Information security

Information security, sometimes shortened to InfoSec,[1] is the practice of protecting information by

mitigating information risks. It is part of information risk management.[2][3] It typically involves preventing
or reducing the probability of unauthorized or inappropriate access to data or the unlawful use, disclosure,
disruption, deletion, corruption, modification, inspection, recording, or devaluation of information. It also
involves actions intended to reduce the adverse impacts of such incidents. Protected information may take
any form, e.g., electronic or physical, tangible (e.g., paperwork), or intangible (e.g., knowledge).[4][5]
Information security's primary focus is the balanced protection of data confidentiality, integrity, and
availability (also known as the "CIA" triad) while maintaining a focus on efficient policy implementation,
all without hampering organization productivity.[6] This is largely achieved through a structured risk
management process that involves:

Identifying information and related assets, plus potential threats, vulnerabilities, and impacts;
Evaluating the risks
Deciding how to address or treat the risks, i.e., to avoid, mitigate, share, or accept them
Where risk mitigation is required, selecting or designing appropriate security controls and
implementing them
Monitoring the activities and making adjustments as necessary to address any issues,
changes, or improvement opportunities[7]

To standardize this discipline, academics and professionals collaborate to offer guidance, policies, and
industry standards on passwords, antivirus software, firewalls, encryption software, legal liability, security
awareness and training, and so forth.[8] This standardization may be further driven by a wide variety of
laws and regulations that affect how data is accessed, processed, stored, transferred, and destroyed.[9]
However, the implementation of any standards and guidance within an entity may have limited effect if a
culture of continual improvement is not adopted.[10]

Definition
Various definitions of information security are suggested below, summarized from different sources:

1. "Preservation of confidentiality, integrity and availability of information. Note: In addition,

other properties, such as authenticity, accountability, non-repudiation and reliability can also
be involved." (ISO/IEC 27000:2018)[12]
2. "The protection of information and information systems from unauthorized access, use,
disclosure, disruption, modification, or destruction in order to provide confidentiality, integrity,
and availability." (CNSS, 2010)[13]
3. "Ensures that only authorized users (confidentiality) have access to accurate and complete
information (integrity) when required (availability)." (ISACA, 2008)[14]
4. "Information Security is the process of protecting the intellectual property of an organisation."
(Pipkin, 2000)[15]
5. "...information security is a risk management discipline, whose job is to manage the cost of
information risk to the business." (McDermott and Geer, 2001)[16]
6. "A well-informed sense of assurance that information risks and controls are in balance."
(Anderson, J., 2003)[17]
 7. "Information security is the protection of information and
minimizes the risk of exposing information to
unauthorized parties." (Venter and Eloff, 2003)[18]
8. "Information Security is a multidisciplinary area of study
and professional activity which is concerned with the
development and implementation of security
mechanisms of all available types (technical,
organizational, human-oriented and legal) in order to
keep information in all its locations (within and outside
the organization's perimeter) and, consequently,
information systems, where information is created,
processed, stored, transmitted and destroyed, free from
threats.[19] Threats to information and information
Information Security Attributes: or
systems may be categorized and a corresponding
qualities, i.e., Confidentiality,
security goal may be defined for each category of
Integrity and Availability (CIA).
threats.[20] A set of security goals, identified as a result of Information Systems are composed
a threat analysis, should be revised periodically to
in three main portions, hardware,
ensure its adequacy and conformance with the evolving
software and communications with
environment.[21] The currently relevant set of security the purpose to help identify and
goals may include: confidentiality, integrity, availability,
apply information security industry
privacy, authenticity & trustworthiness, non-repudiation,
standards, as mechanisms of
accountability and auditability." (Cherdantseva and
protection and prevention, at three
Hilton, 2013)[11]
levels or layers: physical, personal
9. Information and information resource security using and organizational. Essentially,
telecommunication system or devices means protecting procedures or policies are
information, information systems or books from implemented to tell administrators,
unauthorized access, damage, theft, or destruction users and operators how to use
(Kurose and Ross, 2010).[22] products to ensure information
security within the organizations.[11]
Overview
At the core of information security is information assurance, the act of maintaining the confidentiality,
integrity, and availability (CIA) of information, ensuring that information is not compromised in any way
when critical issues arise.[23] These issues include but are not limited to natural disasters, computer/server
malfunction, and physical theft. While paper-based business operations are still prevalent, requiring their
own set of information security practices, enterprise digital initiatives are increasingly being
emphasized,[24][25] with information assurance now typically being dealt with by information technology
(IT) security specialists. These specialists apply information security to technology (most often some form
of computer system). It is worthwhile to note that a computer does not necessarily mean a home
desktop.[26] A computer is any device with a processor and some memory. Such devices can range from
non-networked standalone devices as simple as calculators, to networked mobile computing devices such as
smartphones and tablet computers.[27] IT security specialists are almost always found in any major
enterprise/establishment due to the nature and value of the data within larger businesses.[28] They are
responsible for keeping all of the technology within the company secure from malicious cyber attacks that
often attempt to acquire critical private information or gain control of the internal systems.[29][30]

The field of information security has grown and evolved significantly in recent years.[31] It offers many
areas for specialization, including securing networks and allied infrastructure, securing applications and
databases, security testing, information systems auditing, business continuity planning, electronic record
discovery, and digital forensics. Information security professionals are very stable in their employment.[32]
As of 2013 more than 80 percent of professionals had no change in employer or employment over a period
of a year, and the number of professionals is projected to continuously grow more than 11 percent annually
from 2014 to 2019.[33]

Threats

Information security threats come in many different forms.[34][35] Some of the most common threats today
are software attacks, theft of intellectual property, theft of identity, theft of equipment or information,
sabotage, and information extortion.[36][37] Viruses,[38] worms, phishing attacks, and Trojan horses are a
few common examples of software attacks. The theft of intellectual property has also been an extensive
issue for many businesses in the information technology (IT) field.[39] Identity theft is the attempt to act as
someone else usually to obtain that person's personal information or to take advantage of their access to vital
information through social engineering.[40][41] Theft of equipment or information is becoming more
prevalent today due to the fact that most devices today are mobile,[42] are prone to theft and have also
become far more desirable as the amount of data capacity increases. Sabotage usually consists of the
destruction of an organization's website in an attempt to cause loss of confidence on the part of its
customers.[43] Information extortion consists of theft of a company's property or information as an attempt
to receive a payment in exchange for returning the information or property back to its owner, as with
ransomware.[44] There are many ways to help protect yourself from some of these attacks but one of the
most functional precautions is conduct periodical user awareness.[45] The number one threat to any
organisation are users or internal employees, they are also called insider threats.[46]

Governments, military, corporations, financial institutions, hospitals, non-profit organisations, and private
businesses amass a great deal of confidential information about their employees, customers, products,
research, and financial status.[47] Should confidential information about a business's customers or finances
or new product line fall into the hands of a competitor or a black hat hacker, a business and its customers
could suffer widespread, irreparable financial loss, as well as damage to the company's reputation.[48] From
a business perspective, information security must be balanced against cost; the Gordon-Loeb Model
provides a mathematical economic approach for addressing this concern.[49]

For the individual, information security has a significant effect on privacy, which is viewed very differently
in various cultures.[50]

Responses to threats

Possible responses to a security threat or risk are:[51]

reduce/mitigate – implement safeguards and countermeasures to eliminate vulnerabilities or

block threats
assign/transfer – place the cost of the threat onto another entity or organization such as
purchasing insurance or outsourcing
accept – evaluate if the cost of the countermeasure outweighs the possible cost of loss due
to the threat[52]

History
Since the early days of communication, diplomats and military commanders understood that it was
necessary to provide some mechanism to protect the confidentiality of correspondence and to have some
means of detecting tampering. Julius Caesar is credited with the invention of the Caesar cipher c. 50 B.C.,
which was created in order to prevent his secret messages from being read should a message fall into the
wrong hands.[53] However, for the most part protection was achieved through the application of procedural
handling controls.[54][55] Sensitive information was marked up to indicate that it should be protected and
transported by trusted persons, guarded and stored in a secure environment or strong box.[56] As postal
services expanded, governments created official organizations to intercept, decipher, read, and reseal letters
(e.g., the U.K.'s Secret Office, founded in 1653[57]).

In the mid-nineteenth century more complex classification systems were developed to allow governments to
manage their information according to the degree of sensitivity.[58] For example, the British Government
codified this, to some extent, with the publication of the Official Secrets Act in 1889.[59] Section 1 of the
law concerned espionage and unlawful disclosures of information, while Section 2 dealt with breaches of
official trust.[60] A public interest defense was soon added to defend disclosures in the interest of the
state.[61] A similar law was passed in India in 1889, The Indian Official Secrets Act, which was associated
with the British colonial era and used to crack down on newspapers that opposed the Raj's policies.[62] A
newer version was passed in 1923 that extended to all matters of confidential or secret information for
governance.[63] By the time of the First World War, multi-tier classification systems were used to
communicate information to and from various fronts, which encouraged greater use of code making and
breaking sections in diplomatic and military headquarters.[64] Encoding became more sophisticated between
the wars as machines were employed to scramble and unscramble information.[65]

The establishment of computer security inaugurated the history of information security. The need for such
appeared during World War II.[66] The volume of information shared by the Allied countries during the
Second World War necessitated formal alignment of classification systems and procedural controls.[67] An
arcane range of markings evolved to indicate who could handle documents (usually officers rather than
enlisted troops) and where they should be stored as increasingly complex safes and storage facilities were
developed.[68] The Enigma Machine, which was employed by the Germans to encrypt the data of warfare
and was successfully decrypted by Alan Turing, can be regarded as a striking example of creating and using
secured information.[69] Procedures evolved to ensure documents were destroyed properly, and it was the
failure to follow these procedures which led to some of the greatest intelligence coups of the war (e.g., the
capture of U-570[69]).

Various mainframe computers were connected online during the Cold War to complete more sophisticated
tasks, in a communication process easier than mailing magnetic tapes back and forth by computer centers.
As such, the Advanced Research Projects Agency (ARPA), of the United States Department of Defense,
started researching the feasibility of a networked system of communication to trade information within the
United States Armed Forces. In 1968, the ARPANET project was formulated by Larry Roberts, which
would later evolve into what is known as the internet.[70]

In 1973, important elements of ARPANET security were found by internet pioneer Robert Metcalfe to have
many flaws such as the: "vulnerability of password structure and formats; lack of safety procedures for dial-
up connections; and nonexistent user identification and authorizations", aside from the lack of controls and
safeguards to keep data safe from unauthorized access. Hackers had effortless access to ARPANET, as
phone numbers were known by the public.[71] Due to these problems, coupled with the constant violation
of computer security, as well as the exponential increase in the number of hosts and users of the system,
"network security" was often alluded to as "network insecurity".[71]

The end of the twentieth century and the early years of the twenty-first century saw rapid advancements in
telecommunications, computing hardware and software, and data encryption.[72] The availability of smaller,
more powerful, and less expensive computing equipment made electronic data processing within the reach
of small business and home users.[73] The establishment of Transfer Control Protocol/Internetwork Protocol
(TCP/IP) in the early 1980s enabled different types of computers to communicate.[74] These computers
quickly became interconnected through the internet.[75]

The rapid growth and widespread use of electronic data processing and electronic business conducted
through the internet, along with numerous occurrences of international terrorism, fueled the need for better
methods of protecting the computers and the information they store, process, and transmit.[76] The academic
disciplines of computer security and information assurance emerged along with numerous professional
organizations, all sharing the common goals of ensuring the security and reliability of information systems.

Basic principles

Key concepts

The "CIA" triad of confidentiality, integrity, and availability is at

the heart of information security.[77] (The members of the classic
InfoSec triad—confidentiality, integrity, and availability—are
interchangeably referred to in the literature as security attributes,
properties, security goals, fundamental aspects, information criteria,
critical information characteristics and basic building blocks.)[78]
However, debate continues about whether or not this triad is
sufficient to address rapidly changing technology and business
requirements, with recommendations to consider expanding on the
intersections between availability and confidentiality, as well as the
relationship between security and privacy.[23] Other principles such
as "accountability" have sometimes been proposed; it has been
pointed out that issues such as non-repudiation do not fit well
within the three core concepts.[79]

The triad seems to have first been mentioned in a NIST publication

in 1977.[80] Poster promoting information
security by the Russian Ministry of
In 1992 and revised in 2002, the OECD's Guidelines for the Defence
Security of Information Systems and Networks[81] proposed the
nine generally accepted principles: awareness, responsibility,
response, ethics, democracy, risk assessment, security design and implementation, security management,
and reassessment.[82] Building upon those, in 2004 the NIST's Engineering Principles for Information
Technology Security[79] proposed 33 principles. From each of these derived guidelines and practices.

In 1998, Donn Parker proposed an alternative model for the classic "CIA" triad that he called the six atomic
elements of information. The elements are confidentiality, possession, integrity, authenticity, availability, and
utility. The merits of the Parkerian Hexad are a subject of debate amongst security professionals.[83]

In 2011, The Open Group published the information security management standard O-ISM3.[84] This
standard proposed an operational definition of the key concepts of security, with elements called "security
objectives", related to access control (9), availability (3), data quality (1), compliance, and technical (4). In
2009, DoD Software Protection Initiative (https://spi.dod.mil/) Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/2016
0925225224/https://www.spi.dod.mil/) 2016-09-25 at the Wayback Machine released the Three Tenets of
Cybersecurity (https://spi.dod.mil/threat.htm) Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20200510012626/http
s://spi.dod.mil/threat.htm) 2020-05-10 at the Wayback Machine which are System Susceptibility, Access to
the Flaw, and Capability to Exploit the Flaw.[85][86][87] Neither of these models are widely adopted.

Confidentiality

In information security, confidentiality "is the property, that information is not made available or disclosed to
unauthorized individuals, entities, or processes."[88] While similar to "privacy," the two words are not
interchangeable. Rather, confidentiality is a component of privacy that implements to protect our data from
unauthorized viewers.[89] Examples of confidentiality of electronic data being compromised include laptop
theft, password theft, or sensitive emails being sent to the incorrect individuals.[90]

Integrity

In IT security, data integrity means maintaining and assuring the accuracy and completeness of data over its
entire lifecycle.[91] This means that data cannot be modified in an unauthorized or undetected manner.[92]
This is not the same thing as referential integrity in databases, although it can be viewed as a special case of
consistency as understood in the classic ACID model of transaction processing.[93] Information security
systems typically incorporate controls to ensure their own integrity, in particular protecting the kernel or
core functions against both deliberate and accidental threats.[94] Multi-purpose and multi-user computer
systems aim to compartmentalize the data and processing such that no user or process can adversely impact
another: the controls may not succeed however, as we see in incidents such as malware infections, hacks,
data theft, fraud, and privacy breaches.[95]

More broadly, integrity is an information security principle that involves human/social, process, and
commercial integrity, as well as data integrity. As such it touches on aspects such as credibility, consistency,
truthfulness, completeness, accuracy, timeliness, and assurance.[96]

Availability

For any information system to serve its purpose, the information must be available when it is needed.[97]
This means the computing systems used to store and process the information, the security controls used to
protect it, and the communication channels used to access it must be functioning correctly.[98] High
availability systems aim to remain available at all times, preventing service disruptions due to power
outages, hardware failures, and system upgrades.[99] Ensuring availability also involves preventing denial-
of-service attacks, such as a flood of incoming messages to the target system, essentially forcing it to shut
down.[100]

In the realm of information security, availability can often be viewed as one of the most important parts of a
successful information security program. Ultimately end-users need to be able to perform job functions; by
ensuring availability an organization is able to perform to the standards that an organization's stakeholders
expect.[101] This can involve topics such as proxy configurations, outside web access, the ability to access
shared drives and the ability to send emails.[102] Executives oftentimes do not understand the technical side
of information security and look at availability as an easy fix, but this often requires collaboration from
many different organizational teams, such as network operations, development operations, incident
response, and policy/change management.[103] A successful information security team involves many
different key roles to mesh and align for the "CIA" triad to be provided effectively.[104]

Non-repudiation

In law, non-repudiation implies one's intention to fulfill their obligations to a contract. It also implies that
one party of a transaction cannot deny having received a transaction, nor can the other party deny having
sent a transaction.[105]

It is important to note that while technology such as cryptographic systems can assist in non-repudiation
efforts, the concept is at its core a legal concept transcending the realm of technology.[106] It is not, for
instance, sufficient to show that the message matches a digital signature signed with the sender's private key,
and thus only the sender could have sent the message, and nobody else could have altered it in transit (data
integrity).[107] The alleged sender could in return demonstrate that the digital signature algorithm is
vulnerable or flawed, or allege or prove that his signing key has been compromised.[108] The fault for these
violations may or may not lie with the sender, and such assertions may or may not relieve the sender of
liability, but the assertion would invalidate the claim that the signature necessarily proves authenticity and
integrity. As such, the sender may repudiate the message (because authenticity and integrity are pre-
requisites for non-repudiation).[109]

Risk management
Broadly speaking, risk is the likelihood that something bad will happen that causes harm to an informational
asset (or the loss of the asset).[110] A vulnerability is a weakness that could be used to endanger or cause
harm to an informational asset. A threat is anything (man-made or act of nature) that has the potential to
cause harm.[111] The likelihood that a threat will use a vulnerability to cause harm creates a risk. When a
threat does use a vulnerability to inflict harm, it has an impact.[112] In the context of information security,
the impact is a loss of availability, integrity, and confidentiality, and possibly other losses (lost income, loss
of life, loss of real property).[113]

The Certified Information Systems Auditor (CISA) Review Manual 2006 defines risk management as "the
process of identifying vulnerabilities and threats to the information resources used by an organization in
achieving business objectives, and deciding what countermeasures,[114] if any, to take in reducing risk to an
acceptable level, based on the value of the information resource to the organization."[115]

There are two things in this definition that may need some clarification. First, the process of risk
management is an ongoing, iterative process. It must be repeated indefinitely. The business environment is
constantly changing and new threats and vulnerabilities emerge every day.[116] Second, the choice of
countermeasures (controls) used to manage risks must strike a balance between productivity, cost,
effectiveness of the countermeasure, and the value of the informational asset being protected.[117]
Furthermore, these processes have limitations as security breaches are generally rare and emerge in a
specific context which may not be easily duplicated.[118] Thus, any process and countermeasure should
itself be evaluated for vulnerabilities.[119] It is not possible to identify all risks, nor is it possible to eliminate
all risk. The remaining risk is called "residual risk".[120]

A risk assessment is carried out by a team of people who have knowledge of specific areas of the
business.[121] Membership of the team may vary over time as different parts of the business are
assessed.[122] The assessment may use a subjective qualitative analysis based on informed opinion, or
where reliable dollar figures and historical information is available, the analysis may use quantitative
analysis.

Research has shown that the most vulnerable point in most information systems is the human user, operator,
designer, or other human.[123] The ISO/IEC 27002:2005 Code of practice for information security
management recommends the following be examined during a risk assessment:

security policy,
organization of information security,
asset management,
human resources security,
physical and environmental security,
communications and operations management,
access control,
information systems acquisition, development, and maintenance,
information security incident management,
business continuity management
regulatory compliance.

In broad terms, the risk management process consists of:[124][125]

1. Identification of assets and estimating their value. Include: people, buildings, hardware,
software, data (electronic, print, other), supplies.[126]
2. Conduct a threat assessment. Include: Acts of nature, acts of war, accidents, malicious acts
originating from inside or outside the organization.[127]
3. Conduct a vulnerability assessment, and for each vulnerability, calculate the probability that
it will be exploited. Evaluate policies, procedures, standards, training, physical security,
quality control, technical security.[128]
4. Calculate the impact that each threat would have on each asset. Use qualitative analysis or
quantitative analysis.[129]
5. Identify, select and implement appropriate controls. Provide a proportional response.
Consider productivity, cost effectiveness, and value of the asset.[130]
6. Evaluate the effectiveness of the control measures. Ensure the controls provide the required
cost effective protection without discernible loss of productivity.[131]

For any given risk, management can choose to accept the risk based upon the relative low value of the
asset, the relative low frequency of occurrence, and the relative low impact on the business.[132] Or,
leadership may choose to mitigate the risk by selecting and implementing appropriate control measures to
reduce the risk. In some cases, the risk can be transferred to another business by buying insurance or
outsourcing to another business.[133] The reality of some risks may be disputed. In such cases leadership
may choose to deny the risk.[134]

Security controls

Selecting and implementing proper security controls will initially help an organization bring down risk to
acceptable levels.[135] Control selection should follow and should be based on the risk assessment.[136]
Controls can vary in nature, but fundamentally they are ways of protecting the confidentiality, integrity or
availability of information. ISO/IEC 27001 has defined controls in different areas.[137] Organizations can
implement additional controls according to requirement of the organization.[138] ISO/IEC 27002 offers a
guideline for organizational information security standards.[139]

Administrative

Administrative controls (also called procedural controls) consist of approved written policies, procedures,
standards, and guidelines. Administrative controls form the framework for running the business and
managing people.[140] They inform people on how the business is to be run and how day-to-day operations
are to be conducted. Laws and regulations created by government bodies are also a type of administrative
control because they inform the business.[141] Some industry sectors have policies, procedures, standards,
and guidelines that must be followed – the Payment Card Industry Data Security Standard[142] (PCI DSS)
required by Visa and MasterCard is such an example. Other examples of administrative controls include the
corporate security policy, password policy, hiring policies, and disciplinary policies.[143]

Administrative controls form the basis for the selection and implementation of logical and physical controls.
Logical and physical controls are manifestations of administrative controls, which are of paramount
importance.[140]

Logical

Logical controls (also called technical controls) use software and data to monitor and control access to
information and computing systems. Passwords, network and host-based firewalls, network intrusion
detection systems, access control lists, and data encryption are examples of logical controls.[144]

An important logical control that is frequently overlooked is the principle of least privilege, which requires
that an individual, program or system process not be granted any more access privileges than are necessary
to perform the task.[145] A blatant example of the failure to adhere to the principle of least privilege is
logging into Windows as user Administrator to read email and surf the web. Violations of this principle can
also occur when an individual collects additional access privileges over time.[146] This happens when
employees' job duties change, employees are promoted to a new position, or employees are transferred to
another department.[147] The access privileges required by their new duties are frequently added onto their
already existing access privileges, which may no longer be necessary or appropriate.[148]

Physical

Physical controls monitor and control the environment of the work place and computing facilities.[149] They
also monitor and control access to and from such facilities and include doors, locks, heating and air
conditioning, smoke and fire alarms, fire suppression systems, cameras, barricades, fencing, security guards,
cable locks, etc. Separating the network and workplace into functional areas are also physical controls.[150]

An important physical control that is frequently overlooked is separation of duties, which ensures that an
individual can not complete a critical task by himself.[151] For example, an employee who submits a request
for reimbursement should not also be able to authorize payment or print the check.[152] An applications
programmer should not also be the server administrator or the database administrator; these roles and
responsibilities must be separated from one another.[153]

Defense in depth
Information security must protect information throughout its
lifespan, from the initial creation of the information on through to
the final disposal of the information.[154] The information must be
protected while in motion and while at rest. During its lifetime,
information may pass through many different information
processing systems and through many different parts of information
processing systems.[155] There are many different ways the
information and information systems can be threatened. To fully
protect the information during its lifetime, each component of the
information processing system must have its own protection
mechanisms.[156] The building up, layering on, and overlapping of
security measures is called "defense in depth."[157] In contrast to a
metal chain, which is famously only as strong as its weakest link, The onion model of defense in depth
the defense in depth strategy aims at a structure where, should one
defensive measure fail, other measures will continue to provide
protection.[158]

Recall the earlier discussion about administrative controls, logical controls, and physical controls. The three
types of controls can be used to form the basis upon which to build a defense in depth strategy.[140] With
this approach, defense in depth can be conceptualized as three distinct layers or planes laid one on top of the
other.[159] Additional insight into defense in depth can be gained by thinking of it as forming the layers of
an onion, with data at the core of the onion, people the next outer layer of the onion, and network security,
host-based security, and application security forming the outermost layers of the onion.[160] Both
perspectives are equally valid, and each provides valuable insight into the implementation of a good defense
in depth strategy.[161]

Classification

An important aspect of information security and risk management is recognizing the value of information
and defining appropriate procedures and protection requirements for the information.[162] Not all
information is equal and so not all information requires the same degree of protection.[163] This requires
information to be assigned a security classification.[164] The first step in information classification is to
identify a member of senior management as the owner of the particular information to be classified. Next,
develop a classification policy.[165] The policy should describe the different classification labels, define the
criteria for information to be assigned a particular label, and list the required security controls for each
classification.[166]

Some factors that influence which classification information should be assigned include how much value
that information has to the organization, how old the information is and whether or not the information has
become obsolete.[167] Laws and other regulatory requirements are also important considerations when
classifying information.[168] The Information Systems Audit and Control Association (ISACA) and its
Business Model for Information Security also serves as a tool for security professionals to examine security
from a systems perspective, creating an environment where security can be managed holistically, allowing
actual risks to be addressed.[169]

The type of information security classification labels selected and used will depend on the nature of the
organization, with examples being:[166]

In the business sector, labels such as: Public, Sensitive, Private, Confidential.
 In the government sector, labels such as: Unclassified, Unofficial, Protected, Confidential,
Secret, Top Secret, and their non-English equivalents.[170]
In cross-sectoral formations, the Traffic Light Protocol, which consists of: White, Green,
Amber, and Red.
In the personal sector, one label such as Financial. This includes activities related to
managing money, such as online banking.[171]

All employees in the organization, as well as business partners, must be trained on the classification schema
and understand the required security controls and handling procedures for each classification.[172] The
classification of a particular information asset that has been assigned should be reviewed periodically to
ensure the classification is still appropriate for the information and to ensure the security controls required
by the classification are in place and are followed in their right procedures.[173]

Access control

Access to protected information must be restricted to people who are authorized to access the
information.[174] The computer programs, and in many cases the computers that process the information,
must also be authorized.[175] This requires that mechanisms be in place to control the access to protected
information.[175] The sophistication of the access control mechanisms should be in parity with the value of
the information being protected; the more sensitive or valuable the information the stronger the control
mechanisms need to be.[176] The foundation on which access control mechanisms are built start with
identification and authentication.[177]

Access control is generally considered in three steps: identification, authentication, and

authorization.[178][90]

Identification

Identification is an assertion of who someone is or what something is. If a person makes the statement
"Hello, my name is John Doe" they are making a claim of who they are.[179] However, their claim may or
may not be true. Before John Doe can be granted access to protected information it will be necessary to
verify that the person claiming to be John Doe really is John Doe.[180] Typically the claim is in the form of
a username. By entering that username you are claiming "I am the person the username belongs to".[181]

Authentication

Authentication is the act of verifying a claim of identity. When John Doe goes into a bank to make a
withdrawal, he tells the bank teller he is John Doe, a claim of identity.[182] The bank teller asks to see a
photo ID, so he hands the teller his driver's license.[183] The bank teller checks the license to make sure it
has John Doe printed on it and compares the photograph on the license against the person claiming to be
John Doe.[184] If the photo and name match the person, then the teller has authenticated that John Doe is
who he claimed to be. Similarly, by entering the correct password, the user is providing evidence that he/she
is the person the username belongs to.[185]

There are three different types of information that can be used for authentication:[186][187]

Something you know: things such as a PIN, a password, or your mother's maiden
name[188][189]
Something you have: a driver's license or a magnetic swipe card[190][191]
 Something you are: biometrics, including palm prints, fingerprints, voice prints, and retina
(eye) scans[192]

Strong authentication requires providing more than one type of authentication information (two-factor
authentication).[193] The username is the most common form of identification on computer systems today
and the password is the most common form of authentication.[194] Usernames and passwords have served
their purpose, but they are increasingly inadequate.[195] Usernames and passwords are slowly being
replaced or supplemented with more sophisticated authentication mechanisms such as time-based one-time
password algorithms.[196]

Authorization

After a person, program or computer has successfully been identified and authenticated then it must be
determined what informational resources they are permitted to access and what actions they will be allowed
to perform (run, view, create, delete, or change).[197] This is called authorization. Authorization to access
information and other computing services begins with administrative policies and procedures.[198] The
policies prescribe what information and computing services can be accessed, by whom, and under what
conditions. The access control mechanisms are then configured to enforce these policies.[199] Different
computing systems are equipped with different kinds of access control mechanisms. Some may even offer a
choice of different access control mechanisms.[200] The access control mechanism a system offers will be
based upon one of three approaches to access control, or it may be derived from a combination of the three
approaches.[90]

The non-discretionary approach consolidates all access control under a centralized administration.[201] The
access to information and other resources is usually based on the individuals function (role) in the
organization or the tasks the individual must perform.[202][203] The discretionary approach gives the creator
or owner of the information resource the ability to control access to those resources.[201] In the mandatory
access control approach, access is granted or denied basing upon the security classification assigned to the
information resource.[174]

Examples of common access control mechanisms in use today include role-based access control, available
in many advanced database management systems; simple file permissions provided in the UNIX and
Windows operating systems;[204] Group Policy Objects provided in Windows network systems; and
Kerberos, RADIUS, TACACS, and the simple access lists used in many firewalls and routers.[205]

To be effective, policies and other security controls must be enforceable and upheld. Effective policies
ensure that people are held accountable for their actions.[206] The U.S. Treasury's guidelines for systems
processing sensitive or proprietary information, for example, states that all failed and successful
authentication and access attempts must be logged, and all access to information must leave some type of
audit trail.[207]

Also, the need-to-know principle needs to be in effect when talking about access control. This principle
gives access rights to a person to perform their job functions.[208] This principle is used in the government
when dealing with difference clearances.[209] Even though two employees in different departments have a
top-secret clearance, they must have a need-to-know in order for information to be exchanged. Within the
need-to-know principle, network administrators grant the employee the least amount of privilege to prevent
employees from accessing more than what they are supposed to.[210] Need-to-know helps to enforce the
confidentiality-integrity-availability triad. Need-to-know directly impacts the confidential area of the
triad.[211]

Cryptography

Information security uses cryptography to transform usable information into a form that renders it unusable
by anyone other than an authorized user; this process is called encryption.[212] Information that has been
encrypted (rendered unusable) can be transformed back into its original usable form by an authorized user
who possesses the cryptographic key, through the process of decryption.[213] Cryptography is used in
information security to protect information from unauthorized or accidental disclosure while the information
is in transit (either electronically or physically) and while information is in storage.[90]

Cryptography provides information security with other useful applications as well, including improved
authentication methods, message digests, digital signatures, non-repudiation, and encrypted network
communications.[214] Older, less secure applications such as Telnet and File Transfer Protocol (FTP) are
slowly being replaced with more secure applications such as Secure Shell (SSH) that use encrypted
network communications.[215] Wireless communications can be encrypted using protocols such as
WPA/WPA2 or the older (and less secure) WEP. Wired communications (such as ITU‑T G.hn) are secured
using AES for encryption and X.1035 for authentication and key exchange.[216] Software applications such
as GnuPG or PGP can be used to encrypt data files and email.[217]

Cryptography can introduce security problems when it is not implemented correctly.[218] Cryptographic
solutions need to be implemented using industry-accepted solutions that have undergone rigorous peer
review by independent experts in cryptography.[219] The length and strength of the encryption key is also
an important consideration.[220] A key that is weak or too short will produce weak encryption.[220] The
keys used for encryption and decryption must be protected with the same degree of rigor as any other
confidential information.[221] They must be protected from unauthorized disclosure and destruction, and
they must be available when needed. Public key infrastructure (PKI) solutions address many of the
problems that surround key management.[90]

Process
The terms "reasonable and prudent person", "due care", and "due diligence" have been used in the fields of
finance, securities, and law for many years. In recent years these terms have found their way into the fields
of computing and information security.[125] U.S. Federal Sentencing Guidelines now make it possible to
hold corporate officers liable for failing to exercise due care and due diligence in the management of their
information systems.[222]

In the business world, stockholders, customers, business partners, and governments have the expectation
that corporate officers will run the business in accordance with accepted business practices and in
compliance with laws and other regulatory requirements. This is often described as the "reasonable and
prudent person" rule. A prudent person takes due care to ensure that everything necessary is done to operate
the business by sound business principles and in a legal, ethical manner. A prudent person is also diligent
(mindful, attentive, ongoing) in their due care of the business.

In the field of information security, Harris[223] offers the following definitions of due care and due
diligence:
 "Due care are steps that are taken to show that a company has taken responsibility for the
activities that take place within the corporation and has taken the necessary steps to help
protect the company, its resources, and employees[224]." And, [Due diligence are the]
"continual activities that make sure the protection mechanisms are continually maintained and
operational."[225]

Attention should be made to two important points in these definitions.[226][227] First, in due care, steps are
taken to show; this means that the steps can be verified, measured, or even produce tangible
artifacts.[228][229] Second, in due diligence, there are continual activities; this means that people are actually
doing things to monitor and maintain the protection mechanisms, and these activities are ongoing.[230]

Organizations have a responsibility with practicing duty of care when applying information security. The
Duty of Care Risk Analysis Standard (DoCRA)[231] provides principles and practices for evaluating
risk.[232] It considers all parties that could be affected by those risks.[233] DoCRA helps evaluate safeguards
if they are appropriate in protecting others from harm while presenting a reasonable burden.[234] With
increased data breach litigation, companies must balance security controls, compliance, and its mission.[235]

Security governance

The Software Engineering Institute at Carnegie Mellon University, in a publication titled Governing for
Enterprise Security (GES) Implementation Guide, defines characteristics of effective security governance.
These include:[236]

An enterprise-wide issue
Leaders are accountable
Viewed as a business requirement
Risk-based
Roles, responsibilities, and segregation of duties defined
Addressed and enforced in policy
Adequate resources committed
Staff aware and trained
A development life cycle requirement
Planned, managed, measurable, and measured
Reviewed and audited

Incident response plans

An incident response plan (IRP) is a group of policies that dictate an organizations reaction to a cyber
attack. Once an security breach has been identified, for example by network intrusion detection system
(NIDS) or host-based intrusion detection system (HIDS) (if configured to do so), the plan is initiated.[237] It
is important to note that there can be legal implications to a data breach. Knowing local and federal laws is
critical.[238] Every plan is unique to the needs of the organization, and it can involve skill sets that are not
part of an IT team.[239] For example, a lawyer may be included in the response plan to help navigate legal
implications to a data breach.
As mentioned above every plan is unique but most plans will include the following:[240]

Preparation

Good preparation includes the development of an incident response team (IRT).[241] Skills need to be used
by this team would be, penetration testing, computer forensics, network security, etc.[242] This team should
also keep track of trends in cybersecurity and modern attack strategies.[243] A training program for end
users is important as well as most modern attack strategies target users on the network.[240]

Identification

This part of the incident response plan identifies if there was a security event.[244] When an end user reports
information or an admin notices irregularities, an investigation is launched. An incident log is a crucial part
of this step. All of the members of the team should be updating this log to ensure that information flows as
fast as possible.[245] If it has been identified that a security breach has occurred the next step should be
activated.[246]

Containment

In this phase, the IRT works to isolate the areas that the breach took place to limit the scope of the security
event.[247] During this phase it is important to preserve information forensically so it can be analyzed later
in the process.[248] Containment could be as simple as physically containing a server room or as complex as
segmenting a network to not allow the spread of a virus.[249]

Eradication

This is where the threat that was identified is removed from the affected systems.[250] This could include
deleting malicious files, terminating compromised accounts, or deleting other components.[251][252] Some
events do not require this step, however it is important to fully understand the event before moving to this
step.[253] This will help to ensure that the threat is completely removed.[249]

Recovery

This stage is where the systems are restored back to original operation.[254] This stage could include the
recovery of data, changing user access information, or updating firewall rules or policies to prevent a breach
in the future.[255][256] Without executing this step, the system could still be vulnerable to future security
threats.[249]

Lessons learned

In this step information that has been gathered during this process is used to make future decisions on
security.[257] This step is crucial to the ensure that future events are prevented. Using this information to
further train admins is critical to the process.[258] This step can also be used to process information that is
distributed from other entities who have experienced a security event.[259]

Change management
Change management is a formal process for directing and controlling alterations to the information
processing environment.[260][261] This includes alterations to desktop computers, the network, servers, and
software.[262] The objectives of change management are to reduce the risks posed by changes to the
information processing environment and improve the stability and reliability of the processing environment
as changes are made.[263] It is not the objective of change management to prevent or hinder necessary
changes from being implemented.[264][265]

Any change to the information processing environment introduces an element of risk.[266] Even apparently
simple changes can have unexpected effects.[267] One of management's many responsibilities is the
management of risk.[268][269] Change management is a tool for managing the risks introduced by changes
to the information processing environment.[270] Part of the change management process ensures that
changes are not implemented at inopportune times when they may disrupt critical business processes or
interfere with other changes being implemented.[271]

Not every change needs to be managed.[272][273] Some kinds of changes are a part of the everyday routine
of information processing and adhere to a predefined procedure, which reduces the overall level of risk to
the processing environment.[274] Creating a new user account or deploying a new desktop computer are
examples of changes that do not generally require change management.[275] However, relocating user file
shares, or upgrading the Email server pose a much higher level of risk to the processing environment and
are not a normal everyday activity.[276] The critical first steps in change management are (a) defining
change (and communicating that definition) and (b) defining the scope of the change system.[277]

Change management is usually overseen by a change review board composed of representatives from key
business areas,[278] security, networking, systems administrators, database administration, application
developers, desktop support, and the help desk.[279] The tasks of the change review board can be facilitated
with the use of automated work flow application.[280] The responsibility of the change review board is to
ensure the organization's documented change management procedures are followed.[281] The change
management process is as follows[282]

Request: Anyone can request a change.[283][284] The person making the change request
may or may not be the same person that performs the analysis or implements the
change.[285][286] When a request for change is received, it may undergo a preliminary review
to determine if the requested change is compatible with the organizations business model
and practices, and to determine the amount of resources needed to implement the
change.[287]
Approve: Management runs the business and controls the allocation of resources therefore,
management must approve requests for changes and assign a priority for every change.[288]
Management might choose to reject a change request if the change is not compatible with
the business model, industry standards or best practices.[289][290] Management might also
choose to reject a change request if the change requires more resources than can be
allocated for the change.[291]
Plan: Planning a change involves discovering the scope and impact of the proposed
change; analyzing the complexity of the change; allocation of resources and, developing,
testing, and documenting both implementation and back-out plans.[292] Need to define the
criteria on which a decision to back out will be made.[293]
Test: Every change must be tested in a safe test environment, which closely reflects the
actual production environment, before the change is applied to the production
environment.[294] The backout plan must also be tested.[295]
Schedule: Part of the change review board's responsibility is to assist in the scheduling of
changes by reviewing the proposed implementation date for potential conflicts with other
 scheduled changes or critical business activities.[296]
Communicate: Once a change has been scheduled it must be communicated.[297] The
communication is to give others the opportunity to remind the change review board about
other changes or critical business activities that might have been overlooked when
scheduling the change.[298] The communication also serves to make the help desk and
users aware that a change is about to occur.[299] Another responsibility of the change review
board is to ensure that scheduled changes have been properly communicated to those who
will be affected by the change or otherwise have an interest in the change.[300][301]
Implement: At the appointed date and time, the changes must be implemented.[302][303] Part
of the planning process was to develop an implementation plan, testing plan and, a back out
plan.[304][305] If the implementation of the change should fail or, the post implementation
testing fails or, other "drop dead" criteria have been met, the back out plan should be
implemented.[306]
Document: All changes must be documented.[307][308] The documentation includes the
initial request for change, its approval, the priority assigned to it, the implementation,[309]
testing and back out plans, the results of the change review board critique, the date/time the
change was implemented,[310] who implemented it, and whether the change was
implemented successfully, failed or postponed.[311][312]
Post-change review: The change review board should hold a post-implementation review
of changes.[313] It is particularly important to review failed and backed out changes. The
review board should try to understand the problems that were encountered, and look for
areas for improvement.[313]

Change management procedures that are simple to follow and easy to use can greatly reduce the overall
risks created when changes are made to the information processing environment.[314] Good change
management procedures improve the overall quality and success of changes as they are implemented.[315]
This is accomplished through planning, peer review, documentation, and communication.[316]

ISO/IEC 20000, The Visible OPS Handbook: Implementing ITIL in 4 Practical and Auditable Steps[317]
(Full book summary),[318] and ITIL all provide valuable guidance on implementing an efficient and
effective change management program information security.[319]

Business continuity
Business continuity management (BCM) concerns arrangements aiming to protect an organization's critical
business functions from interruption due to incidents, or at least minimize the effects.[320][321] BCM is
essential to any organization to keep technology and business in line with current threats to the continuation
of business as usual.[322] The BCM should be included in an organizations risk analysis plan to ensure that
all of the necessary business functions have what they need to keep going in the event of any type of threat
to any business function.[323]

It encompasses:

Analysis of requirements, e.g., identifying critical business functions, dependencies and

potential failure points, potential threats and hence incidents or risks of concern to the
organization;[324][325]
Specification, e.g., maximum tolerable outage periods; recovery point objectives (maximum
acceptable periods of data loss);[326]
 Architecture and design, e.g., an appropriate combination of approaches including resilience
(e.g. engineering IT systems and processes for high availability,[327] avoiding or preventing
situations that might interrupt the business), incident and emergency management (e.g.,
evacuating premises, calling the emergency services, triage/situation[328] assessment and
invoking recovery plans), recovery (e.g., rebuilding) and contingency management (generic
capabilities to deal positively with whatever occurs using whatever resources are
available);[329]
Implementation, e.g., configuring and scheduling backups, data transfers, etc., duplicating
and strengthening critical elements; contracting with service and equipment suppliers;
Testing, e.g., business continuity exercises of various types, costs and assurance levels;[330]
Management, e.g., defining strategies, setting objectives and goals; planning and directing
the work; allocating funds, people and other resources; prioritization relative to other
activities; team building, leadership, control, motivation and coordination with other business
functions and activities[331] (e.g., IT, facilities, human resources, risk management,
information risk and security, operations); monitoring the situation, checking and updating the
arrangements when things change; maturing the approach through continuous improvement,
learning and appropriate investment;
Assurance, e.g., testing against specified requirements; measuring, analyzing, and reporting
key parameters; conducting additional tests, reviews and audits for greater confidence that
the arrangements will go to plan if invoked.[332]

Whereas BCM takes a broad approach to minimizing disaster-related risks by reducing both the probability
and the severity of incidents, a disaster recovery plan (DRP) focuses specifically on resuming business
operations as quickly as possible after a disaster.[333] A disaster recovery plan, invoked soon after a disaster
occurs, lays out the steps necessary to recover critical information and communications technology (ICT)
infrastructure.[334] Disaster recovery planning includes establishing a planning group, performing risk
assessment, establishing priorities, developing recovery strategies, preparing inventories and documentation
of the plan, developing verification criteria and procedure, and lastly implementing the plan.[335]

Laws and regulations

Below is a partial listing of governmental laws and regulations in
various parts of the world that have, had, or will have, a significant
effect on data processing and information security.[336][337]
Important industry sector regulations have also been included when
they have a significant impact on information security.[336]
Privacy International 2007 privacy
The UK Data Protection Act 1998 makes new provisions
ranking
for the regulation of the processing of information relating
green: Protections and safeguards
to individuals, including the obtaining, holding, use or
red: Endemic surveillance societies
disclosure of such information.[338][339] The European
Union Data Protection Directive (EUDPD) requires that
all E.U. members adopt national regulations to
standardize the protection of data privacy for citizens throughout the E.U.[340][341]
The Computer Misuse Act 1990 is an Act of the U.K. Parliament making computer crime
(e.g., hacking) a criminal offense.[342] The act has become a model upon which several other
countries,[343] including Canada and the Republic of Ireland, have drawn inspiration from
when subsequently drafting their own information security laws.[344][345]
The E.U.'s Data Retention Directive (annulled) required internet service providers and phone
companies to keep data on every electronic message sent and phone call made for between
six months and two years.[346]
The Family Educational Rights and Privacy Act (FERPA) (20 U.S.C. § 1232 (https://www.la
w.cornell.edu/uscode/text/20/1232) g; 34 CFR Part 99) is a U.S. Federal law that protects the
privacy of student education records.[347] The law applies to all schools that receive funds
under an applicable program of the U.S. Department of Education.[348] Generally, schools
must have written permission from the parent or eligible student[348][349] in order to release
any information from a student's education record.[350]
The Federal Financial Institutions Examination Council's (FFIEC) security guidelines for
auditors specifies requirements for online banking security.[351]
The Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act (HIPAA) of 1996 requires the
adoption of national standards for electronic health care transactions and national identifiers
for providers, health insurance plans, and employers.[352] Additionally, it requires health care
providers, insurance providers and employers to safeguard the security and privacy of health
data.[353]
The Gramm–Leach–Bliley Act of 1999 (GLBA), also known as the Financial Services
Modernization Act of 1999, protects the privacy and security of private financial information
that financial institutions collect, hold, and process.[354]
Section 404 of the Sarbanes–Oxley Act of 2002 (SOX) requires publicly traded companies to
assess the effectiveness of their internal controls for financial reporting in annual reports they
submit at the end of each fiscal year.[355] Chief information officers are responsible for the
security, accuracy, and the reliability of the systems that manage and report the financial
data.[356] The act also requires publicly traded companies to engage with independent
auditors who must attest to, and report on, the validity of their assessments.[357]
The Payment Card Industry Data Security Standard (PCI DSS) establishes comprehensive
requirements for enhancing payment account data security.[358] It was developed by the
founding payment brands of the PCI Security Standards Council — including American
Express, Discover Financial Services, JCB, MasterCard Worldwide,[359] and Visa
International — to help facilitate the broad adoption of consistent data security measures on
a global basis.[360] The PCI DSS is a multifaceted security standard that includes
requirements for security management, policies, procedures, network architecture, software
design, and other critical protective measures.[361]
State security breach notification laws (California and many others) require businesses,
nonprofits, and state institutions to notify consumers when unencrypted "personal
information" may have been compromised, lost, or stolen.[362]
The Personal Information Protection and Electronics Document Act (PIPEDA) of Canada
supports and promotes electronic commerce by protecting personal information that is
collected, used or disclosed in certain circumstances,[363][364] by providing for the use of
electronic means to communicate or record information or transactions and by amending the
Canada Evidence Act, the Statutory Instruments Act and the Statute Revision
Act.[365][366][367]
Greece's Hellenic Authority for Communication Security and Privacy (ADAE) (Law
165/2011) establishes and describes the minimum information security controls that should
be deployed by every company which provides electronic communication networks and/or
services in Greece in order to protect customers' confidentiality.[368] These include both
managerial and technical controls (e.g., log records should be stored for two years).[369]
Greece's Hellenic Authority for Communication Security and Privacy (ADAE) (Law
205/2013) concentrates around the protection of the integrity and availability of the services
and data offered by Greek telecommunication companies.[370] The law forces these and
other related companies to build, deploy, and test appropriate business continuity plans and
redundant infrastructures.[371]
The US Department of Defense (DoD) issued DoD Directive 8570 in 2004, supplemented by DoD
Directive 8140, requiring all DoD employees and all DoD contract personnel involved in information
assurance roles and activities to earn and maintain various industry Information Technology (IT)
certifications in an effort to ensure that all DoD personnel involved in network infrastructure defense have
minimum levels of IT industry recognized knowledge, skills and abilities (KSA). Andersson and Reimers
(2019) report these certifications range from CompTIA's A+ and Security+ through the ICS2.org's CISSP,
etc.[372]

Culture
Describing more than simply how security aware employees are, information security culture is the ideas,
customs, and social behaviors of an organization that impact information security in both positive and
negative ways.[373] Cultural concepts can help different segments of the organization work effectively or
work against effectiveness towards information security within an organization. The way employees think
and feel about security and the actions they take can have a big impact on information security in
organizations. Roer & Petric (2017) identify seven core dimensions of information security culture in
organizations:[374]

Attitudes: employees' feelings and emotions about the various activities that pertain to the
organizational security of information.[375]
Behaviors: actual or intended activities and risk-taking actions of employees that have direct
or indirect impact on information security.
Cognition: employees' awareness, verifiable knowledge, and beliefs regarding practices,
activities, and self-efficacy relation that are related to information security.
Communication: ways employees communicate with each other, sense of belonging, support
for security issues, and incident reporting.
Compliance: adherence to organizational security policies, awareness of the existence of
such policies and the ability to recall the substance of such policies.
Norms: perceptions of security-related organizational conduct and practices that are
informally deemed either normal or deviant by employees and their peers, e.g. hidden
expectations regarding security behaviors and unwritten rules regarding uses of information-
communication technologies.
Responsibilities: employees' understanding of the roles and responsibilities they have as a
critical factor in sustaining or endangering the security of information, and thereby the
organization.

Andersson and Reimers (2014) found that employees often do not see themselves as part of the
organization Information Security "effort" and often take actions that ignore organizational information
security best interests.[376] Research shows information security culture needs to be improved continuously.
In Information Security Culture from Analysis to Change, authors commented, "It's a never ending process,
a cycle of evaluation and change or maintenance." To manage the information security culture, five steps
should be taken: pre-evaluation, strategic planning, operative planning, implementation, and post-
evaluation.[377]

Pre-evaluation: to identify the awareness of information security within employees and to

analyze current security policy
Strategic planning: to come up a better awareness-program, we need to set clear targets.
Clustering people is helpful to achieve it
Operative planning: create a good security culture based on internal communication,
management buy-in, security awareness, and training programs
 Implementation: should feature commitment of management, communication with
organizational members, courses for all organizational members, and commitment of the
employees[377]
Post-evaluation: to better gauge the effectiveness of the prior steps and build on continuous
improvement

Sources of standards
The International Organization for Standardization (ISO) is an international standards organization
organized as a consortium of national standards institutions from 167 countries, coordinated through a
secretariat in Geneva, Switzerland. ISO is the world's largest developer of international standards. The
International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC) is an international standards organization that deals with
electrotechnology and cooperates closely with ISO. ISO/IEC 15443: "Information technology – Security
techniques – A framework for IT security assurance", ISO/IEC 27002: "Information technology – Security
techniques – Code of practice for information security management", ISO/IEC 20000: "Information
technology – Service management", and ISO/IEC 27001: "Information technology – Security techniques –
Information security management systems – Requirements" are of particular interest to information security
professionals.

The US National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) is a non-regulatory federal agency within
the U.S. Department of Commerce. The NIST Computer Security Division develops standards, metrics,
tests, and validation programs as well as publishes standards and guidelines to increase secure IT planning,
implementation, management, and operation. NIST is also the custodian of the U.S. Federal Information
Processing Standard publications (FIPS).

The Internet Society is a professional membership society with more than 100 organizations and over
20,000 individual members in over 180 countries. It provides leadership in addressing issues that confront
the future of the internet, and it is the organizational home for the groups responsible for internet
infrastructure standards, including the Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF) and the Internet Architecture
Board (IAB). The ISOC hosts the Requests for Comments (RFCs) which includes the Official Internet
Protocol Standards and the RFC-2196 Site Security Handbook.

The Information Security Forum (ISF) is a global nonprofit organization of several hundred leading
organizations in financial services, manufacturing, telecommunications, consumer goods, government, and
other areas. It undertakes research into information security practices and offers advice in its biannual
Standard of Good Practice for Information Security and more detailed advisories for members.

The Institute of Information Security Professionals (IISP) is an independent, non-profit body governed by
its members, with the principal objective of advancing the professionalism of information security
practitioners and thereby the professionalism of the industry as a whole. The institute developed the IISP
Skills Framework. This framework describes the range of competencies expected of information security
and information assurance professionals in the effective performance of their roles. It was developed
through collaboration between both private and public sector organizations, world-renowned academics,
and security leaders.[378]

The German Federal Office for Information Security (in German Bundesamt für Sicherheit in der
Informationstechnik (BSI)) BSI-Standards 100–1 to 100-4 are a set of recommendations including
"methods, processes, procedures, approaches and measures relating to information security".[379] The BSI-
Standard 100-2 IT-Grundschutz Methodology describes how information security management can be
implemented and operated. The standard includes a very specific guide, the IT Baseline Protection Catalogs
(also known as IT-Grundschutz Catalogs). Before 2005, the catalogs were formerly known as "IT Baseline
Protection Manual". The Catalogs are a collection of documents useful for detecting and combating
security-relevant weak points in the IT environment (IT cluster). The collection encompasses as of
September 2013 over 4,400 pages with the introduction and catalogs. The IT-Grundschutz approach is
aligned with to the ISO/IEC 2700x family.

The European Telecommunications Standards Institute standardized a catalog of information security

indicators, headed by the Industrial Specification Group (ISG) ISI.

See also
Backup
Capability-based security
Computer security (cybersecurity)
Data breach
Data-centric security
Enterprise information security architecture
Identity-based security
Information infrastructure
Information security audit
Information security indicators
Information security management
Information security standards
Information technology
Information technology security audit
IT risk
ITIL security management
Kill chain
List of computer security certifications
Mobile security
Network Security Services
Privacy engineering
Privacy software
Privacy-enhancing technologies
Security bug
Security convergence
Security information management
Security level management
Security of Information Act
Security service (telecommunication)
Single sign-on
Verification and validation
Gordon–Loeb model for cyber security investments

References
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Further reading
Anderson, K., "IT Security Professionals Must Evolve for Changing Market (https://web.archi
ve.org/web/20080402234040/http://www.scmagazineus.com/IT-security-professionals-must-
evolve-for-changing-market/article/33990/)", SC Magazine, October 12, 2006.
Aceituno, V., "On Information Security Paradigms", ISSA Journal, September 2005.
Dhillon, G., Principles of Information Systems Security: text and cases, John Wiley & Sons,
2007.
Easttom, C., Computer Security Fundamentals (2nd Edition) Pearson Education, 2011.
Lambo, T., "ISO/IEC 27001: The future of infosec certification", ISSA Journal, November
2006.
Dustin, D., " Awareness of How Your Data is Being Used and What to Do About It (http://blog.
brisbanedatarecovery.com.au/2017/05/awareness-of-how-your-data-is-being.html)", "CDR
Blog", May 2017.

Bibliography
Allen, Julia H. (2001). The CERT Guide to System and Network Security Practices (https://ar
chive.org/details/certguidetosyste00alle). Boston, MA: Addison-Wesley. ISBN 978-0-201-
73723-3.
Krutz, Ronald L.; Russell Dean Vines (2003). The CISSP Prep Guide (Gold ed.).
Indianapolis, IN: Wiley. ISBN 978-0-471-26802-4.
Layton, Timothy P. (2007). Information Security: Design, Implementation, Measurement, and
Compliance. Boca Raton, FL: Auerbach publications. ISBN 978-0-8493-7087-8.
McNab, Chris (2004). Network Security Assessment. Sebastopol, CA: O'Reilly. ISBN 978-0-
596-00611-2.
Peltier, Thomas R. (2001). Information Security Risk Analysis. Boca Raton, FL: Auerbach
publications. ISBN 978-0-8493-0880-2.
Peltier, Thomas R. (2002). Information Security Policies, Procedures, and Standards:
guidelines for effective information security management. Boca Raton, FL: Auerbach
publications. ISBN 978-0-8493-1137-6.
 White, Gregory (2003). All-in-one Security+ Certification Exam Guide. Emeryville, CA:
McGraw-Hill/Osborne. ISBN 978-0-07-222633-1.
Dhillon, Gurpreet (2007). Principles of Information Systems Security: text and cases (https://a
rchive.org/details/principlesofinfo0000dhil). NY: John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 978-0-471-45056-
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Whitman, Michael; Mattord, Herbert (2017). Principles of Information Security. Cengage.
ISBN 978-1337102063.

External links
DoD IA Policy Chart (http://iac.dtic.mil/iatac/ia_policychart.html) Archived (https://web.archiv
e.org/web/20110906012808/http://iac.dtic.mil/iatac/ia_policychart.html) 2011-09-06 at the
Wayback Machine on the DoD Information Assurance Technology Analysis Center web site.
patterns & practices Security Engineering Explained (http://msdn2.microsoft.com/en-us/librar
y/ms998382.aspx)
Open Security Architecture- Controls and patterns to secure IT systems (http://www.opensec
urityarchitecture.org/)
IWS – Information Security Chapter (http://www.iwar.org.uk/comsec/) Archived (https://web.ar
chive.org/web/20191108164220/http://www.iwar.org.uk/comsec/) 2019-11-08 at the Wayback
Machine
Ross Anderson's book "Security Engineering" (http://www.cl.cam.ac.uk/~rja14/book.html)
teciza.in (https://teciza.in/)

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