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Phase A molecule will be nonpolar if:

A homogeneous part of a system in contact • All of the terminal atoms (or groups) are the
with other parts of the system, but separated same
from them other parts by well-defined
• All of the terminal atoms (or groups) are
boundaries.
symmetrically arranged around the central
Condensed phases atom
Liquids and solids • The terminal atoms (or groups) have the
same charges
Intramolecular forces and intermolecular
forces • Example: CO2
Intermolecular forces are attractive forces Kinetic Molecular Theory:
between molecules.
1. All matter is made of tiny particles.
-responsible for bulk properties of matter (for
2. These particles are in constant motion.
example, melting point and boiling point)
3. The speed of particles is proportional to
Intramolecular forces hold atoms together in
temperature. Increased temperature means
a molecule.
greater speed.
-stabilize individual molecules
4. Solids, liquids, and gases differ in distances
between particles, in the freedom of motion of
particles, and in the extent to which the
When a solid melts, or a liquid boils, the
particles move away from each other. As they do,
particles interact.
intermolecular forces of attraction are broken. The Characteristics Properties of Gases, Liquids, and Solids
stronger the intermolecular forces to be broken, the State Volume/sh Densi Compressibi Motion
larger the amount of energy needed to break them, of ape ty lity of
hence, the higher the melting point for solid to liquid Matt Molecul
transformation, and boiling point for liquid to gas er es
transformation. Gas Assumes low Very Very
the volume compressibl free
and shape e motion
Polar Molecules have dipole moments.
of the
A molecule will be polar if: container
Liqui Has high Only slightly Slide
• One or more terminal atoms differ from each d definite compressibl past
other. volume but e one
assumes another
• At least one polar bond is present. the shape freely
• The terminal atoms are not symmetrically of the
container
arranged
Solid Has high Virtually Vibrate
• The molecule has one slightly positive end definite incompressi about a
and one slightly negative end. volume and ble fixed
shape position
• Example: H2O s

Nonpolar Molecules do not have dipole

moments.
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There is no upward pull to balance the
downward pull
This results in a net oull inward on surfaced
molecules
examples: beading of water on a freshly waxed
car,(polar substance on a non-polar surface)
formation of meniscus (water is concave -
adhesion>cohesion, mercury is convex –
cohesion>adhesion), capillary action which
results from a combination of cohesion (like
molecules) and adhesion (unlike molecules)
VISCOSITY
A measure of a fluid’s resistance to flow
Units: N*s/m2
Higher the viscosity, greater the resistance to
flow
Varies inversely with temperature
Stronger IMF -> higher viscosity
POLARZABILITY
Glycerol
Ease with which an atom or molecule can be
distorted to have an instantaneous dipole High viscosity due to 3 hydrogen
bonding sites, molecular shape
*big molecules are more easily polarized than
little ones *large, complex molecules -> highly viscous
HYRDROCARBONS have only LONDON Cyclohexane
DISPERSION as IMF
Lower viscosity than hexane because it
Strongest to weakest (covalent-hydrogen- is a circle, more compact
dipole-dipole interactions-london forces)
VAPOR PRESSURE
Vapor is a gas phase above a substance that
SURFACE TENSION exists as solid or liquid at 25oC and 1 atm
Surface tension is a quantitative measure of Vaporization or Evaporation is the change from
the elastic force at the surface of a liquid liquid to gas at or below the boiling point
(ENDOTHERMIC PROCESS)
Surface tension is the amount of energy
required to stretch or increase the surface of a Condensation is the change of a gas to a liquid
liquid by a unit area (EXOTHERMIC PROCESS)
Strong IMF -> high surface tension Initially, a liquid in a closed container
decreases as molecules enter gaseous phase
Molecules at the top are only pulled inside by
other molecules When equilibrium is reached, no more net
change occurs
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At equilibrium, rate of condensation and rate Boiling point of water decreases with
of vaporization become equal decreasing pressure so it’s hard to boiling an
egg on a mountain top because the amount of
Molecules still are changing phase but no net
heat delivered to the egg is not enough for
change (dynamic equilibrium)
cooking.
Vapor pressure is independent of volume of
container as long as some liquid is present
(liquid-vapor equilibrium)
Equilibrium vapor pressure or vapor
pressure is the pressure exerted by the vapor
when the vapor is in dynamic equilibrium with
the liquid at a constant temperature
Vapor pressure depends upon the nature of
the liquid and consequently on the IMF
Liquids with high vapor pressure (volatile
liquids) -> evaporate quickly
Liquids with high vapor pressure (volatile
liquids) -> weak IMF CLAUSIUS-CLAPEYRON EQUATION
Liquids with low vapor pressure -> strong
London dispersion forces
Liquids with low vapor pressure -> (large molar
masses) or dipole-dipole forces
Vapor pressures increases with temperature
More molecules have enough KE to overcome
IMF
At higher temperature, more molecules have
enough energy – higher vapor pressure
MOLAR HEAT OF VAPORIZATION
Molar heat of vaporization (∆Hvap) is the
energy required to vaporize 1mole of a liquid at (linear relation between temperature and vapor
its boiling point. It is directly related to the pressure)
strength of IMF that exists in liquid
BOILING POINT
It is the temperature at which the (equilibrium)
vapor pressure of a liquid is equal to the
external pressure
Normal boiling point is the temperature at where R = 8.314 J/K . mol
which a liquid boils when the external pressure
is 1atm At two temperatures, T1 and T2
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TYPES OS SOLIDS
Crystalline solids
-highly regular 3 dimensional arrangement of
their components (tables salt or NACl)
-rigid or long range order; its atoms, molecules
or ions occupy specific positions
-arrangement of particles are usually called
lattice structure
-lattice structure depends upon nature of
particles involved, size of particles involved
-forces responsible for stability are ionic
forces, covalent bond, van der waals forces,
hydrogen bonds
Amorphous solids
PACKING SPHERES
-considerable disorder in their structures (glass
components are frozen in place before The way atoms are arranged to from an
solidifying and achieving an ordered ordered 3-d structure is called packing
arrangement) Type of unit cell is determined by the way the
atoms are packed or arranged in layers

Lattice – 3 dimensional system that describes Open packing – aligned

the locations of components (atoms, ions, Close packing – window type arrangement
molecules) that make up the unit cells of a
substance
Unit cell – the smallest (basic) repeating unit in
the lattice
Spheres shown on the unit cell are
called lattice points (atoms, ions, molecules)

COORDINATION NUMBER
Number of atoms (particles) surrounding an
atom in a crystal lattice
Coordination number indicates how tightly
atoms pack
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Larger coordination numbers indicate tighter
packing (closer packing)
TYPE OF CUBIC UNIT CELLS
Simple or primitive (scc)
Body-centered (bcc)
Face-centered (fcc)

Corner atom – 1/8 atom within unit cell

Face atom – ½ atom within unit cell
Body atom – 1 atom within unit cell
NUMBER OF ATOMS PER UNIT CELL
Scc – 1 atom
Bcc – 2 atoms
Fcc – 4 atoms

Hexagonal closed-packed (hcp)

It has (aba) arrangements that occur when the
spheres of the third layer occupy positions so
that each sphere in the third layer lies directly Ionic crystals
over a sphere in the first layer – Composed of anions and cations
– Held together by coulombic forces
Cubic close-packed (ccp) – Anions generally are bigger than cations
It has (abc) arrangement that occurs when the – Size and relative number of each ion
spheres of the third layer occupy positions that determines the crystal structure ‘
NO sphere lies over one in the first layer
– They conduct electric current when dissolved
in water
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– They possess huge melting and boiling -Lack regular arrangement of atoms
points.
– Atoms are locked in lattice so they are hard solid
and brittle.
– Optically transparent fusion product of
– Every electron is accounted for so they are inorganic materials that has cooled to a rigid
poor conductors-good insulators. state without crystallization
Covalent crystals – It is composed mainly by mixing molten SiO2
with other components such as Na2O, B2O3
-Held by covalent bonds
and certain transition metal oxides for coloring
-diamond, graphite
– Behaves more as a liquid than a solid
Molecular crystals
- Lattice points occupied by molecules
- Held together by intermolecular forces
(dispersion dipole-dipole forcesand/or
hydrogen bonding )
Other examples: dry CO2, S8, P4, I2
Metallic crystals
-Lattice points occupied by atoms Phase changes

– Generally bcc, fcc, hexagonal closest – homogenous part of a system that

packed is separated from the rest of the system by a
well- –
– Very dense transition from one phase to another
– Bonding arises from delocalized electrons – Caused by the removal or addition of
over the entire crystal. energy
– High electrical conductivity and High thermal
conductivity
-Metal atoms are imagined as an array of
positive ions immersed in a sea of delocalized
valence electrons. This is known as the
Metallic bond

Amorphous solids
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– Energy involved is usually in the form
of heat

Critical temp and critical pressure

e (Tc) – the temperature
Liquid-vapor phase transition above which a gas cannot be liquified by
application of pressure
es by
increasing the temperature. When the vpor – the pressure that
pressure reaches the external pressure, the must be applied to liquefy a gas at Tc.
liquid boils
– the temperature at pressure (for water, Tc = 374°C and 218 atm).
which the vapor pressure of liquid equals – the fluid that exists
atmospheric pressure above Tc and Pc.
– the Solid-liquid phase transformation
amount of heat required to vaporize one mole
of a substance at its boiling point usually in – Freezing – transformation of liquid to solid
kJ/mol – Melting (fusion) – opposite of freezing
– Melting point of solid (or freezing point of
intermolecular forces liquid) – temperature at which the solid and
– opposite of vaporization. A liquid phases coexist in equilibrium
gas can be liquified either by cooling or by
applying a pressure forward and reverse processes are occurring at
Superheating and supercooling the same rate

-changes of state do not always occur exactly

at bp or Fp
– Material can stay liquid below
freezing point because doesn’t achieve level of
organization needed to make solid
– when heated too quickly,
liquid can be raised above boiling point –
causes “bumping”
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– Molar heat of fusion (DHfus) – energy

to melt one mole of a solid usually in kJ/mol

Solid-vapor phase transition

– Sublimation – process by which molecules go
directly from the solid phase to the vapor phase
– Deposition – reverse of sublimation
– – energy
required to sublime one mole of solid usually in
kJ/mol
Hsub = Hfus + Hvap
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– the point at which all three phase
boundary lines meet

Phase Diagrams

(temperature and pressure) at which a

substance exists as a solid, liquid or gas

gas) of a substance in a closed system (no

material escapes into the surroundings and no
air is present) as a function of temperature and
pressure.
– The plot is divided into three regions
(solid, liquid, gas)
– Phase boundary line – line separating
any two regions – Triple point
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SOLUTIONS