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COMPUTER SCIENCE

Grade: XII

DATA COMMUNICATION AND NETWORKING

REFERENCE NOTE

NEB Important Questions for Computer Science XII

Unit-2- Data Communication and Networking - 9 Marks

1. What is Computer Network? Explain advantages and disadvantages of computer network.

2. Discuss different types of computer network on the basis of size.
3. What do you mean by network topology? Explain the different types of network topologies.
4. Differentiate between LAN and WAN.
5. Define network architecture. Differentiate between client server and peer to peer networks.
6. Differentiate between Simplex, Half Duplex and Full Duplex.
7. Differentiate between internet and intranet.
8. What is Internet addressing? Discuss Network Tool.
9. What do you mean by transmission media? Explain the different types of transmission media used
in computer network?
10. What do you mean by OSI reference model? Explain the different layers of OSI reference model.
11. Define the following terms : a) Repeater b) Bridge c) Protocol d) Router e) Satellite
f) Microwave System g) subnet Mask h) MAC address i) Coaxial Cable
j) Fiber Optic Cable

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Unit 2- Data Communication and Networking

Concept of Communication System
The exchange of data and information between sender and receiver through any given medium following
a common rule is known as communication. So, telecommunication is the art of communicating at a
distance. Telephone, radio and television are the main and popular media of tele-communication.

Data Transmission
Data may be transferred from one device to another by means of some communication media. The
electromagnetic or light waves that transfer data from one device to another device in encoded form are
called signals. Data transmissions across the network can occur in two forms i.e.:
a. Analog signal
b. Digital signal
Analog Signal
The transfer of data in the form of electrical signals or continuous waves is called analog signal or analog
data transmission. An analog signal is measured in volts and its frequency is in hertz (Hz).

Digital Signal
The transfer of data in the form of digit is called digital signal or digital data transmission. Digital signals
consist of binary digits 0 & 1. Electrical pulses are used to represent binary digits. Data transmission
between computers is in the form of digital signals.

Modulation
The modulation is the process of changing or encoding the carrier wave at certain amplitude (height) and
frequency (timing) is called modulation.
The process of changing some characteristics (amplitude, frequency or phase) of a carrier wave in
accordance with the intensity of the signal is known as modulation. Modulation means to change.
There are three types of modulation:
a. Amplitude Modulation (AM): Amplitude modulation is an increase or decrease of the carrier
voltage (Ec), will all other factors remaining constant.
b. Frequency Modulation (FM): Frequency modulation is a change in the carrier frequency (fc) with
all other factors remaining constant.
c. Phase Modulation (PM): Phase modulation is a change in the carrier phase angle (θ). The phase
angle cannot change without also affecting a change in frequency. Therefore, phase modulation
is in reality a second form of frequency modulation.

Block diagram of Communication System

Exchanging of data, information and message is known as communication in simple term. The devices,
equipment and other necessary things which play vital role in the communication of message form source
to destination are known as communication equipment. These equipment may be computer, mobile, fax
and other devices. When all these communication equipment combine together for exchanging the
message, then they form the communication system. Line telephony, radio, television broadcast, mobile
communication, computer communication etc. are the common examples of communication system. In
the communication, initially the message, data are originated from the information source and sent to

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destination passing several stages. The block diagram of general communication system is described
below:

Information Input Output

Transmitter Channel Receiver Transduc er
Sources Transducer

Sound picture Information in Information in

Noise
speech data etc. electrical form original form

Elements of Communication System

a. Information Source:
Information source is the place or device which generates the information in communication system. The
information may be in different forms such as text, data, speech, pictures, words etc. these information
are send to the destination through the communication system. Main role of Information source is to
generate the required message which has to be transmitted.
b. Input Transducer:
Input Transducer is an important device which convert one form of energy into another form. In some
cases, the message generated form the information source may not be electrical in nature. At that time
input transducer is responsible for converting such messages into electrical form. For instance,
microphone converts analog sound in electrical signals.

C. Transmitter:

As the name suggests transmitter is responsible for transmitting and processing the electrical signals
through the communication channel. In long distance radio communication, signal amplification is
necessary for transferring data. Transmitter processes the signals such as restriction of range of audio
frequencies, amplification and modulation of signals. All these processes are done just to ease the
transmission of signals through the channel.
D. Transmission channel or channel:
Transmission channel is the transmission medium through data signals or information passes from source
to destination. It is the medium through which the message travels from the transmitter to the receiver.
It provides the connection between the sender / transmitter or receiver. Communication channel may be
wired/ guided or wireless/unguided. The wired medium or also called point to point channels where
devices are connected through the cables. Whereas wireless medium connect devices wirelessly through
electromagnetic wave signals.
Sometime unwanted signal tend to interfere with the information that unwanted signal is called noise.
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E. Receiver:

The main function of the receiver is to reproduce the message signal in electrical form from the
distorted received signal. This reproduction of the original signal is accomplished by a process known as
the demodulation or detection. Demodulation is the reverse process of modulation carried out in
transmitter.

F. Output Transducer/Destination:

The transducer presented at output side of the communication system is called output transducer. It is
responsible of converting electrical signals into non electrical signals like sound. It is also known as
destination and is responsible for converting message signals into its original form from the electrical
form. For instance, speaker is a destination or transducer in voice communication.

Elements of Data communication System

Data communication is the process of exchanging data among the computing devices. Data may be in
different form like file, text, image, sound etc. These data are transmitted between a source and a
destination. Source device is responsible for generating data and destination device is responsible for
receiving the data generated by source. Communication like, email, IRC, VOIP etc. are examples of data
communication. Data communication is the transmission of electronic from one computing device to
another. The data communication comprises of following elements:

1. Sender (source): It is the device that generates and sends that message.
2. Medium: It is the channel or physical path through which the message is carried from the sender
to the receiver. The medium can be wired like twisted pair wire, coaxial cable, fiber-optic cable or
wireless like laser, radio waves, and microwaves.
3. Receiver (sink): It is the device that receives the message.
4. Data: It is the information or data to be communicated. It can consist of text, numbers, pictures,
sound or video or any combination of these.
5. Protocol: It is a set of rules that govern the communication between the devices. Both the sender
and the receiver follow same protocols to communicate with each other.

Message
Protocol Protocol

Transmission medium

Fi g: Ima ge of data communication

The data communication takes place between two devices connected together either by wired or
wireless media. The sender device generates the data message and send it through the
communication channel using some protocol. After the message is sent the receiver receives the
message using the similar protocol.
6. Encoder: The computer works with digital signals. The communicational channels usually use
analog signals. Therefore, to send data through a communication channel, the digital signals are
encoded into analog signals or into a form which can be transmitted through transmission
medium. This is called encoding. The device that carries out this function is called encoder.

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7. Decoder: The Computer works with digital signals. The communication channels usually use
analog signals. Therefore, to receive data from a communication channel, the coded analog signals
or any other encoded form is converted back to digital signals. This is called decoding. The device
that carries out this function is called decoder.

Mode of Communication
Mode of communication normally refers to the ways in which communication takes place or data gets
transmitted between source and destination nodes. Modes of data transmission direct the direction,
mechanism of data flow between devices.
1. Simplex Communication:
In this type of communication data transmission takes place only in one direction. It is also called a
unidirectional communication mode.
Radio, Television, Newspaper and keyboard to CPU Communication are some of the most common
example of simplex communication.
Features:
 Data are transmitted in only one direction.
 The sender sends data and receiver receives only.
 There is not bidirectional communication.
 Listeners cannot reply immediately.
 Radio and television broadcast are its examples.

2. Duplex Communication:
In duplex communication, mode data transmission is possible from both directions. The receiver can
immediately respond to the sender. The duplex communication can be categorized into two groups.
a. Half Duplex:
In this type of communication mode data can be transmitted in both directions, but only in one direction
at a time. Both sender and receiver cannot transfer the data at a time. While sending data it cannot
receive it and while receiving data it cannot send.
Features:
 Data are transmitted in both direction but single direction at one time.
 Receiving end acts as mere listener while sender sends data and vice versa.
 The communication is slower.
 Willkie Talkie used by the police man is the best example of half-duplex communication mode.

b. Full Duplex
Full Duplex communications allows data to flow the information at the same time. Speaking on telephone
of full Duplex communication mode in which both the sender and receiver can speak simultaneously.
Bidirectional communication at the same time is called full duplex communication mode.
Features:
 Data are transmitted in both direction at the same time.
 When one end sends data other end can receive as well as send data.
 Communication is faster.
 Telephone is an example of full duplex mode.

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S.N. Simplex Half Duplex Full Duplex

1 It is a uni-directional It is a two way directional It is a two way directional
communication communication but one at a communication simultaneously.
time.
2 Sender can send the data but Sender can send the data and Sender can send the data and
can't receive the data in it. also can receive the data but also can receive the data
one at time in it. simultaneously in it.
3 It provides less performance It provides less performance It providers better performance
than half duplex and full duplex. than full duplex. than simplex and half duplex
mode.
4 Examples: radio and newspaper Examples: Walky-talky and Examples: smart phone and
wireless handset land line phones.
Computer Network:
 It is defined as the collection of two or more autonomous computers which are interconnected
together for sharing resources with the help of transmission media and set of protocols.
 A computer network is a logical or physical interconnection between two or more computers such
that they could communicate with each other.
 A computer network is the group of two or more computers or computing devices interconnected
together for communicating, sharing information, hardware, software and data.
Services provided by the computer network.
 Data sharing
 Print service
 File service
 Database service
 Application service

Advantages of Computer Network

1. Sharing resources: Software and hardware resources such as processor, storage devices, printers,
scanner, etc. can be shared among us using computer network. It helps to minimize the
operational cost of an organization.
2. Saving Cost: Sharing of hardware and software resource avoids duplication, helps in optimal
utilization of all types of resource like printer, disks, database etc.
3. Faster and cheaper communication: communication in modern days has become very faster and
cheaper to send information to a long distance through network.
4. Centralized control: all network resources such as computers, printer file, database, etc can be
managed and controlled by a central connecting computer also known as the server.
5. Enterprises and chain organization developed: One office or head of the organization can easily
visualize and monitor offices and staffs geographically located in different places through
videoconference, CC camera etc.
6. Backup and recovery: server is used to keep data as backup. It maintains backup of all individual
computer information.
7. Remote and mobile access: a remote user can access resources from the distance using computer
network.
Disadvantages of Computer Network
1. Expensive: In order to install computer network, we require some extra cost to purchase
networking devices such as hubs, switch, cables, etc.
2. Security problems: network security is the most challenging job for network administrator in order
to protect network resources from authorized users and physical destructions.
3. Needs technical person: it is very difficult to install and operate good computer network.

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Types of Computer Network

On the basis of size computer networks can be classified into three categories:
1. PAN (Personal Area Network): The computer network formed around a person is called Personal Area
Network (PAN).
 It is personal device network within a limited area.
 It consists of a computer, mobile, Personal Digital Assistant (PDA). It can be used for
communication among these personal devices for connecting to a digital network and the
internet.
Advantages
1. It can be relatively secure and safe.
2. It offers short- range up to ten meters.
Disadvantages
1. It may establish a bad connection to other network
2. It is limited within shorter distances.
2. Local Area Network (LAN): A LAN is privately owned small size network. It spans only in small
geographical area such as within a room, office, buildings or up to few kilometers (2 to 3 Km). It
connects the network resources such as computers, faxes, printers and various networking
devices.
Advantages of LAN
1. It is cheaper to establish.
2. Data transmission is faster than MAN and WAN.
3. It has higher security to resources of the network
4. It is eager to establish, manages of the network and operate
Disadvantages of LAN
1. It is limited only to a small area.
2. It can connect less number of computers comparatively.
3. Cannot be used as distributed network.
3. Metropolitan Area Network (MAN): A MAN can be either public or privately owned network. Its size is
bigger than LAN and smaller than WAN. It spans within one metropolitan city or larger geographical
area. It can connect large number of computers and heterogeneous multiple LANs within a city
maximum, up to 100Km.
Advantages of MAN
1. It covers larger geographical area than LAN.
2. It can connect large number of computer than LAN.
3. We can use guided as well as unguided type of transmission media.
Disadvantages of MAN
1. It is expensive to set up then LAN.
2. Transmission speed slower compared to LAN.
3. It is complex to establish, manage and provides security.
4. Wide Area Network (WAN): A WAN is basically public type heterogeneous network. It is the largest sized
network and connects millions of computers, thousands of LANs, hundreds of MANs around the
countries, continents and even the whole world.
Advantage of WAN
1. It covers larger geographical area than LAN and MAN.
2. It can connect large number of computer compared to LAN and MAN.
3. Using WAN communication can be done over a large distance.
Disadvantage of WAN
1. It is expensive to establish, manage and operate.
2. It is the slowest type of network compared to that of LAN and MAN.
3. Highly qualified manpower are required to establish and run these type of network.
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Differentiate between LAN and WAN

S.N. Local Area Network (LAN) S.N. Wide Area Network (WAN)
1 Area covered within a local site. 1 Distance up to thousands of K.M.
2 Higher data transfer rates (10 Mbps to 1Gbps 2 Data transfer rate is less
even more).
3 It has low error rates. 3 It has higher error rates.
4 It uses simple protocol, low cost devices and 4 It uses complex protocols, expensive
low cost installation. devices and high cost installation.
5 It can support limited number of hosts. 5 It can support large number of hosts.
6 Eg. Star, cellular topologies etc. 6 Eg. Internet and intranet
7 Generally, LANs use wireless or digital 7 WANs use digital or analog signal
transmission. transmission.
Comparison of LAN, MAN and WAN
S.N. LAN MAN WAN
1 The computer network The computer network The computer network
limited over small spread over the city or spread over the world is
geographical area such as country is known as known as WAN.
building or room. MAN
2 It is owned by an private It can be owned by private There is no single ownership
organization or public organizations. or WAN

3 The bandwidth of LAN is The data transmission rate The data transmission rate is
high. i.e. data transmission is slower in comparison to slowest in comparison to
rate. LAN. LAN and MAN.

4 There is less congestion in There is more congestion in There is more congestion in

LAN. MAN. comparison to LAN and
WAN.
5 It is easy to design and It’s design and maintenance It’s design and maintenance
maintain. is difficult than LAN. is difficult than LAN and
MAN.
6 There is more fault tolerance. There is less fault tolerance. There is also less fault
tolerance.
7 It is used in school, college, It is used in city, towns. It is used for countries,
hospital …etc. continent and globe.
8 Transmission channels are Transmission channel are Communication channel
normally twisted pair cables. fiber optics, coax cable. ranges from fiber optics
cables to communication
satellites.
9 It Stands for Local Area It stands of Wide Area It stands for Metropolitan
Network Network Area Network.

Transmission media:
A transmission media is defined as the means of communication between two networking devices that
helps to transfer data from sender to receiver and vice versa.
 Transmission channel is the path through which data are transmitted from source to destination.
 The path through which data transmit form source to destination is known as communication
media.

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Transmission media is broadly classified into two groups.

1) Bound (guided)/ Wired media
 Guided Media are those communication channel which directly link with each other through cables or
other physical media.
 Data are transmitted in closed path through transmission media.
 Data gets transmitted through wires or cables in guided media.
 In guided media there is direct connection between source and destination nodes.
 Guided media has high bandwidth, low cost and high security.
 Data transmission is faster than wireless.
 The most commonly used guided media are: Twisted Pair cable, Coaxial Cable and Fiber Optics.

2) Unbound ( unguided) / Wireless media

 The data transmitted in this medium is through electromagnetic waves so
that any physical wire or cable is not required for the transmission.
 Unguided media transmission is bounded by geographical areas.
 Different types of unguided media are: Microwave, Radio wave, satellite
communication, Bluetooth, Infrared, Wi-Fi, Li-Fi.

S.N. Guided Transmission Medium S.N. Unguided Transmission Medium

1 Signal is directed and contained by the 1 It has no physical medium for the
physical limits of the medium. transmission of electromagnetic signals.
2 It is called wired communication or 2 It is called wireless communication or
bounded transmission media. unbounded transmission media.
3 The signal energy propagates through 3 The signal energy propagates through air in
wires in guided media. unguided media.
4 It types are twisted pair cable, coaxial 4 It types are radio wave, microwave and
cable and fiber optic cable. infrared.
5 Examples: Twisted pair cable, coaxial cable 5 Examples: Microwave or radio links and
and fiber optic cables. infrared light.
1. Wired or Guided Media or Bound Transmission Media: The transmission of data and information
from source to destination by using physical medium like wires are called bounded transmission
media. Its types are as follows.
1) Twisted pair cable
i) Shielded Twisted pair cable (STP)
ii) Unshielded Twisted pair cable (UTP)
2) Coaxial Cable: 2.1. Thinnet 2.2 Thicnet
3) Fiber optics
Twisted pair cable: A pair of copper wires is twisted to each other in a helical path making the same
structure as a DNA molecule.
- The reason for twisting is to reduce electrical interference.
- It is the cheapest and easily available wire.
- It is mostly used in telephone systems.
Advantages
1. It is cheaper than other cables.
2. It is light and thin. So, it is flexible for LAN.
3. It can travel data in short distance with higher bandwidth.
Disadvantage
1. It is only used for short distance transmission.
2. It can be affected by electrical and magnetic field.
3. It is slower type of transmission media compared to other cables.
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STP (Shielded Twisted Pair)

Shielded Twisted Pair cable is identical to UTP but it contains the extra shield covering the each pairs of
cables. The installation of STP is comparatively difficult than UTP and they are more expensive than UTP
but has high bandwidth.
Features of STP Cable
» Better performance and high data transfer rate.
» Eliminates cross talk
» Faster than UTP
» More expensive
UTP (Unshielded Twisted Pair)
UTP is a commonly used cable because it is easy to install and is suitable for data and voice transmission. Unlike
STP, UTP cable doesn’t have the extra protection shield.
Features:
 Less expensive.
 Easy to install.
 High speed capacity.
 Susceptible to external interference.
 Lower capacity and performance than STP.
 Short distance transmission.
S.N. UTP S.N. STP
1 Electromagnetic interference and noise is more 1 STP cable reduce electrical noise within the
in UTP cable and from outside of the cable.
2 It offers speed or throughput of about 10 to 1000 2 It offers speed or throughput of about 10 to
Mbps. 100 Mbps.
3 It offers maximum cable length of about 100 3 It supports maximum segment of length
meters. about 100 meters.
4 UTP is widely used for data transmission within 4 STP is mainly used for connection of
short distance and is very popular for home enterprises over a long distance.
network connecting.
5 The cost of UTP is less when compared to that of 5 STP is costlier than UTP.
STP.

Coaxial Cable:
Coaxial cable is a type of copper cable specially built with a metal shield and other components
engineered to block signal interference. It is primarily used by cable TV companies to connect their
satellite antenna facilities to customer homes and businesses.
Coaxial cable contains two conductors inner and outer, which are separated by an insulator. These two
conductors lies parallel to each other. The inner conductor is made up of copper wire which is covered by
an inner insulator. The inner insulator is again covered by outer conductor or metal foil. Outer metal
wrapping is used as a protection against noise and as the second conductor which completes the circuit.
The outer conductor is covered with an insulating cover.
Advantages:
1. It is faster and reliable than twisted pair cable.
2. It can transfer data over medium range of distance.
Disadvantages
1. It is not appropriate for relatively larger distance.
2. It is expensive than twisted pair cable.
3. It is rarely used in computer network.
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Coaxial cable is of two types:

(a) Baseband transmission (Thin net): It is defined as the process of transmitting a single signal at
high speed.
(b) Broadband transmission (Thick net): It is defined as the process of transmitting multiple signals
simultaneously.
Fiber Optics:
It is the most advanced media in communication, which uses light rather than electricity to transmit
information. Optical fiber is very thin media, which is measured in microns and is very hard to identify
with our necked eye. They're designed for long-distance, high-performance data networking, and
telecommunications. Fiber optic cables support much of the world's internet, cable television, and
telephone systems.
Features:
o » Data are transmitted in the form of light signals.
o » It is made up of glasses or plastics cover with fiber to protect.
o » It is difficult to install.
o » It has high bandwidth.
o » Data can transfer longer and faster than twisted pair and coax cable.
Advantages:
1. It has higher bandwidth that means it can handle large volume of data.
2. This medium can be used for long distance transmission.
3. It is the most secured and error free transmission medium.
Disadvantages
1. It is one of the expensive type of transmission media.
2. It is not used for short distance transmission.
3. Highly qualified and technical manpower are required to operate on fiber optics.
4. Difficult to install and Fragile in nature

2. Wireless or Unguided Media or Unbound Transmission Media:

Unbound transmission is also called wireless or unguided media. If there is no physical connectors
(wires) between the two communicating device is called wireless transmission media. Its types are as
follows.
1. Radio Wave
2. Microwave
3. Infrared
4. Satellite Communication:

1. Radio wave:
Radio wave are the signals ranging frequency in between 3 KHz and 1 GHz.
When the antenna transmits the radio wave; they are propagated in all directions. Due to this the
sending and receiving antenna doesn’t need to be in line of sight position. Antenna is responsible for
converting outgoing data packets into radio waves and vice-versa.

Features:
 It is wireless communication technology that transmits voice or data over the air using a lower
frequency band than microwaves.
 The signal is travel in up and down manner so that it can reach any place until the strength of
waves falls.
 AM and FM radios and cordless phones use radio waves for transmission.
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2. Microwave:
Microwave, in contrast, have been used in data communications for a long time. They have a higher
frequency than radio wave and therefore, they can handle larger amounts of data. There are, of course,
problems with microwaves attenuation and environmental interference.
 Microwave transmission is the line of sight transmission.
 The transmit station must be in visible contact with the receive station.
 The microwave is unidirectional.
 This sets the limit on the distance between stations depending on the local geography.
 The microwave is another type of electromagnetic waves that have a frequency range of 1 GHz to
300 GHz.
 In this transmission, whenever the signals are transmitted through an antenna, the signals can make
narrow to focus to a particular point. And in this transmission, there is a requirement of proper
alignment of sending antenna and receiving antenna.

3. Infrared:
Infrared offers a great unbound photonic solution. Like fiber-optic cabling, infrared communications use
light. So, they are not bound by the limitations of electricity. They are normally used for short range
communication such as in communication of remote and TV, Ac etc.

Satellite Transmission:
These are the artificial satellites which are placed in the space for the purpose of communication
between different antennas available of on the earth. These artificial satellites facilitate the transmission
of signals between stations of the earth. They relays and amplifies radio telecommunication by creating
communication channel between source transmitter and destination transmitter.

Transmission Impairments Terminologies

(Jitter, Singing, Echo, Crosstalk, Distortion, Noise, Bandwidth and Number of receivers)

Jitter:
 When we make a call over internet with anyone and suddenly line drops and their voice starts
breaking up, its called jitter.
 Jitter is defined as a variation in the delay of received packets.
 Jitter is when there is a time delay in the sending of these data packets over your network
connection.
Singing:
 Singing is the result of sustained oscillations due to positive feedback in telephone amplifiers
or amplifying circuits.
 Singing may be regarded as echo that is completely out of control. This can occur at the
frequency at which the circuit is resonant.

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Echo:
 Echo in telephone systems is the return of a talker's voice. It is most apparent to the talker himself
or herself. Secondarily, it can also be an annoyance to the listener.
 Echo is a major annoyance to the telephone user. It affects the talker more than the listener. Two
factors determine the degree of annoyance of echo: its loudness and its length of delay.
Crosstalk:
 Crosstalk is a disturbance caused by the electric or magnetic fields of one telecommunication
signal affecting a signal in an adjacent circuit.
 It is an effect a wire on another. One wire acts as a sending antenna and the transmission
medium acts as the receiving antenna. Just like in telephone system, it is a common experience
to hear conversation of other people in the background. This is known as cross talk.
Distortion:
 Distortion is the change in the form or shape of the signal. Signals are made up of different
frequencies are composite signals.
 Distortion occurs in these composite signals. Any change in a signal that alters the basic
waveform or the relationship between various frequency components is called distortion. It is
usually a degradation of the signal.
Noise:
 Noise is another impairment in data communication. It is another problem of data
communication. During data communication there are some random or unwanted signals mix
up with the original signal is called noise.
 Noises can corrupt the signals in many ways along with the distortion introduced by the
transmission media.
Bandwidth:
 Bandwidth is the amount of data transmitted through the transmission channel at certain
period of time. High bandwidth means higher bits of data are transmitted and low bandwidth
means less bits of data are transmitted through the communication channel.
 The bandwidth of analog device is measured in Hertz (Hz) and bandwidth of digital device is
measured in bps (bits per second). It is also known as data holding capacity of transmission
channel.
Receiver:
 Receiver, in electronics, any of various devices that accept signals, such as radio waves, and
convert them (frequently with amplification) into a useful form. Examples are telephone
receivers, which transform electrical impulses into audio signals, and radio or television
receivers, which accept electromagnetic waves and convert them into sound or television
pictures.

Network architecture:
Network architecture refers to the various services provided by the network and it also deals with how
data is transmitted from one computer to others.
1. Client server network: An arrangement of computers to resource sharing and communicate each
other through a central device (server) to all workstations (clients) is called client server architecture
one or more computers in the network act as server which provides services to other computers which
are called clients.
 The server is a high capacity high speed computer with a large memory.
 Server contains the network operating system.
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 The central server manages, organize, and coordinate all network clients on the network.
 The most common service is provided by different servers are file services, print services,
 Message services and database services.
Advantages
1. Centralized administration is possible through this network.
2. High security can be provided by suing appropriate server.
3. It is appropriate for large organization.
4. Data recovery and backup process is easier.
Disadvantages
1. If server fails whole network is affected.
2. It is expensive due to use of dedicated server.
3. It is complex to establish and manage.
4. Experienced administrator is required to operate.

2. Peer-peer network: In peer-to-peer architecture computers are connected individually in pair (one-
to-one connection). A peer-to-peer network is the type of network in which all computers in the
network act both a client and a server i.e. all computers can both request and provide services.
 Each workstations act as both a client and a server.
 There is no central repository for information and no central server to maintain.
 Peer to peer network are generally simpler and less expensive.
 A peer to peer network is also known as a distributed network.
 Peer to peer computing or networking is a distributed application architecture that partitions
task or workstations between peers.
 Peers are equally privileged and equal participants in the application.
 Each node shares its sources with other nodes in the network.
Advantages
1. It is simple cheap and easier to set up.
2. Since there is no dedicated server, user can manage their own server.
3. Failure of a computer in a network doesn't effect the other computer in a network.

Disadvantages
1. Data security is very poor in this type of architecture.
2. Data recovery and backup is difficult.
3. It is not appropriate for large scale organization.
4. Network administration is difficult it without dedicated Server.

Difference between Client Server and Peer to Peer

Client Server Peer to peer
1. It is also known as centralized or server based
1. It is also known as distributed network
network.
2. It has central server computer. 2. There is no central server computer.
3. The central server manages, organize, and 3. Peers are equally privileged and equal
coordinate all network clients on the network. participants in the application.
4. Peer to peer network are generally
4. Client server network are more expensive.
simpler and less expensive.
5. It has high security. 5. It is less security.
6. Data and information is shared around
6. If server crashes there is a chance of data loss.
the network, so less chance of data loss.
7. Example, Google server, Yahoo server and 7. Example One to one computer and
Bank etc. Bluetooth connectivity etc.
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Network or LAN topology and it's types

Network topology refers to the physical layout of the network. It shows the geographical representation
of all the links and linking devices, also called nodes. It is the shaped of Network.
The main objectives of the network topology is to find out the most economical and efficient way of
transmission channel.
Its types are as:
1. Bus Topology: Computers are connected to a single continuous cable that is called 'bus'. It acts as
backbone. It is based on client server network architecture.

Fig. bus topology

Advantages
- It is simple and easy to setup and extend the network.
- It required less cable.
- If any computer in the network downs, then it does not affect the whole network.
- We can easily connect and disconnect any number of computers in the bus.
Disadvantages.
- Data traffic is very high in bus.
- If there is problem in main cable then entire network goes down.
- It is very difficult to find out the fault in the bus.

2. Star Topology:- Computers in the network are connected to each other with the help of central
connecting device hub or switch or server. It is based on client server architecture. It is the most
popular and widely used topology for LAN.

Fig. Star topology

Advantages
- It is simple, reliable and easy to set up and re-configuration.
- It is flexible to connect new computer and remove existing computer in the network.
- It is very easy to find out fault.
- If any computer in the network goes down, then other computers can continue their functions.
Disadvantages
- It requires very large amount of cables.
- It is expensive topology.
- If there is any problem in central device hub or switch then the entire network will be down.
- The data traffic is high in central device hub.

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3. Ring Topology:- Computers are interconnected to each other by making a closed circular structure
that means each computer is connected to other two adjacent computer in either network
architecture.

Fig. Ring Topology

Advantages
- It simple and inexpensive topology.
- There is less chance of data collision because of unidirectional data transmission.
- There is no server so each computer has equal access facilities to the resources.
- Its performance is better than bus topology for small size network.
Disadvantages
- It is not flexible topology so it is difficult for adding and removing new nodes.
- It is not suitable for large size network.
- If there is problem in any computer or connection then the entire network goes down.
- It is very difficult to find out the errors in the network.
4. Mesh Topology:- Every computer in the network has point to point connection to all other
computers by using multiport connector. It is also based on peer to peer architecture.

Fig. mesh topology

Advantages
- It is fastest and most reliable topology.
- Failure in any computer or transmission media does not affect the rest of the network.
- There is less amount of data traffic due to multiple paths.
Disadvantages
- It is very much complex and most expensive topology.
- It is difficult to find an error in the network.
- It is difficult to add and remove nodes in the network so it is not flexible.
- It requires maximum amount of cables and multiport connectors.

5. Tree Topology:- Tree topology is the extension of bus or star topology. Data can flow from top to
bottom and vice versa.

Fig. Tree Topology

Advantages
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- It is easy to manage network as per our needs.

- It is very flexible so we can add and remove any number of nodes.
- It is easier to find the fault nodes or hubs in the network.
Disadvantages
- The failure of root node will cause the failure of entire network.
- It is expensive because it needs large number of cable and network device.
- The data traffic is high at root nodes.
6. Hybrid topology: if two or more topologies are combined together then it is called hybrid
topology. So it is very difficult to design and to implement the hybrid topology. It is expensive too.

Advantages
 Reliable
 Scalable
 Flexible
 Effective
Disadvantages
 Complexity of design
 Costly connecting devices
 Costly infrastructure

OSI (Open System Interconnection) reference model

It is based on a proposal developed by the international organization for standardization (ISO). The model
is called ISO OSI reference model, because it deals with connecting open system i.e. the system that are
open for communication with other system.

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1. Physical Layer: This layer concerned with transmission of bit it determines voltage level for 0 & 1. It
also determines the data rate of the system. This layer involves standardized protocol dealing with
electrical & signaling interface.
2. Data Link Layer: It handles error in physical layer. This layer ensures the correct delivery of frame to
the destination address. It consists of 2 parts or 2 sub-layers. i.e.
i. Logic Link Control
ii. Media Access Control
3. Network Layer: This layer is concerned with transmission of packet. N/w layer protocol chooses the
best path to send a package called routing. Two protocols are widely used in n/w layer.
i. X.25 Protocol
ii. Internet Protocol
4. Transport Layer: It provides the mechanism for the exchange of data between end systems. It ensures
that the data received is in fact in order. Following jobs are performed by this layer.
i. Port Addressing
ii. Segmentation & Reassemble
iii. Connection Control
5. Session Layer: It is responsible for requesting logical connection to be established for communication
process. This logical connection is termed as session. It also provides data synchronization between two
communication terminals.
6. Presentation layer: This layer translates format data to adapt to the needs of the application layer &
nodes at both receiving & sending end of communication process. It handles data communication,
formatting, encryption, decryption, etc.
7. Application Layer: It is the top-most layer of OSI model & provides user access to the n/w. It provides
services that support user application, such as database access, email & file transfer, etc.

Network Connecting devices:

The devices of computer network which are used to connect network is called the network connecting
devices. We can connect two or more networks together to create larger network. A LANs can be
connected others LANs, MANs or WAN.

4. Network Interface Boards or Network Interface Card (NIC):

The NIC contains the electronic circuitry needed to ensure the reliable communications between
workstations and servers. The NIC is the electronic interface between the computer and the LAN cabling.
The card itself uses a bus-specific edge connector to plug into the computer motherboard. On the exposed
side of the NIC, there are cabling ports that plug directly into the LAN cabling.
5. Repeaters:
As the name implies, repeaters repeat network data. In general, repeaters operate at the electronic level
and contain no real intelligence. A repeater accepts weak signals, electrically regenerates them and then
sends the messages on their way. There are two types of repeaters: amplifiers and signal-regenerating
repeaters.
3. Hubs:
Technically speaking, a hub is simply a multi-port repeater. In addition to regenerating network data, hubs
add form and function to the layout of the LAN. In many topologies, the hub is the central component of
the network transmission media. There are three types of hubs. They are the passive hub, active hub and
intelligent hub.
4. Bride:
It is a device, which connects different network segments and passes data with the same communication
protocols. It is the connecting device between two or more hubs.
- It operates at layer 2 (Data Link Layer) of OSI Model.
- It reduces unnecessary traffic problem by controlling broadcasting.
- Bridges are more intelligent than hubs because they maintain MAC address tables in them and
forward data looking on it.
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- Bridge collect and pass packets between 2 networks segments.

5. Router:
A router transmits information from one network to another. The router selects the best path to route a
message, based on the destination address and origin. The router can direct traffic to prevent head-on
collisions and smart enough to know when to direct traffic along back roads and shortcuts.
- Direct signal traffic efficiently.
- Route message between any two protocols.
- Route message between different topologies.
- Route message across fiber optic, coaxial, and twisted-pair cabling.
6. Gateways:
Gateways are just like routers but much more complex and powerful than routers. They are slower than
router and expensive. A gateway has all the features of router and bridges but it can translate instruction
set on sending network into receiving network.
- Gateways make communication possible between different architecture and environments.
- Gateways having higher layer functionalities and works on multiple layer protocols.
7. Wi-Fi:-
The term Wi-Fi suggests wireless Fidelity. It is hardware and software devices. It is wireless technology
and network connecting device. Wi-Fi is not a technical term. The technical term of Wi-Fi is "IEEE802.11"
- It has limited range.
- Wi-Fi is used in many personal computers, video game consoles, MP3 players, smart phones, printers,
digital camera, laptops computers and other devices.
- Wi-Fi is used to create wireless LAN to connect computer system.
8. Bluetooth:
Bluetooth is a wireless technology standard for exchange data over short distance from fixed and mobile
devices. Bluetooth is used to create personal area networks (PANs) with high levels of security.
9. Infared (IR):
Infared (IR) light is electromagnetic radiation with a wavelength longer than that of visible light and below
the red light. These wavelengths correspond to a frequency range of approximately 100 GHz to 100 THz
and include most of the thermal radiation emitted by objects near room.

Some basic terms

Internet
The Internet is an interconnected network of thousands of networks and millions of computers linking
business, education institutions, government agencies, and individuals together.

Used / application of internet

1. Search information
2. E-mail service
3. Communication
4. File Transfer
5. Remote login
6. Publishing of articles, reports, and newsletter.
7. Online education
8. Online shopping.
9. Entertainment.

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Sub Net Mask

The subnet mask number helps to define the relationship between the host (computers, routers switches,
etc.) and the rest of the network. As the name indicates, the subnet mask is used to subdivide a network
into smaller, more manageable chunks.

Gateway
A gateway is a network node that servers as an access point to another network, often involving not only
a change of addressing but also a different networking technology.

IP Address
An Internet Protocol address (IP Address) is an unique identification number assigned to each devices
connected in a network that uses Internet protocol for communication. The typical IP address looks like
216.27.67.137
IP address are expressed in decimal as above which is easier for us to remember, but computers
communicate in binary. So same IP address looks like

11011000.00011011.00111101.10001001

IP address has four sets of number separated by a period ( . ), These sets are Called Octets. IP address
perform mainly two functions. One is identification of Network and Identification of particular host in
that network.

MAC address
Media Access Control (MAC) address also known as hardware or physical address is unique number
associated with a network adapter (NIC). It is used to uniquely identify each device (node) of a network.
MAC address is usually assigned by the manufacturer of a network interface card (NIC) and are stored in
its ROM. All NIC developed contains unique MAC address. It is a 12 digit hexadecimal number (48 bit in
length) and are Witten in following formats.

MM:MM:MM:SS:SS:SS or MM-MM-MM-SS-SS-SS

The first half of the address contains ID number of the adapter regulated by an Internet standards body
and other half represent the number assigned by the manufacturer. For example: 00:A0:C9:14:C8:29
The prefix 00A0C9 indicates manufactures Intel Corporation and 14C829 indicates a particular host.

Intranet:

An intranet is a private network that uses internet protocols, to securely share part of an organization's
information between its employees. An intranet is a Local Area Network or Wide Area Network that uses
TCP/IP protocol but, belongs to a corporation, school, or organization.

The intranet is accessible only to the organization's workers. If the intranet is connected the Internet,
then it is secured by a firewall to prevent unauthorized users from gaining access to it.

Advantages of an Intranet

1. Workforce productivity: Employees can easily access and share information in-between their
workgroups which enhances productivity

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2. Time: With intranets, organizations can make more information available to employees in any time.

3. Communication: Intranets can serve as powerful tools for communication within an organization.

Extranet:

An extranet is a private intranet that can be accessed by outside users over the secure channel. To gain
entrance to the extranet's resource, an external user must log on to the networks by providing a valid
user ID and password. The extranet is a combination of the public Internet and the closed intranet.

Difference between Internet and Intranet?

Intranet Internet

It is a private network. It is a public network.

Intranet users are your own employees who know a lot Internet user know much less about
about the company, its organizational structure and your company and also care less
special terminology. about it.

The intranet is used for everyday work inside the The Internet is mainly used to find
company. out information.

The intranet will have many official draft reports, project

Internet have all types of
progress reports, human resource information, and other
information based on requirements.
detailed information.

Internet has tremendous amount of

Intranet has less amount of information.
information.

Intranet can work on low and mid-bandwidth. Internet requires higher band width.

Network Tool
Network tools are used for supporting easier and effective network connections. Some of the network
tools are:
1. Packet tracer:
Packet Tracer is an innovative and powerful network simulator that can be used for a practice build
own network with routers, switches, wireless, and much more. It allows to experiment with network
behaviour, build models and to ask "what if" questions. It is used to trace the movement of data
packets in data communication. Packet Tracer provides simulation, visualization, authoring,
assessment, and collaboration capabilities to facilitate the teaching and learning of complex
technology concepts.

2. Remote login: Remote login allows a user terminal to connect to a host computer via a network or
direct telecommunications link, and to interact with that host computer as if the user terminal were
directly connected to that host computer. Remote Login is a process in which user can login into a
remote site i.e. computer, and use services that are available on the remote computer. With the help
of remote login a user can understand result of transferring result of processing from the remote
computer to the local computer.

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Protocols:
A communication protocol is a formal description of digital message formats and the rules for exchanging
that message in between computer systems. Protocols define a set of formal rules describing how to
transmit data especially across a network.

1. TCP/IP (Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol): TCP/IP is a layered set of protocols TCP is
reliable, but complex transport-layer protocol. It is stream connection-oriented and reliable transport
protocol. TCP/IP is the protocol used by Internet. It adds connection-oriented and reliability features. TCP
is responsible for making sure that the data is transmitted to other end. It keeps track of what is sent, and
re transmits any data that has not reached its destination. The Internet Protocol (IP) is the principal
communication protocol used for transmitting data packets across and network using the Internet
Protocol Suite. Internet exist due to TCP/IP.

2. FTP (File Transfer Protocol): This protocol is used for transferring data between client and server over
TCP/IP (Internet). Hence, it is responsible for uploading and downloading files to and from the server.

3. UDP (User Datagram Protocol): UDP is simple, connection less, unreliable transport protocol. It
performs very limited error checking. It is mainly used for transmitting multimedia data, which requires
faster transmission and error checking is not used.

4. SMTP (Simple Mail Transfer Protocol): SMTP is a standard protocol for transmitting electronic mail
(email) by the internet. It is a Internet mail protocol. It is a TCP/IP protocol used to send emails

5. POP (Post Office Protocol): POP is also a protocol for transmitting email. It is simple but has limited
functionality. It is an application layer Internet standard protocol used by clients to access e-mail from a
server over a TCP/IP connection i.e. internet. POP3 (POP version 3) is used at present. POP3 is supported
by most modern webmail services such as Gmail and Yahoomail.

6. HTTP (Hypertext Transfer Protocol): HTTP networking protocol for distributed, collaborative,
hypermedia information systems. It is used transmitting hypertext or HTML based document. It is the
foundation of data communication for the World Wide Web used by web browser to communication with
respective servers.

7. HTTPS (Hypertext Transfer Protocol Secure): HTTPS is combination of Protocol with the SSL/TLS
protocol to provide encrypted identification of a network. HTTPS connections are often used in World
Wide Web for sensitive transactions. The main objective of HTTPS is to create a secure channel over an
insecure network

Layer Protocols
Application FTP, TFTP, Telnet, Gopher, HTTP
Presentation SMTP, NFS
Session Telnet, SNMP
Trasport TCP, UDP
Network IP
Data Link ARP, RARP, RIP
Physical Ethernet, Token Ring, FDDI

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Bibliography

 Balaguruswamy, E. Programming in ANSI C. Tata McGraw-Hill

 Evans, P. (2001) Information and Communication Technology, 2 edition Payne Call way
Publishers.
 French, C.S. (1996). Computer Science, 5% edition, W.M. Print Ltd.
 Gottfried, B. Programming with C, Tata McGraw-Hill,
 Jaiswal, S. (2001). Information Technology Today, 3rd edition, Galgotia Publication
 Kanetkar, Y. Let Us C, 8th edition, BPB Publication
 Lafore, R. Object Oriented Programming in C++, Golgotia Publication.
 Lafore, R. Turbo C. Golgotia Publication.
 Laudon, K.C. & Laudon, J.P. Management Information Systems, Managing Digital Firm, 9 edition,
Prentice-Hall, India. Shrestha, P.R., Bhusal, R., Khanal, R. (2077). Essentials of Computer Science.
Kathmandu Asmita Books Publisher and Distributors (P) Ltd.
 Silberscratz, HF & Korth, S. Database System Concepts, 4th edition, Tata McGraw-Hill
 Stephen, D., (1999). Information Systems for You, 2nd edition, Stanley Thornes (Publishers) Ltd.
 Tanenbaum, A.S., Computer Networks, 4th edition, Prentice Hall,
 William, S. Data and Computer Communication, 6th edition, Prentice Hall

Web References:
 https://www.javatpoint.com
 https://www.w3schools.com
 https://www.tutorialspoint.com
 https://www.google.com
 https://www.wikipedia.org

The End

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