−34 )
E= = 9.66×10-19 n2 joule
8×9.1×10−31 ×(2.5)2 ×10−20

E= (9.66×10-19 n2)/ 1.6×10-19 = 6.04 n2 eV

The lowest two permitted energy values of the electron is obtained by putting n=1 and n = 2.first
lowest permitted energy value is (for n=1) = 6.04eV
Second lowest permitted energy value is (for n=2) = 6.04 × 4 =24.16eV
Q20. In a Compton scattering experiment X-ray of wavelength 0.015Å is scattered at 60°, find
the wavelength of scattered X- ray. (V.IMP) ( 2008)

Solution- If λ and λ′ be the wavelength of incident and scattered X-ray of photon respectively then the
Compton shift is given by
ℎ
(λ′ - λ) = ∆λ = 𝑚 𝑐(1-cosθ)
0

ℎ
Therefore λ′ = λ + 𝑚 𝑐 (1-cosθ)
0

2×6.63×10−34
= (0.015×10-10)+ 𝑠in2 30°
9.1×10−31 ×3×108
2×6.63×10−34
= (0.015×10-10) + (1/2)2
9.1×10−31 ×3×108
= (0.015×10-10) + 0.012×10-10
λ′ = 0.027×10-10 m = 0.027Å
Q21. An X- ray photon is found to have its wavelength doubled on being scattered through 90°
from a material. Find the wavelength and energy of incident photon. (V.IMP)
28
Solution – If λ and λ′ be the wavelength of incident and scattered X-ray of photon respectively then
the Compton shift is given by.
ℎ
(λ′ - λ) = ∆λ = 𝑚 𝑐 (1-cosθ)
0

Here θ=90° and λ′ = 2λ

∆λ = (λ′ – λ) = 2λ- λ= λ
ℎ 6.63×10−34
Thus λ = 𝑚 = =0.0245Å
0 𝑐 9.1×10−31 ×3×108

ℎ𝑐 6.63×10−34 ×3×108
The energy of the incident photon E = hν = 𝜆 = 0.0245×10−10

E= 8.106×10-14 joule
Q22. Calculate Compton shift of x –ray of λ=1.0 Å are scattered from a carbon block. The
scattered radiation is viewed at 90° to the incident beam. (V.IMP)
ℎ
Solution – since (λ′ - λ) = ∆λ = 𝑚 𝑐(1-cosθ)
0

ℎ 6.63×10−34 ×3×108
∆λ = 𝑚 𝑐(1-cosθ) = (1-cos 90°)
0 0.0245×10−10

∆λ = 0.0243×1=0.0243Å.

Q23. When X-ray of energy 100 keV strikes a target, they are scattered at an angle 30°. Find the
energy of recoiled electrons. (IMP)

Solution- If λ and λ′ be the wavelength of incident and scattered X-ray of photon respectively then the
Compton shift is given by
ℎ
(λ′ - λ) = ∆λ = 𝑚 𝑐(1-cosθ)
0

K.E of electron = (ℎ𝑣 − ℎ𝑣′)

λ’ λ 1 1 1 1
− = ((1 − 𝑐𝑜 𝑠 𝜃) or − = ((1 − 𝑐𝑜 𝑠 𝜃)
ℎ𝑐 ℎ𝑐 𝑚𝑜 𝑐2 (ℎ𝑣′) ℎ𝑣 𝑚𝑜 𝑐 2

1 1 1
= + (1 − 𝑐𝑜 𝑠 𝜃)
(ℎ𝑣′) ℎ𝑣 𝑚𝑜 𝑐 2
Since 𝑚𝑜 𝑐 2 = 0.511 𝑀𝑒𝑉 = 511𝑘𝑒𝑉 , ℎ𝑣 = 100 𝑘𝑒𝑉
1 1 1 1 1 1
= + ((1 − 𝑐𝑜 𝑠 𝜃) or = + (1 − 𝑐𝑜 𝑠 30)
(ℎ𝑣′) 100 511 (ℎ𝑣′) 100 511

1 1 1
= + (1 − 0.866)
(ℎ𝑣′) 100 511
1 1 0.134
= + =0.010 or ℎ𝑣 ′ = 98.04 𝑘𝑒𝑉
(ℎ𝑣′) 100 511

K.E of electron = (𝒉𝒗 − -𝒉𝒗′) = 100 keV – 98.04 keV = 1.96 keV

Q24. Compton Effect cannot be observed with visible light. Why? (M.IMP) (2017)

29
Solution - The maximum change in wavelength ∆λmax is 0.04652 Å or roughly 0.05 Å. This small
therefore cannot be observed for wavelength longer than few angstrom units.

For example- For X-ray, the incident radiation is about 1 Å , ∆λmax is 0.05 Å therefore the percentage
of incident radiation is about 5%(detectable)

For Visible radiation, the incident radiation is about 5000 Å, ∆λmax is 0.05 Å, therefore the percentage
of incident radiation is about 0.001% (undetectable).

Q25. Show that the de-Broglie wavelength for a material particle of rest mass 𝐦𝐨 and charge q
accelerated from rest through a potential difference of V volts relativistically is given by

ℎ
λ= 𝟏⁄
𝐪𝐕 𝟐
{𝟐𝐦𝐨 𝐪𝐕 [𝟏 + 𝟐 ]}
𝟐𝐦𝐨 𝐜

ℎ
Solution:we know that λ= 𝑝 ……. (1)

Particle has charge q and accelerated through a potential difference of V, therefore kinetic energy
Ek=qV. Since velocity is relativistic, we find momentum p by using relativistic formula as E,

𝐸 2 = 𝑝2 𝑐 2 + 𝑚𝑜 2 𝑐 4 , 𝐸 = 𝐸𝑘 + 𝑚𝑜 𝑐 2 = 𝑞𝑉 + 𝑚𝑜 𝑐 2

𝑝2 𝑐 2 = 𝐸 2 − 𝑚𝑜 2 𝑐 4 =(𝑞𝑉 + 𝑚𝑜 𝑐 2 )2 − 𝑚𝑜 2 𝑐 4= 𝑞 2 𝑉 2 + 2𝑚𝑜 𝑐 2 𝑞𝑉
𝑞𝑉
Therefore 𝑝2 = 2𝑚𝑜 𝑞𝑉(1 + 2𝑚 2
)
𝑜𝑐

𝑞𝑉
Or 𝑝 = √2𝑚𝑜 𝑞𝑉 (1 + 2𝑚 2
)………..(2)
𝑜𝑐

Therefore on substituting value of p from eqn 2 in eqn 1

ℎ
λ= 𝟏⁄
𝐪𝐕 𝟐
{𝟐𝐦𝐨 𝐪𝐕 [𝟏 + ]}
𝟐𝐦𝐨 𝐜 𝟐

Q26. Obtains Bohr’s quantization condition for angular momentum of electron orbiting
in nth hydrogen atom on the basis of the wave picture of an electron using de Broglie
hypothesis.(2019-20 O)(V.IMP)

30
Solution: The wave character of electron account for the limited number of allowable orbits and also
enables us to deduce the quantized angular momentum of an electron in orbit. Since the electron does
radiates energy while moving in its orbit, the wave associated with it must be stationary wave in which
there is no loss of energy.

Thus the electron forms the standing wave only when the circumference of orbit is integral multiple of
wavelength. That is

Circumference = whole Number of wave length If 'n' is the nth orbit

2πr = nλ .................(1)

𝒉 𝒉
Since λ= =
𝒑 𝒎𝒗

𝒏𝒉
Therefore 2πr =
𝒎𝒗

𝐧𝐡
r = ..……………(2)
𝟐 𝛑𝐦𝐯

Hence the angular momentum of electron in nth orbit from equation (2),

𝐧𝐡
𝑳𝒏 = 𝒎𝒗𝒓 =
𝟐𝛑

Where 𝑳𝒏 is angular momentum of electron in nth orbit? This is the Bohr’s quantization condition. de-
Broglie thus demonstrated that the quantization of angular momentum is direct consequence of wave
nature of electron.

Q 29. Can a photon and an electron of the same momentum have the same wavelength?
Compare their wavelength if the two have the same energy. (IMP) or

Compare the wavelengths of photon and an electron if the two have same energy.

𝒉
The de-Broglie’s wavelength of an electron λe=
𝒑𝒆

𝒉
Or momentum 𝒑𝒆 = ……….(1)
𝛌𝒆

𝒉
Similarly the momentum of photon 𝒑𝒑𝒉 = 𝛌 ………..(2)
𝒑𝒉

Therefore if photon and an electron have same momentum then from equation 1 and 2, we have

λe = 𝛌𝒑𝒉

Hence a photon and an electron of same momentum have the same wavelength.

If E is the energy of electron then,

31
 𝒉
λe = ……(3)
√𝟐𝒎𝑬

ℎ ℎ𝑐
The de-Broglie’s wavelength of photon 𝜆𝑝ℎ = = ……..(4)
𝑚𝑐 𝐸

Now from equation 3 and 4

𝛌𝒆 𝟐𝒎𝒄𝟐
= √
𝜆𝑝ℎ 𝑬

32