Ministry of Higher Education and

Scientific Research
Northern Technical University
College of Engineering Technology,
Kirkuk
Surveying Engineering
Second Class

Report
Integration

By
Ayman Dhahir

Supervised
Mrs. Maha Adnan

2024‫م‬ 1445‫ه‬
Introduction
In mathematics, an integral is the continuous analog of a sum, which is used to
calculate areas, volumes, and their generalizations. Integration, the process of
computing an integral, is one of the two fundamental operations of calculus,[a] the
other being differentiation. Integration was initially used to solve problems in
mathematics and physics, such as finding the area under a curve, or determining
displacement from velocity. Usage of integration expanded to a wide variety of
scientific fields thereafter.
A definite integral computes the signed area of the region in the plane that is
bounded by the graph of a given function between two points in the real line.
Conventionally, areas above the horizontal axis of the plane are positive while
areas below are negative. Integrals also refer to the concept of an antiderivative, a
function whose derivative is the given function; in this case, they are also called
indefinite integrals. The fundamental theorem of calculus relates definite
integration to differentiation and provides a method to compute the definite
integral of a function when its antiderivative is known; differentiation and
integration are inverse operations.
Although methods of calculating areas and volumes dated from ancient Greek
mathematics, the principles of integration were formulated independently by Isaac
Newton and Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz in the late 17th century, who thought of the
area under a curve as an infinite sum of rectangles of infinitesimal width. Bernhard
Riemann later gave a rigorous definition of integrals, which is based on a limiting
procedure that approximates the area of a curvilinear region by breaking the region
into infinitesimally thin vertical slabs. In the early 20th century, Henri Lebesgue
generalized Riemann's formulation by introducing what is now referred to as the
Lebesgue integral; it is more general than Riemann's in the sense that a wider class
of functions are Lebesgue-integrable.
1
Integrals may be generalized depending on the type of the function as well as the
domain over which the integration is performed. For example, a line integral is
defined for functions of two or more variables, and the interval of integration is
replaced by a curve connecting two points in space. In a surface integral, the curve
is replaced by a piece of a surface in three-dimensional space.

History
Pre-calculus integration
The first documented systematic technique capable of determining integrals is the
method of exhaustion of the ancient Greek astronomer Eudoxus (ca. 370 BC),
which sought to find areas and volumes by breaking them up into an infinite
number of divisions for which the area or volume was known.This method was
further developed and employed by Archimedes in the 3rd century BC and used to
calculate the area of a circle, the surface area and volume of a sphere, area of an

2
ellipse, the area under a parabola, the volume of a segment of a paraboloid of
revolution, the volume of a segment of a hyperboloid of revolution, and the area of
a spiral.
A similar method was independently developed in China around the 3rd century
AD by Liu Hui, who used it to find the area of the circle. This method was later
used in the 5th century by Chinese father-and-son mathematicians Zu Chongzhi
and Zu Geng to find the volume of a sphere.
In the Middle East, Hasan Ibn al-Haytham, Latinized as Alhazen (c. 965 – c. 1040
AD) derived a formula for the sum of fourth powers.He used the results to carry
out what would now be called an integration of this function, where the formulae
for the sums of integral squares and fourth powers allowed him to calculate the
volume of a paraboloid.
The next significant advances in integral calculus did not begin to appear until the
17th century. At this time, the work of Cavalieri with his method of indivisibles,
and work by Fermat, began to lay the foundations of modern calculus, with
Cavalieri computing the integrals of xn up to degree n = 9 in Cavalieri's quadrature
formula. The case n = −1 required the invention of a function, the hyperbolic
logarithm, achieved by quadrature of the hyperbola in 1647.
Further steps were made in the early 17th century by Barrow and Torricelli, who
provided the first hints of a connection between integration and differentiation.
Barrow provided the first proof of the fundamental theorem of calculus. Wallis
generalized Cavalieri's method, computing integrals of x to a general power,
including negative powers and fractional powers.

Terminology and notation

In general, the integral of a real-valued function f(x) with respect to a real
variable x on an interval [a, b] is written as
3
The integral sign ∫ represents integration. The symbol dx, called the differential of
the variable x, indicates that the variable of integration is x. The function f(x) is
called the integrand, the points a and b are called the limits (or bounds) of
integration, and the integral is said to be over the interval [a, b], called the interval
of integration.A function is said to be integrable if its integral over its domain is
finite. If limits are specified, the integral is called a definite integral.
When the limits are omitted, as in

Interpretations
Integrals appear in many practical situations. For instance, from the length, width
and depth of a swimming pool which is rectangular with a flat bottom, one can
determine the volume of water it can contain, the area of its surface, and the length
of its edge. But if it is oval with a rounded bottom, integrals are required to find
exact and rigorous values for these quantities. In each case, one may divide the
sought quantity into infinitely many infinitesimal pieces, then sum the pieces to
achieve an accurate approximation.

4
As another example, to find the area of the region bounded by the graph of the
function f(x) = between x = 0 and x = 1, one can divide the interval into five pieces
(0, 1/5, 2/5, ..., 1), then construct rectangles using the right end height of each piece
(thus √0, √1/5, √2/5, ..., √1) and sum their areas to get the approximation.

which is larger than the exact value. Alternatively, when replacing these
subintervals by ones with the left end height of each piece, the approximation one
gets is too low: with twelve such subintervals the approximated area is only
0.6203. However, when the number of pieces increases to infinity, it will reach a
limit which is the exact value of the area sought (in this case, 2/3). One writes

Formal definitions

There are many ways of formally defining an integral, not all of which are
equivalent. The differences exist mostly to deal with differing special cases which
may not be integrable under other definitions, but are also occasionally for
pedagogical reasons. The most commonly used definitions are Riemann integrals
and Lebesgue integrals.

5
Riemann sums converging

Lebesgue integration