CHAPTER ONE

Concepts of Scientific Research

1.1. Research Concepts and Definitions
Research in common phrasing refers to a search for knowledge and systematic investigation to
establish facts. One can also define research as a scientific and systematic search for pertinent
information on a specific topic. According to scholars, research comprises defining and
problems, formulating hypothesis or suggested solutions; collecting, organizing and
evaluating data, making conclusions; and at last carefully testing the conclusions to determine
whether they fit the formulating hypothesis. In short, it is search for knowledge through
objective and systematic method of finding solution to a problem.
1.2. Characteristics of good Research
Research is a process of collecting, analyzing and interpreting information to answer questions.
But to qualify as research, the process must have certain characteristics: it must, as far as
possible, be controlled, rigorous, systematic, valid and verifiable, empirical and critical.
Whatever may be the types of research works and studies, one expects scientific research to
satisfy the following criteria:
1. Systematic: means that research is structured with specified steps to be taken in a
specified sequence in accordance with the well-defined set of rules. Systematic characteristic of
the research does not rule out creative thinking but it certainly does reject the use of guessing and
intuition in arriving at conclusions.
2. Logical: This implies that research is guided by logical reasoning and the logical process
of induction and deduction are of great value in carrying out research. In fact, logical reasoning
makes research more meaningful in the context of decision making.
3. Empirical: It implies that research is related basically to one or more aspects of a real
evidence and deals with concrete data that provides a basis for external validity to research
results.
4. Replicable or verifiable: This characteristic allows research results to be verified by
replicating the study and thereby building a sound basis for decisions.

1.3. Classification of Research

Research can be classified from three perspectives:
1. Application of research study
2. Objectives in undertaking the research
3. Approach employed
Application:
From the point of view of application, there are two broad categories of research:
- Pure research and
- Applied research.
Pure research involves developing and testing theories and hypotheses that are intellectually
challenging to the researcher but May or may not have practical application at the present time or
in the future. The knowledge produced through pure research is sought in order to add to the
existing body of research methods.
Applied research is done to solve specific, practical questions; for policy formulation,
administration and understanding of a phenomenon. It can be exploratory, but is usually
descriptive. It is almost always done on the basis of basic research. Applied research can be
carried out by academic or industrial institutions. Often, an academic institution such as a
university will have a specific applied research program funded by an industrial partner
interested in that program.
Objectives:
From the viewpoint of objectives, a research can be classified as
-descriptive
-explanatory
-exploratory
Descriptive research attempts to describe systematically a situation, problem, phenomenon,
service or program, or provides information about , say, living condition of a community, or
describes attitudes towards an issue.
Explanatory research attempts to clarify why and how there is a relationship between two
or more aspects of a situation or phenomenon.
Exploratory research is undertaken to explore an area where little is known or to investigate
the possibilities of undertaking a particular research study (feasibility study/ pilot study).
In practice most studies are a combination of the first three categories.
Approach Employed
From the process adopted to find answer to research questions – the two approaches are:
(iii) Quantitative vs. Qualitative: Quantitative research is based on the measurement of
quantity or amount. It is applicable to phenomena that can be expressed in terms of quantity.
Qualitative research, on the other hand, is concerned with qualitative phenomenon, i.e.,
phenomena relating to or involving quality or kind. For instance, when we are interested in
investigating the reasons for human behavior (i.e., why people think or do certain things), we
quite often talk of ‘Motivation Research’, an important type of qualitative research. This type of
research aims at discovering the underlying motives and desires, using in depth interviews for
the purpose.
1.5. Significance of Research
The role of research in several fields of management, finance and applied economics, whether
related to business or to the economy as a whole, has greatly increased in modern times. The
increasingly complex nature of business and government has focused attention on the use of
research in solving operational problems. Research, as an aid to economic policy, has gained
added importance, both for government and business.
i. Research provides the basis for all government policies in economic system.
It certainly facilitates the decisions of the policy maker and is necessary with regard to the
allocation of nation’s resources. Another area in government, where research is necessary, is
collecting information on the economic and social structure of the nation. Such information
indicates what is happening in the economy and what changes are taking place.
ii. Research has its special significance in solving various operational and planning
problems of business and industry. Operations research and market research, along with
motivational research, are considered as crucial in taking business decisions.
Market research is the investigation of the structure and development of a market for the
purpose of formulating efficient policies for purchasing and sales. Operations research
refers to the application of mathematical, logical and analytical techniques to the solution
of business problems of cost minimization or of profit maximization or what can be termed
as optimization problems. Motivational research of determining why people behave as they
do things.
All these are of great help to people in business and industry who are responsible for taking
business decisions. Research with regard to demand and market factors has great utility in
business. Given knowledge of future demand, it is generally not difficult for a firm, or an
industry to adjust its supply schedule within the limits of its projected capacity. Market analysis
has become an integral tool of business policy these days. Business budgeting, which ultimately
results in a projected profit and loss account, is based mainly on sales estimates which in turn
depend on business research. Once sales forecasting is done, efficient production and investment
program can be set up around which are grouped the purchasing and financing plans. Research,
thus, replaces intuitive business decisions by more logical and scientific decisions.
iii. In addition to what has been stated above, the significance of research can also be
understood keeping in view the following points:
(a) To those students who are to write a master’s or Ph.D. thesis, research may mean a way to
attain a high position in the social structure;
(b) To professionals in research methodology, research may mean a source of livelihood;
(c) To philosophers and thinkers, research may mean the outlet for new ideas and insights;
(d) To analysts and intellectuals, research may mean the generalizations of new theories.
Thus, research is the fountain of knowledge for the sake of knowledge and an important source
of providing guidelines for solving different business, governmental and social problems. It is a
sort of formal training which enables one to understand the new developments in one’s field in a
better way.

1.6. Research Process

Research process consists of series of actions or steps necessary to effectively carry out research
and the desired sequencing of these steps. But such activities overlap continuously rather than
following a strictly prescribed sequence. However, the following order concerning various steps
provides a useful procedural guideline regarding the research process:
1. Formulating the research problem: The formulation of a general topic into a specific
research problem constitutes the first step in a scientific enquiry. Essentially two steps are
involved in formulating the research problem, viz., understanding the problem thoroughly, and
rephrasing the same into meaningful terms from an analytical point of view.
The best way of understanding the problem is to discuss it with one’s own colleagues or with
those having some expertise in the matter. In an academic institution, the researcher can seek the
help from a guide who is usually an experienced man and has several research problems in mind.
Often, the guide puts forth the problem in general terms and it is up to the researcher to narrow it
down and phrase the problem in operational terms. In private business units or in governmental
organizations, the problem is usually earmarked by the administrative agencies with whom the
researcher can discuss as to how the problem originally came about and what considerations are
involved in its possible solutions.
2. Extensive literature survey: Once the problem is formulated, a brief summary of it should be
written down. At this juncture, the researcher should undertake extensive literature survey
connected with the problem. For this purpose, the abstracting and indexing journals and
published or unpublished bibliographies are the first place to go to. Academic journals,
conference proceedings, government reports, books etc., must be tapped depending on the nature
of the problem. In this process, it should be remembered that one source will lead to another. The
earlier studies, if any, which are similar to the study in hand, should be carefully studied.
3. Development of working hypotheses: After extensive literature survey, the researcher should
state in clear terms the working hypothesis or hypotheses. Working hypothesis is tentative
assumption made in order to draw out and test its logical consequences. In most types of
research, the development of working hypothesis plays an important role. Hypothesis should be
very specific and limited to the piece of research in hand because it has to be tested. The role of
the hypothesis is to guide the researcher by delimiting the area of research and to keep him on
the right track. It sharpens his thinking and focuses attention on the more important facets of the
problem. It also indicates the type of data required and the type of methods of data analysis to be
used.
Working hypotheses are more useful when stated in precise and clearly defined terms. But as a
general rule, specification of working hypotheses in another basic step of the research process in
most research problems.
4. Preparing the research design: The research problem having been formulated in clear cut
terms, the researcher will be required to prepare a research design, i.e., he will have to state the
conceptual structure within which research would be conducted. The preparation of such a
design facilitates research to be as efficient as possible yielding maximal information. In other
words, the function of research design is to provide for the collection of relevant evidence with
minimal expenditure of effort, time and money. But how all these can be achieved depends
mainly on the research purpose. Research purposes may be grouped into four categories, viz., (i)
Exploration, (ii) Description, (iii) Diagnosis, and (iv) Experimentation.
5. Determining sample design:
We select only a few items from the universe for our study purposes. The items so selected
constitute what is technically called a sample. The researcher must decide the way of selecting a
sample or what is popularly known as the sample design. In other words, a sample design is a
definite plan determined before any data are actually collected for obtaining a sample from a
given population. Samples can be either probability or non-probability samples. With probability
samples, each element has a known probability of being included in the sample but the non-
probability samples do not allow the researcher to determine this probability. Probability samples
are those based on simple random sampling, systematic sampling, stratified sampling,
cluster/area sampling whereas non-probability samples are those based on convenience
sampling, judgment sampling and quota sampling techniques.
6. Collecting the data: There are several ways of collecting the appropriate data which differ
considerably in context of money costs, time and other resources at the disposal of the
researcher. Primary data can be collected either through experiment or through survey. If the
researcher conducts an experiment, he observes some quantitative measurements, or the data,
with the help of which he examines the truth contained in his hypothesis. But in the case of a
survey, data can be collected by any of the following ways:
(i) By observation: This method implies the collection of information by way of investigator’s
own observation, without interviewing the respondents. This method is no doubt an expensive
and the information provided by this method is also very limited. As such, this method is not
suitable in inquiries where large samples are concerned.
(ii) Through personal interview: The investigator follows a rigid procedure and seeks answers to
a set of pre-conceived questions through personal interviews. This method of collecting data is
usually carried out in a structured way where output depends upon the ability of the interviewer
to a large extent.
(iii) Through telephone interviews: This method of collecting information involves contacting
the respondents on telephone itself. This is not a very widely used method but it plays an
important role in industrial surveys in developed regions, particularly, when the survey has to be
accomplished in a very limited time.
(iv)By mailing of questionnaires: The researcher and the respondents come in contact with each
other. Questionnaires are mailed to the respondents with a request to return after completing
data. It is the most extensively used method in various economic and business surveys.
7. Analysis of data: After the data have been collected, the researcher turns to the task of
analyzing them. The analysis of data requires a number of closely related operations such as
establishment of categories, the application of these categories to raw data through coding,
tabulation and then drawing statistical inferences. The unwieldy data should necessarily be
condensed into a few manageable groups and tables for further analysis. Thus, researcher should
classify the raw data into some purposeful and usable categories. Coding operation is usually
done at this stage through which the categories of data are transformed into symbols that may be
tabulated and counted. Editing is the procedure that improves the quality of the data for coding.
With coding, the stage is ready for tabulation.
8. Hypothesis-testing: After analyzing the data, the researcher is in a position to test the
hypotheses. Various tests, such as Chi square test, t-test, F-test, have been developed by
statisticians for the purpose. The hypotheses may be tested through the use of one or more of
such tests, depending upon the nature and object of research inquiry. Hypothesis-testing will
result in either accepting the hypothesis or rejecting
9. Generalizations and interpretation: If a hypothesis is tested and upheld several times, it may
be possible for the researcher to arrive at generalization, i.e., to build a theory. As a matter of
fact, the real value of research lies in its ability to arrive at certain generalizations. If the
researcher had no hypothesis to start with, he might seek to explain his findings on the basis of
some theory. It is known as interpretation. The process of interpretation may quite often trigger
off new questions which in turn may lead to further researches.
10. Preparation of the report: Finally, the researcher has to prepare the report of what has been
done by him. Writing of report must be done with great care keeping in view the following:
1. The layout of the report should be as follows: (i) the preliminary pages; (ii) the main text, and
(iii) the end matter.
In its preliminary pages, the report should carry title and date followed by acknowledgements
and preface. Then there should be a table of contents followed by a list of tables, graphs and
charts, if any, given in the report.
The main text of the report should have the following parts:
(a) Introduction: It should contain a clear statement of the problem and objective of the
research. And the scope of the study along with various limitations should as well be
stated in this part.
(b) Literature review: in the main text the review of previously existed researches and
literature are presented here.
(c) Methodology: an explanation of the methodology adopted in accomplishing the research.
(d) Main report (Data analysis): The main body of the report should be presented in logical
sequence and broken-down into readily identifiable sections.
(d) Conclusion and recommendation: Towards the end of the main text, researcher should again
put down the results of his research clearly and precisely. In fact, it is the final summing up.
At the end of the report, appendices should be enlisted in respect of all technical data.
Bibliography, i.e., list of books, journals, reports, etc., consulted, should also be given in the end.
Index should also be given specially in a published research report.
2. Report should be written in a concise and objective style in simple language avoiding vague
expressions such as ‘it seems,’ ‘there may be’, and the like.
3. Charts and illustrations in the main report should be used only if they present the information
more clearly and forcibly.
4. Calculated ‘confidence limits’ must be mentioned and the various constraints experienced in
conducting research operations may as well be stated.