Introduction to Database Management System (DBMS)

In this age of information explosion where people are bombarded with data, getting the
right information, in the right amount and at the right time is not an easy task. Therefore, for
organizations to gain competitive edge they must have accurate and reliable data (information)
for effective decision making.
A database system simplifies the tasks of managing data and extracting useful
information in a timely fashion. A database system is an integrated collection of related files
along with the details of interpretation of the data. A Data Base Management System (DBMS) is,
on the other hand, a software system or program that allows access to data contained in a
database. The main aim of a DBMS is to provide a convenient and effective method of defining,
storing and retrieving the information stored in a database.
1.1 Basic Definitions and Concepts
 Data
Data is the most basic resource in an organization. The term data may be defined as raw facts
that could be recorded and stored on computer media. It is the raw facts from which the required
information is produced. Data represents facts, concepts, or instructions in a formalized manner
suitable for communication, interpretation, or processing by humans or automatic means.
 Information
Information is nothing but refined data, i.e. data that has been processed, organized or
summarized. It can then be defined as data that has been put into a meaningful and useful content
and communicated to a recipient who uses it to make decisions. Decisions can only be made if
information provided is quality information. The three key attributes of quality information are:
1. Accuracy: Information is free from errors and bias, and it clearly reflects the meaning of
data on which it is based or conveys an accurate picture to the recipient.
2. Timeliness: recipient receive information when they need it and within the required time
frame.
3. Relevancy: piece of information must be useful for the corresponding person. It is a very
subjective matter.
 Meta Data
Meta data is the data about data. It describes the objects in the database and makes easier for
those objects to be accessed or manipulated. In general, it describes the database structure, sizes
of data types, constraints, applications, authorizations, etc., that are used as an integral tool for
information resource management.
 Data Dictionary
Data dictionary contains information of the data stored in a database and is consulted by the
DBMS before any manipulation operation is done on the database. It is an integral part of the
DBMS and stores Meta data. i.e., information about the database, attribute names and definitions
for each table in the database.
 Database
A database is a well-organized collection of data that are related in a meaningful way, which
can be accessed in different logical orders. Data are stored in such a way that they are
independent of the programs used by users for accessing the data and with controlled
redundancy. Databases are organized by fields, records and files.
1. Field: it is the smallest unit of data that has meaning to users and is also called data item
or data element. They are represented in a database by a value. E.g., name, address,
telephone number, etc.
2. Record: Is a collection of logically related fields and each field possesses a fixed number
of bytes and is of fixed data type. E.g., complete information about a particular phone
number, name or address in a database represents a record.
3. File: This is a collection of related records.
Components of a Database
A database consists of four components as shown in the figure below

1. Data items: Are distinct pieces of information.

2. Relationships: it represents a correspondence between various data elements.
3. Constraints: These are predicates that define correct database states.
 4. Schema: it describes the organization of data and relationships within a database. The
schema consists of definitions of the various types of record in the database, the data-
items they contain and the sets into which they are grouped.
 Database management system (DBMS)
DBMS consists of collection of interrelated data and a set of programs to access that data. It
is software that is helpful in maintaining and utilizing a database. It consists of;
 A collection of interrelated and persistent data, i.e., database.
 A set of application programs used to access, update and manage data, i.e., data
management system (MS).
1.2 Overview of Database Management System
A DBMS is an aggregate of data, hardware, software, and users that help an enterprise
manage its operational data. The main function of the DBMS is to provide efficient and reliable
methods of data storage and retrieval to many users.
A software system that enables users to define, create, maintain, and control access
to the database
In general, the DBMS performs the following primary functions:
1. Define, create and organize a database: DBMS establishes the logical relationships
among different data elements in a database and also defines schemas and subschemas
using Data Definition Language.
2. Input data: DBMS performs the function of entering the data into the database through
input devices with the help of users.
3. Process data: It performs the function of manipulating and processing of the data stored
in the database using Data Manipulation Language.
4. Maintain data integrity and security: it allows limited access of data base to authorized
users.
5. Query database: It provides information to the decision makers that they need to make
crucial decisions. Information is provided using SQL.
Components of a DBMS
As software, a DBMS has three main components which include Data Definition Language
(DDL), Data Manipulation Language and Query facilities (DML) and software for controlled
access of database as shown below.
However, in terms of functionality the DBMS involves five major components which include;
1. Hardware: This can range from single personal computer, to single main-frame, to a
network of computers. The particular hardware depends on the requirements of the
organization and the DBMS used.
2. Software: these include DBMS software, application programs together with the
operating system, including network software if the DBMS runs over network.
3. Data: database is a repository of data which must be persistent, integrated, structured and
shared.
4. Procedures: these are the rules that govern the design and use of the database. May
contain instructions on how to log on to DBMS, start and stop DBMS, identify failed
components, recover database, change structure, and improve performance among others.
5. Users: People interacting with the database. They include database administrators,
database designers and end-users of the database.
 1.3 Objectives of the DBMS
The main objectives of DBMS are data availability, data integrity, data security, and data
independence.
1. Data availability – This refers to the fact that data are made available to wide variety of
users in a meaningful format at reasonable cost so that the users can easily access the
data.
2. Data integrity- Refers to the correctness of the data in a database, i.e., data is reliable.
3. Data security – This refers to the fact that only authorized users can access the data. If
two users are accessing a particular data at the same time, the DBMS must not allow
them to make conflicting changes.
4. Data independence – this means that internal structure of the database should be
unaffected by changes to physical aspects of database. It makes it possible for database
administrator to change database storage structure without affecting users view. DBMS
allow users to store, update, and retrieve data in an efficient manner. It therefore provides
an abstract view of how data is stored in the database. For efficient storage of
information, complex data structures are used to represent data in order to hide certain
details of how data is stored and maintained. It is not necessary for the users to know
physical database storage details and thus developers hide the complexity from users
through several levels of data abstraction which include;
 Physical/ Internal level – this is concerned with physical storage of
information. It provides the internal view of the actual physical data
storage. It describes the complex low-level data structures in details (how
data is actually stored).
 Logical/ Conceptual level – this describes what data are stored in the
database and what relationships exist among those data.
 View/ External level – this is the highest level of abstraction. It is the view
individual user of database has. There can be many view level abstractions
like database instances (information in database at particular moment) and
database schema (overall design of database e.g. tables, views, functions
etc.).
 1.4 Evolution of DBMS
The first commercial DBMS appeared in the late 1960’s. These systems evolved from file
systems, which stored large amounts of data over a long period of time but they didn’t guarantee
data storage security and did not support efficient access of data whose location is not known.
The first crucial applications of DBMS were ones where data was composed of many small
items, and many queries or modifications were made, e.g. banking systems, airline reservation
systems and corporate record keeping.
The early DBMS required the programmer to visualize data mush as it was stored. These
database systems used several different data models for describing the structure of the
information in a database, chief among them the hierarchical (tree-based) and network (graph-
based) models. A problem with these early models is that they did not support high-level query
languages.
In 1970s, database systems changed significantly through a proposal that DB systems should
present the user with a view of data organized as tables called relations. Queries could be
expressed in a very high-level language, which greatly increased the efficiency of DB
programmers. By 1990, relational DB systems were the norm. However, database field continues
to evolve, and new issues and approaches to the management of data surface regularly forming
the following trend.
Originally, DBMS’s were large, expensive software systems running on large computers. The
size was necessary, because to store a gigabyte of data required a large computer system. Today,
hundreds of gigabytes fit on a single disk, and it is quite feasible to run a DBMS on a personal
computer. Thus, database systems based on the relational model have become available for even
very small machines, and they are beginning to appear as a common tool for computer
applications, much as spreadsheets and word processors did before them. On the other hand, a
gigabyte is not that much data any more. Corporate databases routinely store terabytes (10 12
bytes). Yet there are many databases that store petabytes (1015 bytes) of data and serve it all to
users e.g., Google and Satellites.
 1.5 Advantages and disadvantages of DBMS
Advantages
 Centralized Control - Via the Database Administrator (DBA), it is possible to enforce
centralized management and control of data. This means that necessary modifications,
which do not affect other application changes, meet the data independence which is a
DBMS requirement.
 Reduction of redundancies - Unnecessary duplication of data is avoided effectively thus
reducing total amount of data required, and consequently the reduction of storage space.
It also eliminates extra processing necessary to trace the required data in a large mass of
data. It also eliminates inconsistencies. Any redundancies that exist in the DBMS are
controlled and the system ensures that multiple copies are consistent.
 Shared data - In a DBMS, sharing of data under its control by a number of application
programs and user is possible e.g. backups.
 Integrity - Centralized control can also ensure that adequate checks are incorporated to
the DBMS to provide data integrity. Data integrity means that the data contained in the
database is both accurate and consistent e.g. employee age must be between 25-28 years.
 Security - Only authorized people must access confidential data. The DBA ensures that
proper access procedures are followed including proper authentication schemes, a process
that the DBMS checks before permitting access to sensitive data. Different levels of
security can be implemented for various types of data or operations.
 Conflict Resolution - The DBA is in a position to resolve conflicting requirements of
various users and applications by choosing the best file structure and access method to
get optimum performance for the response. This could be by classifying applications into
critical and less critical applications.
 Data Independence - It involves both logical and physical independence. Logical data
independence indicates that the conceptual schemes can be changed without affecting the
existing external schemes. Physical data independence indicates that the physical storage
structures/devices used for storing the data would be changed without necessitating a
change in the conceptual view or any of the external use.
Disadvantages
Compared with file systems, databases have some disadvantages:
1. High cost of DBMS which includes;
– Higher hardware costs
– Higher programming costs
– High conversion costs
2. Slower processing of some applications
3. Increased vulnerability
4. More difficult recovery
1.6 Database users and Administration
These are all database systems users:-
1. Systems administrator - Oversees the database systems general operations.
2. Database administrator (DBA) - Manages the DBMS use and ensures that the database is
functioning properly. His functions include:
 Scheme definition - The original database scheme is created by writing a set of
definitions, which are translated by DDL compiler to a set of tables that are permanently
stored in the data dictionary.
 Storage structure and Access Methods Definitions - By writing a set of definitions for
appropriate storage structures and access methods, which are translated by the data
storage and definition language compiler.
 Scheme and physical organization modifications - Modification to either the database
schema or description of the physical storage organization are accompanied by writing a
set of definitions which are used by either the DDL compiler or the data storage and
definition language compiler to generate modification to appropriate internal systems
tables e.g. data dictionary.
 Granting authorization to data access - This is so as to regulate which parts of the
database users can access.
 The database manager keeps integrity Constrains in a special system structure whenever
an update takes place in the system.
3. Database designers - These are the database architects who design the database structure.
4. Systems Analysts & Programmers (application programmers) - They design and implement
the application programs they design & create the data entry scheme, reports & procedures
through which users access and manipulate the databases data.
5. End users - These are the people who use the application programs to run the organizations
daily operations. They fall in the following classes:
 Sophisticated users - These interact with the system without writing programs.
They form their requests in a database query language.
 Specialized users – they interact with database applications that do not fit in the
traditional data processing framework e.g. CAD Systems, knowledge based &
expect systems.
 Application programmers: These interact with the system through the DML &
applications.
 Naive – Unsophisticated user who interact with the systems by invoking one of
the permanent application programs that have been written previously.