Section B

VECTOR ALGEBRA

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 INDEX

SR NO. TOPIC PAGE NO.

1. Vector Algebra 7

2. Representation of Vectors 9

3. Types of Vectors 11

4. Operations in Vectors 15

5. Triangle/Parallelogram Law of Addition 17

6. Subtraction of Vectors 19

7. Mutiplaction of Vectors 21

8. Vector Algebra Formulas 23

9. Applications of Vector Algebra 25

10. Examples 27

11. Conclusion 31

12. Bibliography 33

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 Statement of Purpose

The aim of a project on vectors is to comprehensively explore and understand the

fundamental concepts, properties, and applications of vectors in mathematics and
related fields. The project aims to achieve specific objectives that enhance
comprehension and practical application of vectors. Here's a detailed breakdown of
the aims:

1. Fundamental Understanding:
• Develop a solid understanding of the basic principles and properties of
vectors, including vector operations, vector spaces, and vector
algebra.
2. Geometric Interpretation:
• Explore the geometric interpretation of vectors, understanding how
vectors represent quantities in both magnitude and direction and how
they are used to describe positions and movements in space.
3. Vector Algebra and Operations:
• Study and apply vector algebra, including vector addition, subtraction,
scalar multiplication, dot product, cross product, and their properties,
to manipulate and analyze vectors effectively.
4. Vector Spaces and Linear Independence:
• Investigate vector spaces, linear independence, basis, and dimension,
understanding how vectors form a fundamental structure in linear
algebra and various mathematical applications.

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 Vector Algebra
Vectors algebra is the branch of algebra that involves operations on
vectors. Vectors are quantities that have both magnitude and direction so
normal operations are not performed on the vectors. We can add,
subtract, and multiply vector quantities using special vector algebra
rules. Vectors can be easily represented in 2-D or 3-D spaces. Vector
algebra has various applications it is used in solving various problems in
mathematics and physics, engineering, and various other fields.
In this article, we will learn about vector algebra, operations in vector
algebra, types of vectors, and others in detail.
What Is Vector Algebra?
Vector algebra is the type of Algebra that is used to perform various algebraic
operations on vectors. As we know vectors are quantities that have both magnitude
and direction whereas scalar quantities only have magnitude and no direction. The
difference between vector quantities and scaler quantities can be understood with
the help of the example discussed below.
The height and weight of a person can be described by a single number like 75 Kg
or 150cm. These quantities only have magnitude, they do not require any extra
information. Such quantities are called scalar quantities.
Now, let’s consider another situation, the coach of the football team wants to teach
his goalkeeper to pass the ball to another player, now he will have to describe the
region he should send the ball (Direction) and how hard he should hit (magnitude).
This quantity requires both magnitude and direction. Such quantities are called
vectors.
Such quantities in which direction are present are called Vector quantities.
Examples of vector quantities are Displacement, Velocity, Force, etc. As these
quantities have directions operations on these quantities are not easily applied and
the concept of vector algebra is used to perform operations on these quantities.

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In the above figure, the length of the line shows the magnitude of the vector, and
the arrowhead points to its direction. It is basically a directed line segment . Its
starting point A is called the initial point and point B where it ends is called the
terminal point.

Representation of Vectors
The representation of vector is done by using the arrow. We know that an arrow
contains a head and a tail. The head of the arrow denotes the direction of the
vector. Let us learn more about the representation of vector along with examples.
What is Representation of Vector?

The representation of vector is done by a directed line segment. It is an arrow

that has a head and a tail. here,
• The starting point of the vector is called its tail (or) the initial point of the
vector.
• The ending point of the vector is called its head (or) the terminal point of

the vector.
The head of the vector shows its direction. The direction of the vector is the angle
made by it with a reference line. A vector that starts from a point A and ends at a
point B is denoted by AB→.

Magnitude of Vectors
The magnitude of a vector represents the strength of the vector. We can calculate
the magnitude of the vector by taking the square root of the sum of the squares of
each component in the x, y, and z directions.
The magnitude of a vector is calculated by taking the square root of the sum of the
square of the components of the vector in the x, y, and z directions.
For any vector, the magnitude of the vector is represented as |A| and its value is
|A| = √ (a2+b2+c2)
The magnitude of a vector is a scalar value.

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Components of Vectors
A vector can be easily broken into its two components which represent the value of
the vector in perpendicular dimensions. In a 2-D coordinate system, we can easily
break the vector into two components namely the x-component and y-component.
For any vector A its,
• x-components is Ax and its value is Ax = Acosθ
• Y-components is Ay and its value is Ay = Asinθ
where θ is the angle formed by the vector with the positive x-axis. Also, the
magnitude of the vector A is calculated using the formula,
|A| = √[(Ax)2 +(Ay)2]
Angle Between Two Vectors
If two vectors in the 2-D plane intersect each other then the angle between them
can easily be calculated using the dot product of the vector formula. We know that
for two vectors vector a, and vector b their dot product is given by,
a.b= |a|.|b|. cos θ
We can easily calculate the dot product of the two vectors using the dot product
rule and then taking the inverse trigonometric cos function on both sides we can
easily calculate the angle between two vectors as,
θ = cos-1[(a·b)/|a||b|]

Types of Vectors
Vectors can be classified into different categories on the basis of their magnitude
and direction. The various types of vectors are listed below:
• Zero Vector
• Unit Vector
• Equal Vector
• Negative Vector
• Co-Initial Vectors
• Collinear Vectors
• Parallel Vectors
• Orthogonal Vectors
Let’s discuss these types of vectors in detail.

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 TYPES OF VECTORS

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Zero Vector
A vector whose initial and terminal points coincide is called a zero vector. It
cannot be assigned any direction or magnitude. The magnitude of the zero vector is
0. In the coordinate system, we write the zero vector as (0, 0, 0). The additive
identity of the vector is zero vector, i.e.

Unit Vector
A unit vector has a length (or magnitude) equal to one, which is basically used to
show the direction of any vector. A unit vector is equal to the ratio of a vector and
its magnitude. Symbolically, it is represented by a cap or hat (^).

Equal Vector
Two vectors are considered equal if they have the same direction and magnitude.
They have equal components in respective directions but they can have different
initial and final points.
Negative Vector
A vector is called the negative vector of a vector if it has the same magnitude as
the original vector but the direction is opposite to the original vector. For any
vector A the negative vector is – A.

Co-Initial Vectors
The vectors which start from the same point are called co-initial vectors.
Collinear Vectors
Two vectors are said to be collinear if they are parallel to the same line,
irrespective of their magnitudes and direction.
Parallel Vectors
If the angle between two vectors is zero then the vectors are called parallel vectors.
They have similar directions but the magnitude may or may not be the same.
Orthogonal Vectors
If the angle between two vectors is a right angle, i.e. 90 degrees then the vectors
are called orthogonal vectors. The dot product of the orthogonal vector is always
zero.
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Operations in Vector Algebra
We can perform various operations in Vector Algebra by taking a geometrical
approach or by taking a coordinate system approach. Various operations in vector
algebra are,
• Addition of Vectors
• Subtraction of Vectors
• Multiplication of Vectors by Scalar
• Scalar Triple Product of Vectors
• Multiplication of Vectors
Now we will understand each of these operations in vector algebra below in the
article.

Addition of Vectors

Laws of Vector Addition

There are two laws of vector addition (As mentioned in the previous section).

• Triangle law

• Parallelogram law

Using these two laws, we are going to prove that the sum of two vectors is
obtained by attaching them head to tail and the vector sum is given by the vector
that joins the free tail and free head. Let us study each of these laws in detail in the
upcoming sections.

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Triangle Law of Vector Addition
The famous triangle law can be used for the addition of vectors and this method is
also called the head-to-tail method. As per this law, two vectors can be added
together by placing them together in such a way that the first vector’s head joins
the tail of the second vector. Thus, by joining the first vector’s tail to the head of
the second vector, we can obtain the resultant vector sum. The addition of vectors
using the triangle law can be with the following steps:
• First, the two vectors M and N are placed together in such a manner that
the head of vector M connects the tail of vector N.
• And then, in order to find the sum, a resultant vector S is drawn in such a
way that it connects the tail of M to the head of N.
• Thus, mathematically, the sum, or the resultant, vector S, in the below-
given image can be expressed as S = M + N.

Thus, when the two vectors M and N are added using the triangle law, we can see
that a triangle is formed by the two original vectors M and N, and the sum
vector S.
Parallelogram Law of Addition of Vectors

Another law that can be used for the addition of vectors is the parallelogram law of
the addition of vectors. Let’s take two vectors p and q, as shown below. They form
the two adjacent sides of a parallelogram in their magnitude and direction. The
sum p + q is represented in magnitude and direction by the diagonal of the
parallelogram through their common point. This is the parallelogram law of vector
addition.

In the above-given figure, using the Triangle law, we can conclude the following:
OP + PR = OR
OP + OQ = OR, since PR = OQ

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Hence, we can conclude that the triangle laws of vector addition and the
parallelogram law of vector addition are equivalent to each other.
Vector Addition Formulas

We use one of the following formulas to add two vectors a = <a1, a2, a3> and b =
<b1, b2, b3>.
• If the vectors are in the component form then the vector sum formula

is a + b = <a1 + b1, a2 + b2, a3 + b3>.

• If the two vectors are arranged by attaching the head of one vector to the

tail of the other, then their sum is the vector that joins the free head and
free tail (by triangle law).
• If the two vectors represent the two adjacent sides of a parallelogram

then the sum represents the diagonal vector that is drawn from the
common point of both vectors (by parallelogram law).
Important Notes on Vector Addition:
Here is a list of a few points that should be remembered while studying the
addition of vectors:
• Vectors are represented as a combination of direction and magnitude and
they are drawn with an arrow representation.
• If the components of a vector are provided, then we can determine the
resultant vector.
• The famous triangle law can be used for the addition of vectors and this
method is also called the head-to-tail method.

Subtraction of Vectors
Subtraction Of Vectors is similar to the addition of the vector only the director of
the vector which is to be subtracted is reversed and then the addition of the vector
is calculated using the vector addition formulas.
Suppose we have to find the subtraction of two vectors say A and B then this
condition is represented as, A – B. Now we know that the subtraction is calculated
by reversing the subtracted vector and then adding then both
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Multiplication of Vectors
Multiplication of vectors is of two types. A vector has both magnitude and
direction and based on this the two ways of multiplication of vectors are the dot
product of two vectors and the cross product of two vectors. The dot product of
two vectors is also referred to as scalar product, as the resultant value is a scalar
quantity. The cross product is called the vector product as the result is a vector,
which is perpendicular to these two vectors.

How To Do Multiplication of Vectors?

A vector has both magnitude and direction. We can multiply two or more vectors
by dot product and cross product. Let us understand more about each of the
multiplication of vectors.
Dot Product

The dot product of vectors is also called the scalar product of vectors. The resultant
of the dot product of the vectors is a scalar value. Dot Product of vectors is equal to
the product of the magnitudes of the two vectors, and the cosine of the angle
between the two vectors. The resultant of the dot product of two vectors lie in the
same plane of the two vectors. The dot product may be a positive real number or a
negative real number.

Cross Product

Cross Product is also called a Vector Product. Cross product is a form of vector
multiplication, performed between two vectors of different nature or kinds. When
two vectors are multiplied with each other and the multiplication is also a vector
quantity, then the resultant vector is called the cross product of two vectors or the
vector product. The resultant vector is perpendicular to the plane containing the
two given vectors

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Vector Algebra Formulas
We use various formulas in Vector Algebra to solve various types of complex
problems. These formulas are very helpful in understanding and solving vector
algebra problems. The important vector algebra formulas are,
• (ai + bj + ck) + (pi + qj + rk) = (a+p)i + (b+q)j + (c+r)k
• (ai + bj + ck) – (pi + qj + rk) = (a-p)i + (b-q)j + (c-r)k
• (ai + bj + ck) . (pi + qj + rk) = (a.p)i + (b.q)j + (c.r)k
If vector A = ai + bj + ck and vector B = pi + qj + rk, then
• A × B = (br – cq)i + (ar – cp)j + (aq – bp)k
The angle between two vectors is given as,
• θ = cos-1 (a·b/|a||b|)
Associative Property of Multiplication
• A.B = B.A
• A×B≠B×A
• A × B = -B × A
Other Properties
• i.i = j.j = k.k = 1
• i.j = j.k = k.i = 0
• i×j = k
• j×k = i
• k×i = j

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Applications of Vector Algebra
Vector algebra is widely used in various fields such as Mathematics, Engineering,
Physics, and others. Various physical quantities encountered by us in real life such
as force, acceleration, velocity, and others are vector quantities and we use vector
algebra to define and operate on those quantities. Some of the important
applications of vector algebra are
• Vector algebra is used to study electromagnetic fields, gravitational fields,
fluid flow, and other topics in engineering and physics.
• Differential Equation and Partial Differential Equations are solved using
vector algebra.
• The resultant of the force acting on the body is calculated using vector
algebra.
• Vector Algebra is used to find equipotential surfaces.

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Vector Examples

Example 1: Find the dot product of vectors P(a, b, c) and Q(p, q, r).
Solution:
We know that dot product of the vector is calculated by the formula,
P.Q = P1Q1+P2Q2+……….PnQn
Thus,
P.Q = a.p + b.q + c.r
The dot product of vector P and vector Q is ap + bq + cr

Example 2: Find the dot product of vectors P(1, 3, -5) and Q(7, -6, -
2).
Solution:
We know that dot product of the vector is calculated by the formula,
P.Q = P1Q1+P2Q2+……….PnQn
Thus,
P.Q = 1.7 + 3.(-6) + (-5).(-2)
⇒ P.Q = 7 – 18 + 10
⇒ P.Q = 17 – 18
⇒ P.Q = -1
The dot product of vector P and vector Q is -1

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Example 3: Find the magnitude of the vector A = 2i – 5j + 4k, using
vector algebra.
Solution:
Given Vector,
Vector A = 2i – 5j + 4k
We know that magnitude of the vector A is |A| i.e.
|A| = √ (a2+b2+c2)
⇒ |A| = √ (22+(-5)2+42)
⇒ |A| = √(4 + 25 + 16)
⇒ |A| = √(45) = 3√(5)

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CONCLUSION

This project gave me a different insight on representation as all our

school life we deal with scalar quantities and units.The inclusion of
vectors now has opened up my mind on endless possibilities of
advancement we as humans have left to do

This is a different type of Mathematics and it is intriguing and I enjoyed

to learn more about it
I thank the teachers who included this topic even though it is a
completely new thing for high school kids it encourages students to
explore new things and experiences

The time spent for this project has been really interesting

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Bibliography

1) www.cliffsnotes.com
2) www.geeksforgeeks.org
3) ximera.osu.edu
4) www.cuemath.com
5) www.askiitians.com

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