BLOG102 – BUSINESS LOGIC

PRELIM

LESSON 1: PHILOSOPHY AND LOGIC

Lesson Objectives: At the end of the lesson, you will be able to:
• Define philosophy and logic
• Explain the importance of studying logic
• Identify whether a statement is inductive or deductive
• Relate concept, proposition, and inference
• Define critical thinking and differentiate critical with uncritical thinkers

What is Philosophy?
Etymologically speaking, the word “philosophy” is derived from two Greek words philos or philia
which means “love” and sophia which means “wisdom.” Hence, the love of wisdom. This
nominal definition originated from Pythagoras who thought of man, among others, as a lover of
wisdom.

The Formal Meaning of Philosophy

Philosophy is the love and pursuit of wisdom, and in a certain way friendship with wisdom. This
love of wisdom means the enlightenment of the understanding mind by that absolute wisdom,
and in a sense the drawing and summoning of the mind to itself, so that the exploration for
wisdom is visualized to be friendship with the Godhead and pure mind.

The Fields of Philosophy

Philosophy is classified into practical and speculative. Practical philosophy includes:
• Logic: the science and art of correct thinking
• Ethics: the study of standards of right and wrong
• Axiology: the study of the nature, types, criteria and status of human values
Note: Logic, Ethics, and Axiology are practical philosophies because the human person who is
a practical being:

• seeks knowledge that will guide his action in daily living, and in the search for truth;
• develops and masters his reasoning skills; and
• finds them especially Logic, useful in the study of speculative philosophy.

Speculative philosophy includes:

• Epistemology: the science dealing with human knowledge, the focus of which is to
know the truth; this is the philosophical quest on the principles of human knowledge, its
extent and limitations.
• Metaphysics: addresses the fundamentals of existence or reality such as the
existence and nature of God, immorality of soul, means of evil, the problem of freedom
and determining the relationship of mind and body;
• Aesthetics: a philosophical inquiry of the beautiful;
• Cosmology: a philosophical inquiry of the physical world in its final analysis;
• Rational Psychology: study of the principles of living things, especially that of man;
 • Social Philosophy: study of the socio-economic-political dimensions of human beings;
• Philosophy of Man: a study of the nature of man as a person, his origin and destiny;
• Theodicy: study of a Supreme Being and His relation to His creatures;
• Political Philosophy: an inquiry into the ultimate foundation of the state, the ideal
form of government, and its basic power.
Note: Philosophical speculation is a creative type of thinking which digs empirical facts into
their root and proceeds towards the realm of the abstract.

LOGIC: A PHILOSOPHICAL TOOL

What is Logic?
Etymologically, logic comes from the Greek word “logos” which means study, reason, or
discourse, or “logia,” argument, or “logike,” act of reasoning.

Generally, logic is understood as the science and art of correct thinking.

As a science, logic implies that:

• It is a body of systematized knowledge, and
• It investigates, discourses, expresses, systematizes, and demonstrates the laws of correct
thinking.

As an art, logic guides man’s reasoning so he can proceed with order and ease and without
error in the constructive activity of making definitions of terms, propositions, and inferences.

As a correct thinking, correctness implies:

• Right order
• Reasonable procedure
• Valid inference
• Consistency
• Necessary relationship
Thinking implies:
• Conformity to certain valid rules and laws and
• Connectivity of truth about all available experiences.

Correct thinking, therefore may be deduced as the operative act of the mind or mental
operation that coherently connects ideas, judgments, and reasoning.

Logic, then, is a philosophical tool that helps in the formation of ideas, comparing them through
accurate judgment and inferring from them valid and sound conclusions.

The Importance of Logic

Taking Logic as the habit of good reasoning, we may expect the following advantages:
1. Logic improves our reasoning ability. We do not fail to admire someone who can explain
things clearly.
2. Logic makes science possible. This is how Aristotle regards Logic as an “organon” for
discovering truth and defending it.
3. Logic helps us recognize faulty reasoning and avoid them.
 4. Logic prepares us for the task of leadership. King Solomon, for example, was admired for
his wisdom.
5. Logic promotes greater understanding among people.
6. Logic hastens the success of a professional.
7. Logic leads to just laws.
8. Logic protects society from chaos.
9. Logic promises an orderly life.
10. Logic leads to happiness. Wrong decisions often lead to unhappiness.

Types
Logic can be classified based on the validity of reasoning and on the approach used in arriving
at knowledge.

Based on validity of reasoning:

1. Formal – when the basis of validity of reasoning is conformity with the structure, pattern
or arrangement of the constituent parts of correct argument.
2. Material – when the basis of validity of argument is the thought content, or the meaning
and truth of the statement involved in thinking and reasoning. An argument is materially
valid when the ideas therein conform with fact or reality.

An argument which states that “stone is a hard object,” is materially valid because in reality,
stone is, in fact, hard. To argue, however, that “stones are soft objects” or “elephants are
small animals” is wrong because the arguments are materially invalid because the ideas do
not conform with what are true in reality. All three statements or arguments are formally
valid because they all follow the subject-predicate pattern or structure of a declarative
sentence.

In actual reasoning, both matter and form are involved. They are both intimately intertwined
and at times are seemingly inseparable. Consider the following statements or arguments:
1. Cats are animals.
2. Orchids are plants.
3. Humans are mortal beings.
4. Water is a liquid substance.
5. Filipinos are orientals.

All the five statements are genuinely valid because in matter and form, or in thought
content and structure, they are all valid.

Based on approach to attaining knowledge:

1. Deductive Logic – or deductive reasoning is a system of reasoning whereby a person
argues from general or universal truth to the specific. It is the process of reaching
conclusions based on previously known facts. The conclusions reached by this type of
reasoning are valid and can be relied on. For example, you know for a fact that “All
 men are rational beings” but also know that “Filipinos are men,” and conclude that
“Filipinos are rational beings.” We may go further and argue that since “Dr. Jose P. Rizal
is a Filipino,” he is also a rational being.
2. Inductive Logic – or inductive reasoning starts from sufficiently enumerated individuals or
specific cases or observations and moves to the universal or general truth. A conclusion
that is reached by inductive reasoning may or may not be valid. An example of
inductive reasoning is when you notice that all the mice you see around you are brown,
and you make the conclusion that all mice in the world are brown. Can you say for
certain that this conclusion is correct? No, because it is based on just a few observations.

Deductive Indicator Words:

certainly it is logical to conclude that
definitely this logically implies that
absolutely this entails that
conclusively it must be the case that

Inductive Indicator Words:

probably one would expect that
likely it is plausible to support that
chances are it is reasonable to assume that

THE MENTAL OPERATIONS

The study of inference or argument begins with the understanding of the three mental
operations or activities which produce thought. These mental acts are – simple apprehension,
judgment, and reasoning.
Simple Apprehension is the mental act by which we understand the essence of a thing as it
exists outside of the mind. Simple Apprehension produces the concept which is the mental
representation of what a thing is in itself. This is how we “know” the world and all the things in it
– the earth, the water, the sky, the plants, the animals, the buildings, and our self. Concepts are
called “beings of reasons” because they have their own reality and presence in the mind. The
concept is the product of simple apprehension, “the mental act by which we grasp the
meaning of a thing without affirming or denying anything about it.” We grasp the meaning of
a thing when we come to know its essence, what it is in itself and how it differs from any other.
Ex. red, car, book, calculator, small, shoes, man, etc.
Judgment is the mental act affirming or denying the relation of concepts with one another to
express reality. Judgment is the combination of concepts. The act of judgment produces the
proposition which is a statement of truth. Ex. red car, wet shoes, small calculator, etc.
Reasoning is the mental act by which we present a truth as being supported by given facts or
propositions. It is the act of proceeding to new knowledge from a previous knowledge. The
act of reasoning produces the inference or argument.

Logic is concerned with the results of these three mental operations – the concept, proposition,
and inference. The mental acts themselves are studied in Psychology.
Below is a schematic presentation:
 Mental Operation/ Mental Product
Thinking Activity
Simple Concept
Apprehension
Judgment Proposition
Reasoning Inference

The Syllogism
Our study centers the syllogism as a method of presenting an inference or argument. A
syllogism is any group of propositions of which one is claimed to follow from the others which
are presented as evidence or support. It is made up of the premises and the conclusion as in
this example:
All men are rational
But Pedro is a man,
Therefore, Pedro is rational.
The first two statements or propositions are the premises. The last is the conclusion. The premises
are the assumptions supporting the conclusion. When the premises are true, the conclusion is
also true. The words “but” and “therefore” stand for the movement of the mind from one truth
to another. They indicate the connection or sequence between the premises and the
conclusion.
We do not use syllogism as shown in the above example in casual speech, except when there
is a need to emphasize the correctness of reasoning. Instead, we express an argument casually
and directly as in the following sentences:
a) Pedro is rational, because he is a man.
b) Since all men are rational, Pedro is rational.
c) Pedro, being a man, is rational.
The above declarations contain a premise and a conclusion. They are forms of argumentation,
or inference.

WHAT IS CRICITAL THINKING?

The word “critical” often carries a negative connotation, implying excessive fault-finding as
when a politician from the opposition party is said to be “critical” of the President since the
politician always gives negative comments on the President’s actions, program, and policies.
That connotation does not apply to the term “critical thinking” since critical thinking is not
focused on finding faults or weaknesses in a particular person or thing but it is focused on
exercising objective, fair and skilled judgment and analysis of ideas, beliefs and arguments. The
purpose is not to put down a person, but to correct what is wrong and find out what is right.

Critical thinking, thus, is a general term given to a wide range of cognitive skills needed to
effectively interpret, analyze, and evaluate arguments and truth claims, to formulate logical
arguments and to make reasonable and sound decisions. In short, critical thinking means
thinking clearly, logically, and intelligently.

Characteristics of a Critical Thinker

Below is a list of some key intellectual traits of critical thinkers contrasted with the prevailing traits
of uncritical thinkers.

CRITICAL THINKERS UNCRITICAL THINKERS

Are honest with themselves, Pretend they know more than they do,
acknowledging what they don’t know, ignore their limitations, and assume their
recognizing their limitations, and being views are error-free.
watchful of their own errors.
Base judgments on evidence rather than Base judgments on first impressions and
personal preferences, deferring judgment gut reactions. They are unconcerned
whenever evidence is insufficient. They about the amount or quality of evidence
revise judgments when new evidence and cling earlier views steadfastly.
reveals error.
Are interested in other people’s ideas, so Are preoccupied with self and their own
are willing to read and listen attentively, opinions, and so are unwilling to pay
even when they tend to disagree with the attention to others’ views. At the first sign
other person. of disagreement, they tend to think, “How
can I refute this?”
Practice restraint, controlling their feelings Tend to follow their feelings and act
rather than being controlled by them, and impulsively.
thinking before acting.
Think independently and are not afraid to Tend to engage in “group think,”
disagree with group opinion. uncritically following the beliefs and
values of the crowd.

Which of the characteristics mentioned above do you think is your strongest critical thinking
trait? Why? Which is your weakest? Why? What could you do to improve in this latter regard?