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COMPUTER SCIENCE

Grade: XII

SOFTWARE PROCESS MODEL

NEB Important Questions for Computer Science XII

Unit-6- Software Process Model - 6 Marks

1. What is SPM? Explain the major activities of Software Development Process in brief.
2. What is Software Development Model? Explain the types of SDM with advantages and disadvantage.
R EFERENCE
3. Who is the system analyst? Explain N OTE
the role and characteristic of a system analyst.
4. Explain in detail about waterfall, prototyping and spiral model of software development.
5. What is prototyping? Write down its advantages and disadvantages.
6. Define SDLC. Explain different phases of SDLC in brief.
7. What do you mean by feasibility study? Why is it necessary before designing a system?
8. Define system testing. Different between black box testing and white box testing.
9. What is algorithm and flowchart? Write difference between system and program flowchart.
10. Differentiate between System analyst and System engineer.
11. Define the following terms. A) DFD B) ER diagram C) Case diagram D) UML E) System Flowchart

F) Documentation G) Algorithm H) Pseudo code I) Decision table and decision tree

J) Prototyping model K) Spiral Model

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Unit 1- Software Process Model (SPM)

Software Project Concept
Program:
The program is a sequence of instructions. It is the set or collection of instructions.
Instruction:
An instruction is a command given to the computer to perform a certain specified operation on given
data.
Software:
A set of programs written for a computer to perform a particular task is called software or the logical
components or set of procedures to routines or instructions are called software is the interface between
the computer and the user. It is a group of commands that tells the computer what to do and how to do
it.
Project:
A project is a well-defined task, which is a collection of several operations done in order to achieve a goal
(for example, software development and delivery).

Software Project Concept:

A software project is the complete procedure of software development from requirement identification
to testing and maintenance, carried out according to the execution methodologies, in a specified period
of time and budget in order to achieve intended software product.

Software Development Process

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 Software development process defines a sequence of tasks that must be carried out to build new
software.
 It groups the development activities into a sequence of phases.
 A phase in sequence can only commence on the previous phase has been completed.
 A report is produced at the end of each phase, describing what has been achieved and outlining
the plan for the next phase.
Fundamental activities for the software development process are
1. Software Specification: The functionality or software and constraints on its operations must
defined.
2. Software design and implementation: The software to meet the specifications must produce.
3. re must be validated to ensure that it does what the customerwants.
4. Software evolution: The software must evolve to meet changing customer needs.

System Development Life Cycle (SDLC)

System:
System is a set of interacting or interdependent components forming an integrated whole. A system can
be described as a set of objects joined together for a common objective.

Development:
It is the process of step by step changing or growing of any program and system.
Information System:
Information system is a system which processes supplied/collected data and generates information that
can be used for decision making at different levels.

SDLC
SDLC (Software/System Development Life Cycle) is an organized way to develop a software/system.
System Development Phase or System Development Life Cycle or Software Development Life Cycle (SDLC)
is a methodology used to develop, maintain, and replace software/information systems.
 It is a systematic process of developing any software. It helps in establishing a system, or software
or project, or plan. It gives an overall list of processes and sub-processes required for developing a
system.
 SDLC consists of a set of development activities that have a prescribed order. It is the development
of software in chronological order.
System Development Life Cycle (SDLC), which is also known as Application Development Life Cycle, is a
term used in system that describes the process of planning, creating, testing and deploying an information
system.
Importance and the necessity of SDLC
1. It helps to determine the needs of the user.
2. It supports constant communication between the developer and the user.
3. SDLC helps for easy identification of missing requirements.
4. It ensures that the software meets the needs of its users.
5. It supports proper analysis and design of the software.
6. It ensures proper development and testing.
7. Proper documentation support for future upgrade and maintenance.
8. It provide flexibility for adding features even after the software is developed.

SDLC Phases

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The different phases of SDLC are as follows:

1. System Study or Preliminary Investigation and Feasibility study.

2. System analysis or Determination of system requirements.
3. System design.
4. System development or development of software.
5. System Testing.
6. System Implementation.
7. System Maintenance and Reviews or Evaluation.

System Study /
Maintenance & Feasibility Study
Review
System Analysis/
System Requirement
System
Implementation

System
System System Design
Testing Development

1. System study:
A system is intended to meet the needs of an organization. Thus the first step in the design is to
specify these needs or requirements. The top manager of the organization takes the basic decision
to use a computer based (information) system for managing the organization.
During this phase, the development team focuses on completing three tasks:
- Survey the system by collecting the inputs from various sources.
- Analyzing the current system (manual or automated) in depth and developing possible
solutions to the problem.
- Selecting to the best solution and defining its function with a feasibility study.
2. System analysis:
System analysis is the dissection of a system into its component pieces to study how those
component pieces interact and work.
 System analysis is a term that collectively describes the early phases of development.
 It is defined as those phases and activities that focus on the business problem, independent
of technology.
In this stage, the development team once again goes to the organization and studies very minutely
to collect all the drawbacks and details of information from the users, management and data
processing personnel.
Then the system analyst analyzes the information and proposes the following specifications.
i. Goals and objectives of the proposed system.
ii. Fundamental actions that must take place in the software.
iii. Outputs to be produced.
iv. Inputs to be used.
v. Processes to be performed.
vi. Interfaces to be provided.

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vii. Organizational and other constraints' to be met.

viii. Performanceequements to be met.

Feasibility study:
Feasibility study is the most important activity in the system analysis phase. It analyses the
proposed system from different aspects so that it makes us clear that how practical or beneficial
the system will be to the organization. So it tells us whether the system is feasible to design nor
not.
Need of feasibility study
 It determines whether the system meets the goal of the clients or not.
 It determines the strength and limitations before starting to develop the system.
 It focuses on the boundary of the system's outline.
 It suggests new opportunities through the investigations process.
 It provide quality information for decision making.
 To provide documentation of the investigated system.

The different levels of feasibility study are as:

1) Economic feasibility: it concerns with cost effectiveness of the system. The main objective of
economic feasibility is to calculate approximate cost-both the development cost and the
operational cost and the benefits from the system.
2) Technical feasibility: it concerns with the availability of the hardware, software and the
support equipment for the complete development of the system.
3) Operational feasibility: it concerns with smooth operation of the system. It is all about the
problems that may occur during operation of the system after its development.
4) Behavior feasibility: it concerns with behavior of the users and the society towards the new
system. Generally, most of the traditional employees are not easily ready to upgrade them
with the new system.
5) Social Feasibility: It is a determination of whether a proposed system will be acceptable to the
people or not.
6) Management Feasibility: It is a determination of whether a proposed system will be
acceptable to management or not.
7) Schedule(Time) feasibility: it is the process of splitting project into tasks and estimate time
and resources required to complete each task. It determines the deadline to complete a
system and schedule the task accordingly.
8) Legal feasibility: it concerns with legal issue of the system. If the system is illegal then the
system designing is meaningless. Everything is measured whether it is legal or illegal. It
considers copyright law, foreign law, foreign trade, tax, etc.

System design:
The next step is to develop the logical design of the system. During this phase, the logic of the
system, namely, the information requirement of users, and use this to find the necessary
database.
System design is concerned with the design of new system. It involves designing of various things
such as output design, input design, files design, processing and general program design etc.

Logical Design: Theoretically designing of the system is called logical design. The system could be
designed on the basis of the requirements.

Physical Design: The conversion of logical design into designing tools and techniques is called
physical design. It is more detail and complex jobs describing the solution of the problem. It uses

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algorithms, flowcharts, pseudo codes, decision table, decision tree, E-R diagram, Data flow
diagram etc.

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Theoretically designing of the system is called logical design. The system could be designed on the
basis of the requirements.
The conversion of logical design into designing tools and techniques is called physical design. It is
more detail and complex jobs describing the solution of the problem.

To create the logical design different kinds of tools are used.

 Algorithm  Decision Table
 Flowchart  Decision Tree
 Pseudo codes  Data flow diagram
 Structured English  E-R diagram

3. System development: after designing a logical diagram of a system then next step is to convert
into program. This process is called system development. Flowchart, algorithm, Pseudo code, etc.
are the outlines the procedures for taking the input data and processing it into usable output.

4. System testing: it is an investigation conducted to provide stakeholders with information about

the quality of the product or service under test. System testing also provides an objective,
independent view of the software to allow the business to appreciate and understand the risks of
software implementation.
5. Implementation: implementation involves testing the installed system, converting from the old
system to the new one and training the users. This phase consists of implementation of the system
into a production environment, and resolution of the problem identified in testing phase.
6. Maintenance and review: it begins after the system is implemented. Like any system, there is an
ageing process that requires periodic maintenance of hardware and software. The content of the
review will include objectives met, cost, performance, standards and recommendation.

System Analyst:
System analyst is person who is involved in analyzing, designing, implementing and evaluating computer-
based information systems to support the decision making activities and operations of an organization.
A good system analyst is:
1. Understanding and commitment to the organization
2. People skills
3. Conceptual skills and
4. Technical skills
 A system analyst is information specialist. To be a system analyst, one must be knowledgeable
about the technical aspects of analyzing, designing and implementing computer-based systems.
 A system analyst is a person who conducts a study, identifies activities and objectives and
determines a procedure to achieve the objectives.
Designing and implementing systems to suit organizational needs are the functions of the systems analyst.
One plays a major role in seeing the business benefits from computer technology.
An analyst is a person with unique skills. One uses these skills to coordinate the efforts of different types
of persons in an organization to achieve business goals.
The characteristics (attributes) of system analyst are as follows:
1. Knowledge of organization.
2. Technical Knowledge.
3. Interpersonal Communication Skill.
4. Character and Ethics.
5. Problem-Solving Skill.
1. Defining the problem
2. Analyzing the problem

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3. Considering Many alternatives

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4. Evaluating many alternatives

5. Choosing the best alternatives
6. System analysis and Design skills

The roles of system analyst area as follows:

1. Change event
2. Investigator and event
3. Architect
4. Psychologist
5. Motivator
6. Intermediary and diplomat
Duties and Responsibilities of System Analyst
1. Defining Requirements
2. Prioritizing Requirements
3. Analysis and Evaluation
4. Solving Problems
5. Drawing up functional specification
6. Designing System
7. Evaluating System

SDLC (System Development Life Cycle):

Describes in Details:
1. System study or Preliminary Investigation :
In this stage, the development team studies the present and identifies the drawbacks. They
interact with the users and gathers information from different sources to recognize the problems
of present system.
2. System Analysis:
In this stage, the development team once again goes to the organization and studies very
minutely to collect all the drawbacks and details of information from the users, management
and data processing personnel.
Then the system analyst analyzes the information and proposes the following specifications.
i. Goals and objectives of the proposed system.
ii. Fundamental actions that must take place in the software.
iii. Outputs to be produced.
iv. Inputs to be used.
v. Processes to be performed.
vi. Interfaces to be provided.
vii. Performance requirements to be met.
viii. Organizational and other constraints' to be met.
3. Feasibility study:
Feasibility study is the most important activity in the system analysis phase. It analyses the proposed
system from different aspects so that it makes us clear that how practical or beneficial the system will
be to the organization. So it tells us whether the system is feasible to design nor not. Thus it is
necessary before system design.
The different levels of feasibility study are as:

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1. Economic feasibility: it concerns with cost effectiveness of the system. The main objective of
economic feasibility is to calculate approximate cost-both the development cost and the operational
cost and the benefits from the system.
2. Technical feasibility: it concerns with the availability of the hardware, software and the support
equipment for the complete development of the system.
3. Operational feasibility: it concerns with smooth operation of the system. It is all about the
problems that may occur during operation of the system after its development.
4. Behavior feasibility: it concerns with behavior of the users and the society towards the new
system. Generally, most of the traditional employees are not easily ready to upgrade them with the
new system.
5. Schedule feasibility: it is the process of splitting project into tasks and estimate time and resources
required to complete each task. It determines the deadline to complete a system and schedule the
task accordingly.
6. Legal feasibility: it concerns with legal issue of the system. If the system is illegal then the system
designing is meaningless. Everything is measured whether it is legal or illegal. It considers copyright
law, foreign law, foreign trade, tax, etc.

4. System Design:
System design is concerned with the design of new system. It involves designing of various things
such as output design, input design, files design, processing and general program design etc. This
state consists of logical design and physical design of the system.
7. Logical Design: Theoretically designing of the system is called logical design. The
system could be designed on the basis of the requirements.
8. Physical Design: The conversion of logical design into designing tools and techniques
is called physical design. It is more detail and complex jobs describing the solution of
the problem. It uses algorithms, flowcharts, pseudo codes, decision table, decision
tree, E-R diagram, Data flow diagram etc.
System Design Tools:
The tools which are used to design the system in known as system design tools. They are used during
system analysis and design phase of the system development.
1. Algorithm: An algorithm is defined as the finite sequences of instructions for solving a problem.
2. Flowchart: A flowchart is the pictorial representation of an algorithm which is classified into two
types’ system flowchart and program flowchart. The different symbols used in system flowchart
are defined below:

I) System flowchart:
System flowchart describes the internal architecture of a system that describes how data are
moved inside the internal components of a system.
II) Program flowchart:
Program flowchart describes to solve the application types of real world problem.

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3. DFD (Data flow diagram):

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DFD is the logical diagram to describe the flow of data inside the components of system. It is easier
to understand or grasp when being explained and most important to all, it is much more precise
and less ambiguous than a narrative one. The main components are: process, data store, data
flow, external entities.

Supplier Computer Purchase.dat

4. Context Diagram:
It is combination of many other DFD. It is the highest level of DFD. It contains only one process,
representing the entire system, the process is given the symbol circle. The external entities are
denoted by rectangle. The flow of data is described by arrow.

Apply for membership

Membership
Applicant Issue

Issue
Membership
Fig.: The Context diagram of library membership
5. ER (Entity Relationship) diagram:
The E-R diagram is an overall logical structure of a database that can be expressed graphically. It
was developed to facilitated database design and the simplicity and pictorial clarity of this
diagramming technique have done great help in the designing part of database. The main
components are attributes, entities and relationship.
The diagrammatic representation of entities attributes and their relationship is described by E-R
diagram.
⚫ The main components of ERD are
⚫ Entity: Customer

⚫ Attributes: CustomerID

⚫ Relationship:
Purchase
⚫ Lines:

Name Address
Cus. Goods Id Name

Customer Purchase Goods

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Rate ne
Gender Purchase
Fig: ERD for customer and Goods Quantity
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6. Case diagram
Computer aided software engineering tool is automatic computer based program that helps for
software engineering and SDLC process. It is very fast and effective tools for the development of
big scale software. It helps in analysis, design, implementation, testing and maintenance.
7. UML
Unified Modeling Language is a standardized general purpose modeling language in the field of
object-oriented software engineering. The standard is managed, and was created by, the object
management group. UML includes a set of graphic notation techniques to create visual models of
object-oriented software.
8. Decision Table:
A table allows us to identify the exact course of actions for given conditions in tabular form.
Decision table is a tabular representation of the logic of a decision, which specifies the possible
conditions for the decision and the resulting actions.
Parts of Decision Table.

9. Decision Tree:
Decision tree is also a technique to represent condition and actions in a diagrammatic form in
computer. A decision tree allows us to identify the exact course of actions for given conditions in
tree structures.
10. Pseudo Code:
It is a kind algorithm for solving a problem and the instructions of pseudo code are written by
using English phrase and mathematical expressions.

5. System Development:
Programmers begin to develop the program by using a suitable High Level Language. In System
developments following processes are done.
i. Convert logical structure in to programs in programming language.
ii. Database is created.
iii. User operational documents are written.
iv. Users are trained.
v. The internal documentation of a system is prepared.
6. System testing:
It is an investigation conducted to provide stakeholders with information about the quality of the
product or service under test. System testing also provides an objective, independent view of the
software to allow the business to appreciate and understand the risks of software
implementation.
1. White box testing: white box testing of software is predicted on close examination of procedural
details. Logical path through the software and collaborations between components are tested by
providing test case that exercises specific sets of conditions or loops. It is used when the tester
has access it the internal data structures and algorithms including the code that implement these.
2. Black box testing: black box testing treats the software as a black box without any knowledge of
internal implementation. Black box testing methods include: equivalence partitioning, boundary

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value analysis, specification based testing, etc. it is also called functional testing because it tests
whether a system is functioning or not.

7. Implementation:
Implementation involves testing the installed system, converting from the old system to the new
one and training the users. This phase consists of implementation of the system into a production
environment, and resolution of the problem identified in testing phase.
Types of Implementation:
1. Direct Conversion: All users stop using old system at the same time and then begin using the
new. This option is very fast, less costly but more risky.
2. Parallel conversion: Users continue to use old system while an increasing amount of data is
processed through the new system. Both the systems operate at the same time until the new
system works smoothly. This option is costly but safe approach.
3. Phased conversion: Users start using the new system component by component. This option
works only for systems that can be compartmentalized. This option is safe and conservative
approach.
4. Pilot conversion: Personnel in a single pilot-site use the new system, and then the entire
organization makes the switch. Although this option may take more time, it is very useful in
big organizations where a large number of people make the conversion.
8. Maintenance and review:
It begins after the system is implemented. Like any system, there is an ageing process that requires
periodic maintenance of hardware and software. The content of the review will include objectives
met, cost, performance, standards and recommendation.
Types of Maintenance
1. Corrective Maintenance: it corrects the run time errors during the operation.
2. Adaptive Maintenance: It modifies or adds new features in the system.
3. Perfective Maintenance: It makes the system perfect, up-to-date and improve the life of the
system.
System Development Model:
During software development or system development for organizations, a common process framework
is established, defining a small number of framework activities that are applicable to all software projects,
regardless of their size complexity. For a better paradigm of a software process, several models are
designed and implemented. It is the choice of system analyst which model is used to achieve the goal.
The different models are:
1. Waterfall model:
Waterfall model is a systematic and sequential model to develop software that begins with
requirements analysis to operation and maintenance. It describes a development method that is
liner and sequential. It is an oldest type of model for software engineering. The fundamental
processes of waterfall model are as follows:

Requirements Analysis

System design

Development

Testing
Operation &
Fig:- Waterfall Model Maintenance

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1. Requirements analysis and definition: it is the first stage of waterfall model. In this stage, the
developer should identify the actual requirements of the given problem.
2. System design: in this stage the systems design process partition the requirements to either
hardware or software systems.
3. System Development: During this stage, the system design is converting into development.
4. Integration and system Testing: The individual program units or programs are integrated and
tested as a complete system to ensure that the software requirements have been met.
5. Operation and maintenance: in this stage, the system is installed to the desire location. The
maintenance involves correcting errors which were not discovered in earlier stages of the life
cycle, improving the implementation of system units and enhancing the system's service as
new requirements are discovered.

Advantages
1. It is simple model suitable for small size project.
2. It is less expensive.
Disadvantages
1. It has no back track mechanism.
2. It is not suitable for large size project.
3. It has lack of proper documentation.

2. Prototyping model:
It is the iterative process of system development which is more appropriate for developing new
system where there is no clear idea of requirements, inputs and outputs. These systems are then
continuously modified until the user is satisfied.

Identify user needs

Develop a Prototype

Prototype
acceptable

Use the prototype

1. Identify the user needs: the system analyst interviews the user to obtain an idea of what is
required from the system.
2. Develop a prototype: the system analyst, working uses one or more prototyping tools to
develop a prototype.
3. Determine if prototype is acceptable: the analyst educates the user in prototype use and
provides an opportunity from becoming familiar with the system.
4. Use the prototype: the prototype becomes the operational system.
Advantages
1. The users get a better understanding of the system being developed.
2. Errors can be detected much earlier as the system is made side by side.
3. Quicker user feedback is an available leading to better solutions of the system.
Disadvantages

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1. It leads to implementing and repairing way of building systems.

2. It may increase the complexity of the system as scope of the system may expand
beyond original plans.

3. Spiral system:
In this model, process is represented as a spiral rather than as a sequence of activities with
backtracking. It is a software development process combining the elements of both waterfall and
prototyping model. The spiral model is intended for large, expensive and complicated projects.
This is the most realistic model because it uses multidimensional approach for software
development. The activities in SDLC are organized in a spiral structure that has many cycles which
starts from the center of the spiral and goes out as it program and becomes matured. Each of the
complete spiral segment is divided into four different attributes knows as

Planning
Risk Analysis

Customer
Engineering
Evaluation

1. Planning: the project is reviewed and a decision made whether to continue with a further loop
of the spiral. If it is decided to continue, plans are drawn up for the next phase of the project.
2. Risk analysis: for each of the identified project risks, a detailed analysis is carried out. Steps
are taken to reduce the risk. For example, if there is a risk that the requirements are
inappropriate, a prototype system may be developed.
3. Software development (Engineering): after risk evaluation, a development model for the
system is chosen.
4. User evaluation: specific objectives for the phase of the project are defined by the evaluation
of users. Constraints on the process and the product are identified. And a detailed
management plan is drawn up. Advantages
- It emphasizes quality.
- It is effective for regular updating the system.
- It emphasizes risk reduction techniques.
Disadvantages
- Full scale risk analysis requires training, skill so it may appropriate only for large
projects.
- This model is relatively untested.

4. Agile Software Development

It is a software development method based on iterative and incremental development in which
requirement and solutions evolve though collaboration between self-organizing, cross functional
teams.

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Documentation:
Documentation is the process of collecting, organizing, storing and maintaining a complete record of
system and other documents used or prepared during the different phases of the life cycle of the system.
It consists of the detail description about software requirements specification, feasibility report, and
software designing report, description about input-output and processing mechanism, source code,
comments, manuals, guides and effective help desk.

Types of Documentation
1. Internal Documentation: It is used by the system analyst and the programmer during
development process. It is very useful for the development period and also useful in future for the
modification and maintenance for the software.
2. External Documentation: It is used by the user during the running time of the software. It includes
the detail description in terms of manuals, guide and help files. It is mainly deals with how to
effective use of software.

Web References:
 https://www.javatpoint.com
 https://www.w3schools.com
 https://www.tutorialspoint.com
 https://www.google.com
 https://www.wikipedia.org

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