Course Content

~ Introduction
Section 1: Python Refresher
Chapter 1: Install Python
Chapter 2: Variables, Strings, Ints, and Print
Chapter 3: If Statements and Comments
Chapter 4: Functions
Chapter 5: Lists
Chapter 6: Loops
Chapter 7: Dictionaries
Chapter 8: Classes
Section 2: Project #1 - Word Counter Website
Chapter 9: Project Intro
Chapter 10: Django Cheat Sheet
Chapter 11: Installing Django
Chapter 12: Running the Django Server
Chapter 13: Project Tour
Chapter 14: URLs
Chapter 15: Templates
Chapter 16: Forms
Chapter 17: Counting the words
Chapter 18: Challenge
Chapter 19: Solution
Section 3: Git
Chapter 20: Intro to Git
Chapter 21: Installing Git A-Z
Chapter 22: Troubleshooting
Section 4: Project #2 - Your Personal Portfolio
Website
Chapter 23: Project Intro
Chapter 24: Sketch
Chapter 25: Virtualenv
Chapter 26: Gitignore
Chapter 27: Apps
Chapter 28: Models
Chapter 29: Admin
Chapter 30: psycopg2 fix
Chapter 31: Postgres
Chapter 32: Test Your Skills - Blog Model
Chapter 33: Home Page
Chapter 34: Bootstrap
Chapter 35: Show Jobs
Chapter 36: All Blogs
Chapter 37: Blog Detail
Chapter 38: Static Files
Chapter 39: Polish
Section 5: VPS
Chapter 40: Intro
Chapter 41: Digital Ocean
Chapter 42: Security
Chapter 43: Postgres and Virtualenv
Chapter 44: Git Push and Pull
Chapter 45: Gunicorn
Chapter 46: Nginx
Chapter 47: Domains
Section 6: Project #3 - Product Hunt Clone Website
Chapter 48: Project Intro
Chapter 49: Sketch
Chapter 50: Extending Templates
Chapter 51: Base Styling
Chapter 52: Sign Up
Chapter 53: Login and Logout
Chapter 54: Products Model
Chapter 55: Creating Products
Chapter 56: Iconic
Chapter 57: Product Details
Chapter 58: Home Page
Chapter 59: Polish
~ Conclusion

Introduc on
Assets and Resources:
- Django Official Website ([Visit Here](
https://www.djangoproject.com/ ))
- Python Official Website ([Visit Here](
https://www.python.org/ ))
- DigitalOcean’s Overview & Documentation ([Visit Here](
https://www.digitalocean.com/docs/ ))

Welcome to “Django 2.2 & Python: The Ultimate Web

Development Bootcamp”. This book is designed to be
your one-stop guide to mastering the powerful
combination of Django, a high-level web framework, and
Python, one of the world’s most versatile programming
languages. By the end of this bootcamp, you will not only
have built three functional web applications but will also
be equipped with the knowledge and confidence to
embark on your own web development projects.

Why Django and Python?

When venturing into the world of web development, the
sheer number of languages, frameworks, and tools can
be overwhelming. So why focus on Django and Python?
Python is celebrated for its simplicity, versatility, and
readability, making it a top choice for beginners and
seasoned developers alike. It powers a myriad of
applications, from simple scripts to machine learning
algorithms and large-scale web applications.
Django, on the other hand, was birthed from Python’s
philosophy. Often referred to as the framework “for
perfectionists with deadlines,” Django makes it
significantly faster to build high-quality web applications.
It’s designed to avoid repetitive tasks and encourage the
rapid development of robust applications, making your
development journey smoother and more enjoyable.

What’s Inside this Bootcamp?

As you delve into the upcoming sections and chapters,
here’s what you can expect:
1. Python Refresher: Even if you’ve never written a line
of Python code, we’ve got you covered. We begin with
the basics, ensuring you’re well-equipped to tackle
Django with confidence.
2. Three Comprehensive Projects: From a simple word-
counting website to your own portfolio and a clone of the
renowned Product Hunt platform, you’ll be applying your
newfound knowledge in practical, tangible ways.
3. Insights into Git: Dive into version control with Git, a
must-know tool for every developer. You’ll learn why it’s
crucial, how to set it up, and how to use it effectively.
4. Deploying with DigitalOcean: We won’t just leave you
with applications on your local machine. We’ll guide you
through deploying your projects to a Virtual Private
Server (VPS) on DigitalOcean, making them accessible
to the world.

Are You Ready?

Whether you’re a novice curious about web development
or a Python enthusiast eager to dip your toes into web
frameworks, this book is crafted for you. Our approach is
hands-on, interspersed with challenges and solutions,
ensuring you not only consume content but also actively
engage with it.
Before you dive into the next sections, ensure you have
a functioning computer and a stable internet connection.
While no prior experience with Django or Python is
required, a basic understanding of general programming
concepts will be beneficial.
And most importantly, come with an open mind and a
thirst for knowledge. The world of web development is
vast and fascinating, and we’re thrilled to be your guide
on this journey.
Prepare yourself for an immersive, enlightening, and,
above all, fun exploration of Django 2.2 and Python.
Let’s begin!

Section 1:
Python Refresher
Install Python
Assets and Resources for this Chapter:
- Python Installer: Available from the official Python
website ([Download here](
https://www.python.org/downloads/ ))
- Python Documentation: Helpful for any installation
troubleshooting or additional details ([Visit here](
https://docs.python.org/3/ ))

Introduction
Before we dive into the world of Django, it’s essential to
familiarize ourselves with the foundational language
upon which it’s built: Python. While Django is a powerful
web framework, Python is the heart and soul that powers
it. In this chapter, we’ll ensure you have Python installed
and set up correctly on your machine.

Why Python?
Python is one of the world’s most popular programming
languages. It is known for its simplicity, readability, and
vast array of libraries and frameworks, making it versatile
for everything from web development to data analysis to
artificial intelligence and more.

Choosing a Python Version

While there are multiple versions of Python available, as
of writing this book, Python 3.9 is the latest stable
release. It is always advisable to use the latest version
unless you have a specific need for an older version.
Django 2.2, which we’ll be focusing on in this book,
requires Python 3.5 or newer.
Steps to Install Python:
1. Visit the Official Python Website
- Open your browser and navigate to [Python’s official
website]( https://www.python.org/downloads/ ).
2. Download the Installer
 - You’ll see a button labeled “Download Python 3.9.x”
(or the latest version). Click on it to start the download.
3. Run the Installer
- Once the download is complete, locate the installer
in your downloads folder and double-click to run it.
- Important: Ensure you check the box that says “Add
Python 3.9 to PATH” before proceeding. This will allow
you to run Python from your command line or terminal
without any extra configuration.
4. Choose Installation Options
- For most users, the default installation options will
suffice. However, if you’re an advanced user and want to
customize the installation, feel free to do so.
- Click “Install Now” to begin the installation process.
5. Installation Complete
- Once the installation is finished, you’ll see a screen
indicating that Python was installed successfully.
6. Verify the Installation
- Open your command line or terminal and type
`python —version` and press enter. This should return
the version number, confirming that Python was installed
correctly.

Potential Issues and Troubleshooting:

- If you receive an error when trying to verify the
installation, it’s possible that Python wasn’t added to
your system’s PATH. Make sure you checked the “Add
Python to PATH” option during installation.
- On some systems, you might need to use `python3`
instead of `python` to invoke Python.

Conclusion
Congratulations! You’ve successfully installed Python on
your machine. As we delve deeper into Django and web
development in the subsequent chapters, you’ll see the
power and flexibility that Python offers. But for now, take
a moment to celebrate this first step in your web
development journey. In the next chapter, we’ll dive into
some fundamental Python concepts to get you warmed
up.

Next Steps:
Before moving on, consider playing around with the
Python interactive shell by typing `python` (or `python3`
on some systems) into your command line or terminal.
This will give you a prompt where you can type and
execute Python code directly, providing an excellent way
to practice and experiment.

Variables, Strings, Ints,

and Print
Assets & Resources:
- Python (Version 3.7 or later) ([Download and install
from Python’s official website](
https://www.python.org/downloads/ ))
- A Text Editor or IDE (Recommendation: VS Code or
PyCharm)

Introduction:
Before diving deep into the world of Django and web
development, it’s crucial to have a strong foundation in
Python. This chapter will guide you through the basics of
variables, strings, integers, and the print function in
Python, setting the stage for the upcoming chapters.
1. Variables:
A variable in Python is like a container or storage
location that holds data values. A variable is assigned
with a value, and you can change this value based on
your needs.
Syntax:
“`python
variable_name = value
“`
Example:
“`python
greeting = “Hello, World!”
“`
In this example, `greeting` is a variable that holds the
string “Hello, World!”.

2. Strings:
Strings in Python are a sequence of characters,
enclosed within single (`’ ‘`) or double (`” “`) quotes.
Examples:
“`python
name = “John”
message = ‘Welcome to the world of Python!’
“`
String Concatenation:
You can also combine or concatenate strings using the
`+` operator:
“`python
first_name = “John”
last_name = “Doe”
full_name = first_name + ” ” + last_name
“`

3. Integers (Ints):
Integers are whole numbers (without decimal points). In
Python, you can perform various arithmetic operations
with integers.
Examples:
“`python
age = 25
days_in_week = 7
“`
Basic Arithmetic Operations:
“`python
sum = 5 + 3 # Addition
difference = 5 - 3 # Subtraction
product = 5 * 3 # Multiplication
quotient = 5 / 3 # Division
remainder = 5 % 3 # Modulus (returns the remainder of
the division)
“`

4. The Print Function:

The `print()` function in Python is used to output data to
the console. It’s a great tool for debugging and for
displaying results to users.
Syntax:
“`python
print(value1, value2, …, sep=’ ‘, end=’\n’)
“`
Examples:
“`python
print(“Hello, World!”)
print(“Your age is:”, age)
print(first_name, last_name, sep=” “, end=”!\n”)
“`
In the last example, `sep` is used to define a separator
between the values, and `end` defines what to print at
the end. The default values are a space (`’ ‘`) for `sep`
and a newline (`’\n’`) for `end`.

Practice Exercise:
Now that you have a basic understanding of variables,
strings, integers, and the print function, try the following:
1. Create a variable called `course` and assign it the
string value “Python for Web Development”.
2. Create two variables, `students` and `teachers`, and
assign them the integer values 200 and 5, respectively.
3. Use the `print()` function to display the following
message:
“`
Welcome to the course: Python for Web Development.
We have 200 students and 5 teachers.
“`
Remember to use string concatenation and the variables
you’ve created!

Conclusion:
Understanding the basics of variables, strings, and
integers, and how to display them using the `print()`
function is fundamental in Python. This knowledge will
be instrumental as we proceed further into more complex
topics and start our journey with Django. Make sure to
practice the concepts you’ve learned here, as practice is
the key to mastering any programming language.
In the next chapter, we will explore conditional
statements in Python. Stay tuned!

Note: This chapter serves as a brief refresher. If any

topic seems challenging, consider referring to the Python
official documentation or other in-depth Python beginner
courses to gain a deeper understanding.

If Statements and
Comments
Assets and Resources:
- Python 3.x (You can download and install Python from
[python.org]( https://www.python.org/downloads/ ))
- Integrated Development Environment (IDE) like
PyCharm or Visual Studio Code (You can choose any
IDE, but for beginners, I recommend [PyCharm
Community Edition](
https://www.jetbrains.com/pycharm/download/ ))

Introduction
Before diving into web development with Django, it’s
crucial to have a firm grasp on the basic building blocks
of Python. One of the core concepts of any programming
language is conditional statements, with “if statements”
being the most commonly used. In this chapter, we’ll be
exploring if statements, along with Python comments
which play an essential role in making our code
understandable.

If Statements
At its heart, an if statement is a simple decision-making
tool that Python provides. It evaluates an expression
and, based on whether that expression is `True` or
`False`, will execute a block of code.

Basic If Statement
“`python
x = 10
if x > 5:
print(“x is greater than 5”)
“`
In the code above, Python checks if the value of `x` is
greater than 5. If it is, the message “x is greater than 5”
is printed to the console.

If-Else Statement
Often, you’ll want to have an alternative action in case
the if condition isn’t met:
“`python
x=3
if x > 5:
print(“x is greater than 5”)
else:
print(“x is not greater than 5”)
“`

If-Elif-Else Statement
For multiple conditions, Python provides the `elif`
keyword:
“`python
x=5
if x > 10:
print(“x is greater than 10”)
elif x == 5:
print(“x is 5”)
else:
print(“x is less than 10 but not 5”)
“`
In the example above, since `x` is 5, the message “x is
5” will be printed.

Comments in Python
Comments are an essential part of any programming
language. They allow developers to describe what’s
happening in the code, which can be invaluable for both
the original developer and others who might work on the
code in the future.
In Python, the `#` symbol is used to denote a comment.
Any text following this symbol on the same line is
considered a comment and will not be executed by
Python.
“`python
# This is a single-line comment in Python
x = 5 # Assigning value 5 to variable x
“`
For multi-line comments, Python developers often use
triple quotes, though this is technically a multi-line string.
Python simply ignores this string if it’s not assigned to a
variable:
“`python
”’
This is a multi-line
comment in Python
”’
x = 10
“`

Conclusion
If statements form the backbone of decision-making in
Python, allowing us to conditionally execute blocks of
code. Together with comments, which help in clarifying
and explaining our code, these tools are foundational for
any aspiring Python developer.
In the next chapter, we’ll explore functions, another
essential building block in Python.

Func ons
Assets and Resources Required:
1. Python (Version used in this book: Python 3.9) *(You
can download and install Python from the official website
[python.org]( https://www.python.org/downloads/ ).
Ensure you select the version 3.9 or newer during the
setup.)*
2. An IDE or text editor (Recommended: Visual Studio
Code) *(Available for free at [Visual Studio Code’s official
website]( https://code.visualstudio.com/download ).)
3. A working terminal or command prompt to execute
scripts.

Introduction
Functions are a cornerstone of programming in any
language. In Python, functions enable you to bundle a
sequence of statements into a single, reusable entity.
This chapter introduces you to the world of functions,
explaining how to create and use them.
Defining a Function
A function is defined using the `def` keyword, followed by
a name for the function, and then a pair of parentheses.
The code block within every function is indented, which
is a critical aspect of Python syntax.
Here’s a simple function definition:
“`python
def greet():
print(“Hello, World!”)
“`
In the above code, we’ve defined a function named
`greet` that, when called, will print “Hello, World!” to the
console.

Calling a Function
To execute the statements inside a function, you need to
call or invoke the function. To call a function, you simply
use the function name followed by parentheses.
“`python
greet() # This will print “Hello, World!”
“`

Parameters and Arguments

Functions can also accept values, known as parameters,
which allow you to pass data to be processed. When you
define a function and specify parameters, they act like
variables.
Here’s an example:
“`python
def greet(name):
print(f”Hello, {name}!”)
“`
When calling this function, you provide a value, known
as an argument, for the specified parameter:
“`python
greet(“Alice”) # This will print “Hello, Alice!”
“`

Return Values
Functions can also return values using the `return`
keyword. This is useful when you want a function to
evaluate data and give something back.
Here’s an example of a function that takes two numbers,
adds them, and then returns the result:
“`python
def add_numbers(a, b):
result = a + b
return result
sum_result = add_numbers(5, 3)
print(sum_result) # This will print 8
“`

Default Parameter Values

Python allows you to set default values for function
parameters. This means if an argument for that
parameter is omitted when the function is called, the
default value will be used.
“`python
def greet(name=“User”):
print(f”Hello, {name}!”)
greet() # This will print “Hello, User!”
greet(“Bob”) # This will print “Hello, Bob!”
“`

Variable-length Arguments
There might be scenarios where you don’t know the
number of arguments that will be passed into a function.
Python allows you to handle this kind of situation through
*args and kwargs.
“`python
# Using *args
def print_all_args(*args):
for arg in args:
print(arg)
print_all_args(1, “apple”, True, 42.5)
“`

Scope of Variables
In Python, a variable declared inside a function has a
local scope, which means it’s accessible only within that
function. Conversely, variables declared outside all
functions have a global scope.
“`python
global_variable = “I’m global!”
def demo_function():
local_variable = “I’m local!”
print(global_variable) # This is valid
print(local_variable) # This is valid within the
function
print(global_variable) # This will print “I’m global!”
# print(local_variable) # This would result in an error
“`
Summary
In this chapter, we explored the essentials of functions in
Python, which included defining, calling, and returning
values from functions. We also delved into parameter
handling with default values and variable-length
arguments. Grasping the concept of functions and their
flexibility is vital for any budding Python developer. As
you continue in this book, you’ll find that functions play
an integral role in building Django applications.
In the next chapter, we’ll explore Python lists, a crucial
data structure in Python, which will aid us further when
diving into Django’s capabilities.

Lists
Assets and Resources Required for this Chapter:
- Python (version 3.6 or higher) [Can be downloaded and
installed from the official Python website at `
https://www.python.org/downloads/ `]
- A code editor (preferably IDLE, which comes with
Python installation) or any other code editor of your
choice.

Introduction:
Lists are one of the most powerful tools in Python. They
allow you to store multiple items in a single variable.
These items can be of any type, and you can mix types
within a list. This flexibility allows lists to support a
myriad of use cases, from simple collections of numbers
to complex data structures.

Creating a List:
To create a list, use square brackets and separate the
items with commas.
“`python
fruits = [“apple”, “banana”, “cherry”]
print(fruits)
“`
Output:
“`
[‘apple’, ‘banana’, ‘cherry’]
“`

Accessing Items in a List:

To access an item in a list, use its index number. Index
numbers start from 0 for the first item.
“`python
print(fruits[1])
“`
Output:
“`
banana
“`

Modifying Items in a List:

To modify an item in a list, refer to its index number and
assign a new value.
“`python
fruits[1] = “blueberry”
print(fruits)
“`
Output:
“`
[‘apple’, ‘blueberry’, ‘cherry’]
“`

Adding Items to a List:

1. Using the `append()` method: This adds the item to
the end of the list.
“`python
fruits.append(“orange”)
print(fruits)
“`
Output:
“`
[‘apple’, ‘blueberry’, ‘cherry’, ‘orange’]
“`
2. Using the `insert()` method: This adds an item at any
position you choose.
“`python
fruits.insert(1, “kiwi”)
print(fruits)
“`
Output:
“`
[‘apple’, ‘kiwi’, ‘blueberry’, ‘cherry’, ‘orange’]
“`

Removing Items from a List:

1. Using the `remove()` method: This removes the
specified item.
“`python
fruits.remove(“kiwi”)
 print(fruits)
“`
Output:
“`
[‘apple’, ‘blueberry’, ‘cherry’, ‘orange’]
“`
2. Using the `pop()` method: Without any argument, it
removes the last item, but you can also specify an index.
“`python
fruits.pop(1)
print(fruits)
“`
Output:
“`
[‘apple’, ‘cherry’, ‘orange’]
“`

Sorting a List:
1. Using the `sort()` method: This sorts the list in
ascending order by default.
“`python
numbers = [34, 1, 98, 23]
numbers.sort()
print(numbers)
“`
Output:
“`
[1, 23, 34, 98]
“`
2. Using the `sorted()` function: This returns a new
sorted list and keeps the original list unchanged.
“`python
sorted_numbers = sorted(numbers, reverse=True)
print(sorted_numbers)
“`
Output:
“`
[98, 34, 23, 1]
“`

List Slicing:
You can return a range of items by specifying a start and
an end index. Remember, the end index is exclusive.
“`python
letters = [‘a’, ‘b’, ‘c’, ‘d’, ‘e’, ‘f’]
print(letters[2:5])
“`
Output:
“`
[‘c’, ‘d’, ‘e’]
“`

List Comprehensions:
This is a concise way to create lists based on existing
lists.
“`python
squared_numbers = [n2 for n in numbers if n > 2]
print(squared_numbers)
“`
Output:
“`
[1156, 529, 9604]
“`

Conclusion:
Lists are one of the foundational data structures in
Python. Their versatility makes them suitable for a range
of applications. By mastering lists, you are taking an
essential step in becoming proficient in Python.
Remember to practice these concepts with various
examples to strengthen your understanding and increase
retention. Happy coding!

Loops
Assets and Resources:
- Python (3.x) - [Can be downloaded from the official
Python website]( https://www.python.org/downloads/ )
- Python Integrated Development Environment (IDE) –
[We recommend the default IDLE or PyCharm for
beginners](
https://www.jetbrains.com/pycharm/download/ )

Introduction:
Loops in programming allow us to execute a block of
code multiple times. Instead of writing the same code
again and again, you can simply loop through it. Python
provides two main types of loops: `for` and `while`. In
this chapter, we’ll explore both types and their practical
applications.

1. The ‘for’ Loop:

In Python, the `for` loop is used to iterate over a
sequence such as a list, tuple, string, or range.
Syntax:
“`python
for variable in sequence:
# code to execute
“`
Example:
Let’s loop through a list of fruits:
“`python
fruits = [“apple”, “banana”, “cherry”]
for fruit in fruits:
print(fruit)
“`
Output:
“`
apple
banana
cherry
“`
2. The ‘range()’ Function with ‘for’ Loop:
When you want to repeat a block of code a specific
number of times, you can use the `range()` function with
a `for` loop.
Syntax:
“`python
for variable in range(start, stop, step):
# code to execute
“`
- `start`: (Optional) The starting value. Default is 0.
- `stop`: The ending value (exclusive).
- `step`: (Optional) The increment value. Default is 1.
Example:
Print numbers from 1 to 5:
“`python
for i in range(1, 6):
print(i)
“`
Output:
“`
1
2
3
4
5
“`

3. The ‘while’ Loop:

A `while` loop continues to execute a block of code as
long as a condition remains true.
Syntax:
“`python
while condition:
# code to execute
“`
Example:
Print numbers from 1 to 5 using a `while` loop:
“`python
count = 1
while count <= 5:
print(count)
count += 1
“`
Output:
“`
1
2
3
4
5
“`

4. ‘break’ and ‘continue’ Statements:

- `break`: Exits the loop prematurely.
- `continue`: Skips the rest of the loop’s current iteration
and moves to the next one.
Example (break):
Find the first number divisible by 7 in a range:
“`python
for num in range(1, 50):
if num % 7 == 0:
print(f”The first number divisible by 7 is {num}.”)
break
“`
Output:
“`
The first number divisible by 7 is 7.
“`
Example (continue):
Print only odd numbers between 1 and 10:
“`python
for num in range(1, 11):
if num % 2 == 0:
continue
print(num)
“`
Output:
“`
1
3
5
7
9
“`

5. Nested Loops:
A loop inside another loop is known as a nested loop. It
can be a combination of `for` and `while` loops.
Example:
Printing a pattern using nested loops:
“`python
for i in range(1, 5):
for j in range(i):
print(“*”, end=”**”)
print()
“`
Output:
“`
*
**
***
****
“`

Conclusion:
Loops play a crucial role in programming, allowing for
repetitive tasks to be handled efficiently. With the
combination of `for` and `while` loops, and the control
offered by `break` and `continue`, Python offers flexibility
and power in managing iterations. Practice is key, so try
to implement these in your Python refresher tasks and
see the magic of loops unfold.

Next, we will dive deeper into Python by exploring one of

its core data structures: Dictionaries. Stay tuned!

Dic onaries
Assets and Resources:
1. Python 3 (Acquire: [Download Python](
https://www.python.org/downloads/ ))
2. A text editor or Integrated Development Environment
(IDE) like PyCharm, Visual Studio Code, or Atom.
3. Terminal (on MacOS/Linux) or Command
Prompt/Powershell (on Windows)

Introduction:
In the Python programming language, a dictionary is a
mutable, unordered collection of items. Every item in the
dictionary has a key/value pair. Dictionaries are used to
store data in a key-value pair format where each key
must be unique. If you come from other programming
languages, you can think of dictionaries as hash maps or
associative arrays.

Creating a Dictionary:
Creating a dictionary is straightforward. You use curly
brackets `{}` to define a dictionary and then specify key-
value pairs. Here’s a simple example:
“`python
person = {
“first_name”: “John”,
“last_name”: “Doe”,
“age”: 30
}
“`
Here, `first_name`, `last_name`, and `age` are keys, and
“John”, “Doe”, and 30 are their respective values.

Accessing Items:
To access the items of a dictionary, you’ll use the key
inside square brackets `[]`:
“`python
print(person[“first_name”]) # Outputs: John
“`
If you try to access a key that doesn’t exist, Python will
raise an error. To prevent this, use the `get()` method:
“`python
print(person.get(“address”, “Not Available”)) # Outputs:
Not Available
“`

Modifying a Dictionary:
You can change the value of a specific item by referring
to its key:
“`python
person[“age”] = 31 # Modifies the age to 31
“`
To add a new key-value pair:
“`python
person[“address”] = “123 Main St” # Adds a new key-
value pair
“`

Removing Items:
Use the `pop()` method to remove an item by its key:
“`python
person.pop(“age”)
“`
Use the `del` statement to remove an item by its key:
“`python
del person[“last_name”]
“`
To clear all items from the dictionary, use the `clear()`
method:
“`python
person.clear()
“`

Iterating Through a Dictionary:

You can loop through a dictionary by using a for loop:
“`python
# Print all keys
for key in person:
print(key)
# Print all values
for key in person:
print(person[key])
# Using the items() method for both keys and values
for key, value in person.items():
print(key, value)
“`

Dictionary Methods:
Python dictionaries offer various methods to make
dictionary manipulations more straightforward:
- `keys()`: Returns a list of dictionary keys.
- `values()`: Returns a list of dictionary values.
- `items()`: Returns a list of dictionary’s key-value tuple
pairs.
- `copy()`: Returns a copy of the dictionary.
- `fromkeys()`: Creates a new dictionary with the
provided keys and values.

Nested Dictionaries:
A dictionary can contain dictionaries, this is called nested
dictionaries.
“`python
family = {
“child1”: {
 “name”: “John”,
“year”: 2000
},
“child2”: {
“name”: “Jane”,
“year”: 2003
}
}
“`

Conclusion:
Dictionaries are a fundamental data structure in Python,
and they’re indispensable for any Python programmer.
They provide a clear and intuitive way to store data as
key-value pairs, allowing for efficient data retrieval. With
a good understanding of dictionaries, you’ve now added
a powerful tool to your Python arsenal!
In the next chapter, we’ll explore how to work with
Python classes and learn the basics of object-oriented
programming.

Classes
Assets and Resources:
- Python (Ensure that you have Python installed. If not,
refer to Chapter 1)
- A text editor (Any text editor of your choice, e.g., Visual
Studio Code, PyCharm)

Introduction:
In the realm of programming, a class serves as a
blueprint for creating objects. Objects have member
variables and can perform actions through functions.
Classes are a central part of the object-oriented
programming paradigm that Python supports. Let’s dive
into the concept of classes and understand their
significance and application.

What is a Class?
A class can be visualized as a template or blueprint for
creating objects (instances of the class). These objects
represent data structures composed of attributes (often
called fields or properties) and methods (functions) that
can be applied to the data.
Consider a class as a blueprint for a house. While the
blueprint itself isn’t a house, it dictates how a house
should be built. Similarly, while a class isn’t an instance
of the object, it defines how an object should be created
and behave.

Defining a Class in Python:

Creating a class in Python is simple. Use the `class`
keyword, followed by the class’s name:
“`python
class MyClass:
pass
“`
Here, we’ve defined an empty class named `MyClass`.

Attributes and Methods:

Attributes are the characteristics of a class, whereas
methods represent the actions or behaviors.
Attributes:
Attributes are variables that belong to the class. They
represent data that the class holds.
“`python
class Dog:
species = “Canis familiaris” # This is a class attribute
“`
Methods:
Methods are functions that belong to the class and
define actions.
“`python
class Dog:
species = “Canis familiaris”
def bark(self): # This is a class method
return “Woof!”
“`
The `__init__` Method:
The `__init__` method is a special method in Python,
known as a dunder (double underscore) method. It gets
called automatically when an instance of the class is
created. It’s used to initialize attributes:
“`python
class Dog:
species = “Canis familiaris”
def __init__(self, name, age):
self.name = name
self.age = age
def bark(self):
return f”{self.name} says Woof!”
“`
Here, when you create an instance of the Dog class,
you’ll need to provide a name and age, which will be
assigned to the `self.name` and `self.age` attributes,
respectively.

Creating Instances:
Once the class is defined, you can create instances
(objects) of that class:
“`python
dog1 = Dog(“Buddy”, 5)
dog2 = Dog(“Daisy”, 3)
print(dog1.name) # Output: Buddy
print(dog2.bark()) # Output: Daisy says Woof!
“`

Inheritance:
Inheritance is a mechanism where a new class inherits
attributes and methods from an existing class. The
existing class is called the parent or superclass, and the
new class is the child or subclass.
“`python
class GermanShepherd(Dog):
def guard(self):
return f”{self.name} is guarding!”
gs = GermanShepherd(“Rex”, 4)
print(gs.guard()) # Output: Rex is guarding!
“`
Here, the `GermanShepherd` class inherits from the
`Dog` class, thus inheriting the attributes and methods of
the `Dog` class.

Encapsulation:
In OOP, encapsulation means restricting access to some
of the object’s components, preventing the accidental
modification of data. Python uses underscores to
achieve this:
- `_protected`: With a single underscore, it’s a
convention to treat these as “protected”.
- `__private`: With double underscores, Python name-
mangles the attribute name to make it harder to access.
“`python
class Car:
def __init__(self):
self._speed = 0 # protected attribute
self.__color = “Red” # private attribute
“`
Conclusion:
Understanding classes and OOP concepts in Python
lays a foundational base for the Django framework and
web development in general. With this refresher on
Python classes, you’re now prepared to dive into more
intricate Python-related tasks and tackle Django with
confidence!

Remember, practice is key. The more you experiment

with classes, create different objects, and play around
with attributes and methods, the better you’ll understand
the intricacies and potential of Python’s OOP
capabilities.

Section 2:
Project #1 - Word Counter
Website
Project Intro
Assets & Resources:
1. Django Documentation ([available here](
https://docs.djangoproject.com/en/2.2/ ))
2. Python Software Foundation ([available here](
https://www.python.org/ ))
3. Visual Studio Code or any preferred text editor (You
can download Visual Studio Code [here](
https://code.visualstudio.com/ ))

Introduction
Welcome to the first major section of our journey: Project
#1 - Word Counter Website. This project aims to provide
you with a gentle introduction to the world of Django
while ensuring you grasp the fundamental concepts. It
might seem simple, but the Word Counter Website is
carefully chosen to help you understand the basics of
Django’s flow, URL routing, template rendering, and form
handling.

Overview of the Word Counter Website

Imagine a scenario where you have a long essay,
speech, or document, and you want to know which
words appear the most frequently. Our Word Counter
Website is a tool that will do just that. Users will enter
their text, and the application will display the frequency
of each word in descending order. While this might
sound straightforward, you’ll learn numerous
foundational Django concepts along the way.

What will we build?

Homepage: This is where users will be greeted with a
simple interface where they can paste or type their text.
They will then have the option to submit this text to get
the word count.
Results Page: After submitting the text, users will be
taken to this page where the words and their frequencies
will be displayed.

Why start with the Word Counter Website?

As beginners, it’s essential to start with something that
isn’t overwhelming. The Word Counter Website is perfect
because:
1. Simplicity: The project is straightforward, which means
you won’t get lost in complex logic or multiple
functionalities.
2. Covers the Basics: Despite its simplicity, it introduces
the core elements of a Django application: URL routing,
views, templates, and form handling.
3. Immediate Results: This project will give you the
satisfaction of building a complete web application,
motivating you for the more complex projects ahead.

What will you gain?

By the end of this section, you will:
1. Understand how to set up a new Django project.
2. Familiarize yourself with Django’s directory structure.
3. Handle URL routing and link it with specific views.
4. Design templates to display content to the end-users.
5. Process user input through forms.
6. Learn how to display processed data back to the user.

Pre-requisites
Before diving into the project, ensure you have:
1. Completed the Python refresher section. This project
assumes you are familiar with basic Python concepts.
2. Installed Django (We’ll cover this in the next to next
chapter if you haven’t).
3. A text editor ready, like Visual Studio Code.
4. An open mind and the eagerness to learn!

Conclusion
The Word Counter Website will be our stepping stone
into the vast and exciting world of Django. By the end of
this project, not only will you have a functional website to
show for your efforts, but you’ll also possess the
foundational knowledge necessary to tackle more
advanced Django projects.

Django Cheat Sheet

Assets and Resources for this Chapter:
- Django documentation: [Official Django Documentation]
( https://docs.djangoproject.com/ )
- Django source code: Available via pip install command
- Python: [Official Python Download Page](
https://www.python.org/downloads/ )

Introduction:
A cheat sheet is a compact collection of information,
used for quick references. In this chapter, we will put
together some of the most commonly used Django
commands, concepts, and snippets, tailored specifically
for our Word Counter Website project. Keep this chapter
handy while working through the project, as it can act as
your quick guide to recalling the basics.

1. Setting Up Django
- Install Django:
“`python
pip install django
“`
- Start a new Django project:
“`bash
django-admin startproject projectname
“`
- Start a new Django app:
“`bash
python manage.py startapp appname
“`

2. Django Project Structure Overview

- `manage.py`: The command-line utility for
administrative tasks.
- `__init__.py`: Tells Python that this folder should be
considered a package.
- `settings.py`: Settings/configuration for the Django
project.
- `urls.py`: The URL declarations for the Django project.
- `wsgi.py`: An entry point for WSGI-compatible web
servers to serve the project.

3. Basic Commands
- Run the development server:
“`bash
python manage.py runserver
“`
- Run migrations: (to apply changes made in models to
the database)
“`bash
python manage.py migrate
“`
- Make migrations after model changes:
“`bash
python manage.py makemigrations
“`
- Create a superuser for the admin interface:
“`bash
python manage.py createsuperuser
“`

4. Defining URLs
urls.py:
“`python
from django.urls import path
from . import views
urlpatterns = [
path(”, views.home, name=‘home’),
]
“`
5. Views and Templates
views.py:
“`python
from django.shortcuts import render
def home(request):
return render(request, ‘home.html’)
“`
home.html:
“`html
<!DOCTYPE html>
<html>
<head>
<title>Word Counter</title>
</head>
<body>
<h1>Welcome to Word Counter!</h1>
</body>
</html>
“`

6. Forms
forms.py: (you may need to create this file inside your
app folder)
“`python
from django import forms
class WordInputForm(forms.Form):
text = forms.CharField(widget=forms.Textarea)
“`
home.html: (using the form)
“`html
<form method=“post”>
{% csrf_token %}
{{ form.as_p }}
<button type=“submit”>Count</button>
</form>
“`

7. Model Basics
models.py:
“`python
from django.db import models
class Word(models.Model):
text = models.CharField(max_length=255)
“`
- Using the model in views:
“`python
from .models import Word
def save_word(request):
word = Word(text=request.POST[‘text’])
word.save()
“`

8. Admin Interface
- Register models with admin:
admin.py:
“`python
from django.contrib import admin
from .models import Word
admin.site.register(Word)
“`

9. Static Files
home.html: (linking to a static CSS file)
“`html
{% load static %}
<link rel=“stylesheet” href=”{% static ‘css/style.css’ %}”>
“`
settings.py:
Make sure the following is included:
“`python
STATIC_URL = ‘/static/’
“`

10. Useful Tips for the Word Counter Project

- Always keep your project’s `requirements.txt` updated.
- Keep the Django version in mind, as older or newer
versions might have different functionalities.
- The Django documentation is your friend; always refer
to it for detailed explanations.

Conclusion:
This cheat sheet is designed to provide quick insights
and commands specific to our Word Counter Website
project. As you advance in Django, you might want to
create your personalized cheat sheet that aligns with
your workflow. Remember, practice is key, and while this
cheat sheet helps, frequently working with Django will
engrain these commands in your memory.
In the next chapter, we’ll dive into the practical
application of these commands as we start installing and
setting up Django for our project.

Installing Django
Assets and Resources:
- Python (acquired during Python installation in Chapter
1)
- pip (Python’s package manager; installed with Python)
- Command-line interface (Terminal for MacOS/Linux,
Command Prompt or PowerShell for Windows)

Introduction
Before we dive into building our first project, the Word
Counter Website, we need to lay the groundwork. That
means setting up Django on our machine. In this
chapter, we’ll learn how to install Django, a powerful web
framework written in Python.

What is Django?
Django is a high-level Python web framework that
encourages rapid design and a clean, pragmatic design.
Built by experienced developers, it takes care of much of
the web development, so you can focus on writing your
app without needing to reinvent the wheel. It’s free and
open source.

Pre-requisites
1. Python: Make sure you have Python installed on your
machine. We installed and set up Python in Chapter 1.
2. pip: This is Python’s package manager. It allows you
to install and manage additional libraries and
dependencies that are not distributed as part of the
standard library.

Step-by-Step Guide to Install Django

1. Check Python & pip Version
Before we proceed, let’s check the installed versions of
Python and pip.
Open your terminal or command prompt and type:
“`bash
python —version
pip —version
“`
You should see the versions you have installed for both.
Ensure your Python version is above 3.x.
2. Install Django
With pip in place, installing Django is a breeze. In your
terminal or command prompt, type:
“`bash
pip install django==2.2
“`
This will install Django version 2.2, which is the version
we will be using for our project.
3. Verify Django Installation
After installation, it’s always a good practice to verify.
Let’s check which version of Django got installed:
“`bash
python -m django —version
“`
This should return “2.2”, indicating that the installation
was successful.

Setting Up a Virtual Environment (Recommended)

While it’s not strictly necessary for this project, in real-
world development, it’s a common practice to use virtual
environments. A virtual environment is a self-contained
directory that contains a Python installation for a
particular version of Python, plus a number of additional
packages.
Benefits:
- Multiple projects can have different versions of
packages (even Python itself).
- Keeps your global site-packages directory clean and
manageable.
Steps to Set Up a Virtual Environment:
1. Install virtualenv:
“`bash
pip install virtualenv
“`
2. Create a new virtual environment: Navigate to your
project directory and run:
“`bash
virtualenv projectname_env
“`
This will create a new folder named `projectname_env`
in your project directory. This folder contains all the
necessary executables to use the packages that a
Python project would need.
3. Activate the virtual environment:
- On macOS and Linux:
“`bash
source projectname_env/bin/activate
“`
- On Windows:
“`bash
projectname_env\Scripts\activate
“`
Once activated, you’ll notice your terminal’s prompt
changes to show the name of the activated environment.
Now, when you install something, it’s installed to this
environment specifically and not globally.
To deactivate and exit the virtual environment, simply
type:
“`bash
deactivate
“`

Conclusion
Congratulations! You’ve successfully installed Django
and learned about virtual environments. These tools will
be the foundation for all the fantastic web projects we’ll
build throughout this book.

Note to Readers: Always ensure you’re in your virtual

environment (if you’ve set it up) when working on your
Django projects to avoid any package conflicts.

Running the Django Server

Assets and Resources:
- Django framework (You can acquire this by running the
command `pip install django` in your terminal or
command prompt.)
- A computer with Python and Django installed.

Django, as a web framework, provides developers with a

built-in lightweight web server that is immensely useful
during the development phase. This web server is not
intended for production use but is more than adequate
for local development and testing. In this chapter, we will
delve into how to start the Django server, understand its
output, and also look at some common issues that you
might encounter.
Starting the Django Development Server
1. Navigate to Your Project: Before you can start the
server, ensure you are in the directory where your
Django project’s `manage.py` file resides. You can
navigate using your terminal or command prompt:
“`bash
cd path_to_your_project
“`
2. Run the Server: Once you’re in the correct directory,
use the following command to start the Django
development server:
“`bash
python manage.py runserver
“`
3. By default, the server will start on port 8000. If you
want to specify a different port, simply add it after the
`runserver` command, like this:
“`bash
python manage.py runserver 8080
“`
This will start the server on port 8080.

Understanding the Output

When you start the server, you will see output in the
terminal that looks something like this:
“`
Starting development server at http://127.0.0.1:8000/
Quit the server with CTRL+C.
“`
This output indicates that your server is running. You can
access the server by going to the provided URL
(`http://127.0.0.1:8000/`) in your web browser.
Common Issues & Troubleshooting
1. Port is Already in Use: If you see an error like `Error:
That port is already in use`, it means another service or
application is using the default port (8000). You can
either close the other application or specify a different
port as mentioned above.
2. Missing manage.py: If you get an error saying
`manage.py not found`, it means you are not in the
correct directory. Navigate to your project directory and
try again.
3. ModuleNotFoundError: If you get an error related to a
missing module, it’s likely you haven’t installed all
required dependencies. Ensure you’ve installed Django
and any other necessary libraries for your project.

Stopping the Server

To stop the Django development server, you can press
`CTRL+C` in the terminal. You’ll know the server has
stopped when you see a line indicating the process has
ended and you get back to the command prompt.

Conclusion
Running the Django development server is a crucial step
in building and testing your web applications locally. It
provides a quick and convenient way to view your
changes in real-time. In the next chapter, we’ll take a
tour of our “Word Counter” project, familiarizing
ourselves with its structure and components.

Remember, while the Django development server is

fantastic for local testing and development, it is not
meant for production. When you’re ready to deploy your
website to the public, you’ll want to use a more robust
server setup, which we will discuss in later sections.
Project Tour
Assets & Resources for this Chapter:
- Django Official Documentation ([Acquire it here](
https://www.djangoproject.com/start/ ))

Introduction:
Before diving deep into the actual development process
of our “Word Counter” website, it’s crucial to get familiar
with the structure of a Django project. Think of this
chapter as a guided tour around a new city. You’ll learn
about the main streets, important buildings, and where
everything is generally located. This will make your
journey much smoother when you start to actually build
out the features.

1. Django Project vs. Django App:

When you work with Django, you’ll come across two
primary terminologies: a project and an app.
- Django Project: It’s the whole application and its
collection of settings and databases. Our “Word Counter”
is the name of the project.
- Django App: It’s a module within the project aiming to
accomplish a specific functionality. For instance, in a
blog project, “comments” or “users” might be separate
apps.

2. Project Directory Structure:

Upon creating a Django project, a set of directories and
files are automatically generated. Let’s explore them:
- manage.py: This is Django’s command-line utility for
administrative tasks. You’ll use it quite often to run
servers, make migrations, etc.
- ProjectName/ (In our case, it would be
“WordCounter/”): This directory is the actual python
package of your project. It includes the following:
- __init__.py: Tells Python that this directory should
be treated as a package or module.
- settings.py: Contains settings for your Django
project. Database configurations, static and media file
handling, installed apps, middleware, and more can be
managed here.
- urls.py: It’s like the table of contents for your web
app. Whenever a user visits a link on your site, Django
checks this file to determine where to direct the request.
- asgi.py/wsgi.py: ASGI/WSGI compatibility for
running your project on a server. You don’t have to
modify these much, but they’re essential when deploying
to a live server.

3. The Admin Interface:

Django provides a built-in admin interface that’s super
powerful. We’ll dive deeper into this in later chapters, but
for now, know that this is a GUI where you can manage
the content of your website, view databases, add users,
and much more.

4. Exploring the App Structure:

When we create our app within the project (which we’ll
do in upcoming chapters), the app will have its own
structure:
- models.py: This is where you define the data models of
your app. It’s essentially how you structure the data you
want to store.
- views.py: Here, you’ll define the logic and control how
data is displayed to the user.
- urls.py: Each app can have its own set of URLs,
making it modular and easy to manage.
- admin.py: Here, you can customize how your app’s
data will look in the built-in Django admin interface.
- migrations/: This directory stores changes and versions
of your database layout, in case you update your
models.

5. Virtual Environment and Dependencies:

Every Django project resides in a virtual environment.
Think of it as an isolated environment where your project
and its dependencies live. This makes sure that your
project doesn’t conflict with other projects or system-
wide packages.
Inside the virtual environment, you’ll find a file named
`requirements.txt` (you might need to create it). This file
lists all the dependencies (like Django itself) that your
project needs.

Conclusion:
This brief tour provided an overview of how Django
structures its projects and apps. You’re now more
familiar with the landscape and ready to dive deeper into
creating our Word Counter website. As we progress
through the chapters, each of these components will
become clearer and more intuitive, so keep this chapter
as a handy reference point!

URLs
Assets and Resources:
- Django Framework (Acquired via `pip install django`)
- Django’s official documentation [Django URLs](
https://docs.djangoproject.com/en/2.2/topics/http/urls/ )
(Accessible online)

Introduction:
URLs are the gateways to our web applications. They
allow users to access different parts of a website, and in
Django, they play a crucial role in determining how a
request should be processed. In this chapter, we’ll delve
deep into the world of Django URLs and understand how
they tie into our Word Counter website project.

1. What Are URLs?

In the context of web development, a URL (Uniform
Resource Locator) is a reference to a web resource that
specifies its location on a computer network. Think of
URLs as the address of a specific page, image, or file on
the web.
In Django, URLs are more than just addresses. They act
as a roadmap for your Django application, directing
incoming requests to the appropriate view functions.

2. URL Configuration in Django:

Django uses a URL dispatcher to match the requested
URL with a list of patterns. This list is commonly known
as the URL configuration or `urlpatterns`.
Each URL pattern is associated with a view, which is
essentially a Python function that handles what should
be displayed or processed for that specific URL.

3. Setting Up URL Configuration for Word Counter:

Step 1: Start by creating a new file called `urls.py` inside
the Word Counter app folder.
Step 2: In `urls.py`, you’ll need to import a few modules:
“`python
from django.urls import path
from . import views
“`
Step 3: Set up the `urlpatterns` list, which will hold all of
your URL patterns. For our Word Counter project, let’s
start with the home page:
“`python
urlpatterns = [
path(”, views.home, name=“home”),
]
“`
Here, `”` indicates the root URL (i.e., the home page),
`views.home` is the view function that should be called
when this URL is accessed, and `name` is an optional
parameter that allows you to name your URL pattern.

4. How URL Patterns Work:

Each pattern in `urlpatterns` is processed from top to
bottom until a match is found. The first pattern to match
the requested URL will be used, and its associated view
will be executed.
The `path()` function takes two required arguments:
1. The route – a string representing the URL pattern to
match.
2. The view – the function to execute when the pattern
matches.
For example, if a user accesses
`http://yourwebsite.com/`, Django will match it with the `”`
pattern and execute the `views.home` function.

5. Dynamic URL Patterns:

Often, we want our URLs to be dynamic. For instance, if
we want to display word count results for different texts,
we might have URLs like `/results/1/`, `/results/2/`, etc.,
where the number represents a specific text’s ID.
To achieve this, Django allows you to capture parts of
the URL as arguments. In our case, we can modify the
`urlpatterns` as:
“`python
urlpatterns = [
path(‘results/<int:text_id>/’, views.results,
name=“results”),
]
“`
Here, `<int:text_id>` captures an integer from the URL
and passes it as an argument named `text_id` to the
`views.results` function.

6. Connecting the App URLs to the Project:

Finally, for our Word Counter app’s URLs to work, we
need to include them in the project’s main `urls.py`
(found in the main project folder).
Modify the main `urls.py` to include our app’s URLs:
“`python
from django.contrib import admin
from django.urls import path, include
urlpatterns = [
path(‘admin/’, admin.site.urls),
path(”, include(‘wordcounter.urls’)),
]
“`
The `include()` function tells Django to include the URL
patterns from our Word Counter app.

Conclusion:
Django’s URL management system is both powerful and
flexible, allowing developers to create intuitive and SEO-
friendly URLs. As we progress in our Word Counter
website project, understanding and efficiently utilizing
URLs will be essential for a seamless user experience.
Now that you’re familiar with setting up and managing
URLs in Django, you’re one step closer to making your
web application functional and user-friendly.

Templates
Assets and Resources:
- Django 2.2
- Text editor (e.g., Visual Studio Code, Atom, etc.)
- Web browser (To view the website)

Introduction
In the world of web development, one of the most
important aspects is presenting data to users in a
manner that’s understandable and visually appealing.
That’s where templates come into play. A template, in
Django, is a way to generate HTML dynamically. You can
think of it as a tool that allows you to mix Python with
HTML, allowing you to create dynamic web pages.

Why Use Templates?

Using templates provides several advantages:
1. Separation of Concerns: By keeping your presentation
logic separate from your business logic, your code
becomes cleaner, more maintainable, and easier to
debug.
2. Reusability: Templates can be reused across different
views, which reduces redundancy.
3. Flexibility: Templates can be easily updated without
affecting the backend logic.
Setting Up Templates in Django
Django uses its template engine by default, but it can
also be configured to use other engines like Jinja2.
Here’s how to set it up:
1. In your Django project, inside your app directory,
create a new directory named `templates`.
2. Inside the `templates` directory, create another
directory with the name of your app (in our case, it might
be `wordcounter`).
3. Any HTML file you place inside this directory will be
considered a template by Django.

Your First Template

Let’s create a simple template to display a welcome
message for our Word Counter Website.
1. Inside the `wordcounter` directory (which is inside
`templates`), create a new file named `welcome.html`.
2. Open `welcome.html` in your text editor and write the
following code:
“`html
<!DOCTYPE html>
<html>
<head>
<title>Welcome to Word Counter</title>
</head>
<body>
<h1>Welcome to Word Counter!</h1>
<p>This website will help you count the frequency of
words in any given text.</p>
</body>
</html>
“`

Rendering a Template
To display this template when a user visits our website,
we need to set up a view:
1. In `views.py`, import `render` at the top:
“`python
from django.shortcuts import render
“`
2. Add the following view function:
“`python
def welcome(request):
return render(request, ‘wordcounter/welcome.html’)
“`
3. Now, set up a URL pattern to map to this view. In
`urls.py`, add:
“`python
from django.urls import path
from . import views
urlpatterns = [
path(”, views.welcome, name=‘welcome’),
]
“`
Now, when you run your server and navigate to the root
URL, you should see the welcome message from the
template.

Dynamic Content in Templates

One of the key benefits of templates is the ability to
display dynamic content. Let’s say you want to display
the user’s name in the welcome message.
1. Modify the `welcome` view in `views.py`:
“`python
def welcome(request):
user_name = “John”
return render(request, ‘wordcounter/welcome.html’,
{‘name’: user_name})
“`
2. Update the `welcome.html` template to display this
dynamic data:
“`html
<h1>Welcome to Word Counter, {{ name }}!</h1>
“`
When you refresh the page, you should see “Welcome to
Word Counter, John!”

Template Tags and Filters

Django templates come with built-in tags and filters. Tags
provide logic (like loops and conditionals), while filters
modify the display of variables.
For example, to display the user’s name in uppercase,
you can use the `upper` filter:
“`html
<h1>Welcome to Word Counter, {{ name|upper }}!</h1>
“`
There are many more tags and filters available in
Django, which you will explore as you delve deeper into
web development.

Conclusion
Templates are a powerful feature in Django, allowing
developers to create dynamic and reusable HTML
content. By separating the presentation layer from the
business logic, developers can create cleaner and more
maintainable code. In the upcoming chapters, we will
dive deeper into other essential components of Django
as we continue building our Word Counter Website.

Forms
Assets and Resources:
- Django Official Documentation [(Link)](
https://docs.djangoproject.com/en/2.2/ )
- Bootstrap Forms Documentation [(Link)](
https://getbootstrap.com/docs/4.5/components/forms/ )

Introduction:
In the digital realm, forms are the bridge between users
and your application. They serve as the means to collect
data from users, whether that’s a search query, a login
username/password, feedback, or in our case, a text for
word counting. In this chapter, we’re going to delve deep
into Django forms, building one from scratch for our
Word Counter website.

What are Django Forms?

Django provides a powerful form library that handles
rendering forms as HTML, validating user-submitted
data, and converting that data to native Python types. At
its core, a form in Django is just a way of handling HTML
forms and the associated data. It’s a set of fields,
bundled together in a Python class, and those fields
know how to display themselves as HTML.

Building a Basic Form:

Let’s begin with a simple form that allows a user to input
a text which we’ll then use to count words.
“`python
from django import forms
class TextForm(forms.Form):
text_input = forms.CharField(
label=‘Enter your text’,
widget=forms.Textarea(attrs={‘rows’: 5, ‘cols’: 50})
)
“`
Here’s a breakdown:
- We’re importing Django’s form library.
- We’re creating a form called `TextForm`.
- This form has a single field called `text_input`, which is
a character field. The `label` will be displayed when
rendered in HTML.
- The `widget=forms.Textarea` specifies that this char
field should be displayed as a textarea in HTML.

Rendering the Form in a Template:

Django provides two primary ways to render forms:
1. Manual Rendering
2. Automated Rendering
Manual Rendering:
Using this method, you have the freedom to design your
form as you see fit. Here’s how you can manually render
our `TextForm` in a Django template:
“`html
<form method=“post” action=”{% url ‘count’ %}”>
{% csrf_token %}
 {{ form.text_input.label_tag }} <br>
{{ form.text_input }} <br>
<input type=“submit” value=“Count Words”>
</form>
“`
Here, `{% url ‘count’ %}` refers to the URL where the
form data will be submitted. The `csrf_token` is essential
for security reasons, preventing cross-site request
forgery attacks.
Automated Rendering:
Django offers a shortcut for rendering forms:
“`html
<form method=“post” action=”{% url ‘count’ %}”>
{% csrf_token %}
{{ form.as_p }}
<input type=“submit” value=“Count Words”>
</form>
“`
`form.as_p` will render the form fields as paragraph
elements.

Handling Form Submissions:

Once the user submits the form, you will want to validate
and process the data. In your view:
“`python
from django.shortcuts import render
from .forms import TextForm
def count(request):
if request.method == “POST”:
form = TextForm(request.POST)
 if form.is_valid():
text = form.cleaned_data[‘text_input’]
# Now, you can process the text as required
else:
form = TextForm()
return render(request, ‘count.html’, {‘form’: form})
“`
Here:
- If the request method is POST, we know the form has
been submitted.
- We bind the submitted data to `TextForm`.
- We check if the form is valid using `is_valid()`.
- If valid, we can access the cleaned and validated data
using `form.cleaned_data`.

Styling with Bootstrap:

To make our form look more appealing, we can utilize
Bootstrap. Since you’re familiar with Bootstrap from
earlier chapters, integrating it with our form is simple.
Here’s a small snippet on how to style the textarea:
“`html
{{ form.text_input|add_class:“form-control” }}
“`
The `add_class` template filter helps in adding CSS
classes to Django form widgets.

Conclusion:
Forms are a critical component of any web application.
In this chapter, we explored the basics of Django forms,
how to create them, render them, and handle their data.
As we progress with our Word Counter website, you’ll
see the practical application and processing of this form
data. Remember, the essence of mastering forms lies in
practice; the more you work with them, the more you’ll
grasp their nuances.

Next Up: Counting the words in the text submitted

through our form!

Coun ng the words

Assets and Resources:
- Python 3.x (Installed in Chapter 1)
- Django 2.2 (Installed in Chapter 11)

Introduction:
Counting words in a piece of text is one of the
foundational exercises when learning a programming
language. It tests your ability to manipulate strings and
use data structures like dictionaries. In this chapter, we
will integrate this logic into our Django application to
build the core functionality of our Word Counter Website.

1. Setting up the Word Counter View Function:

Before diving into counting words, let’s first set up the
view function where our logic will reside. In the
`views.py` of your Django project, create a new function
called `count_words`:
“`python
def count_words(request):
return render(request, ‘word_count.html’)
“`
Don’t forget to add this view function to your `urls.py`.
2. HTML Form for User Input:
Before we start counting, we need to collect the text from
the user. This will be done using a simple HTML form:
In `word_count.html`:
“`html
<form action=”{% url ‘count_words’ %}”
method=“POST”>
{% csrf_token %}
<textarea name=“text” rows=“10” cols=“30”>
</textarea>
<input type=“submit” value=“Count Words”>
</form>
“`
The above form will POST the text to our `count_words`
view.

3. Counting Words:
Once we have the text, we can now count the words.
Here’s how we’ll do it:
1. Split the text into words.
2. Use a dictionary to track word frequency.
3. Display the results to the user.
Back in the `count_words` function in `views.py`, we’ll
capture the POST data and count the words:
“`python
def count_words(request):
if request.method == “POST”:
text = request.POST[‘text’]
words = text.split()
word_dict = {}
 for word in words:
word = word.lower()
word_dict[word] = word_dict.get(word, 0) + 1
return render(request, ‘word_count.html’,
{‘word_dict’: word_dict})
return render(request, ‘word_count.html’)
“`
In the above code:
- We first check if the request method is POST.
- We retrieve the text provided by the user.
- We split the text into individual words.
- We use a dictionary (`word_dict`) to count each word’s
occurrences.

4. Displaying the Results:

Now, we’ll modify `word_count.html` to display the word
frequencies:
“`html
<form action=”{% url ‘count_words’ %}”
method=“POST”>
{% csrf_token %}
<textarea name=“text” rows=“10” cols=“30”>
</textarea>
<input type=“submit” value=“Count Words”>
</form>
{% if word_dict %}
<h2>Word Frequencies:</h2>
<ul>
{% for word, count in word_dict.items %}
<li>{{ word }}: {{ count }}</li>
 {% endfor %}
</ul>
{% endif %}
“`

5. Cleaning and Enhancements:

While our basic word counter is working, there are a few
enhancements we can consider:
- Ignoring Punctuation: Right now, “word!” and “word”
would be treated as two different words. We can improve
this by stripping punctuation.
- Ignoring Common Stopwords: Words like “and”, “the”,
or “a” might not be very informative. We can filter out
common stopwords to provide a more meaningful
analysis.
These topics are more advanced and can be included as
additional exercises for the reader or in later chapters.

Conclusion:
By the end of this chapter, you should have a functional
word counter website that takes user input and displays
word frequencies. As we move forward, we’ll continue
refining and building upon this foundation. The skills
you’ve learned here, especially manipulating text and
using dictionaries, will be invaluable in many other
coding projects.
In the next chapter, we’ll introduce a challenge based on
the concepts learned here. Ready to test your skills?
Let’s proceed!

Challenge
Now that you’ve learned the basics of setting up a
Django project and building the Word Counter website,
it’s time to put your newfound knowledge to the test!
Challenges help solidify your understanding and get you
thinking creatively. For this challenge, we’ll be enhancing
the functionality of our Word Counter application.

Challenge Objectives:
1. Enhance the Word Counter:
- Allow the user to input multiple paragraphs and
calculate the word count separately for each paragraph.
Display the results in a clear and organized manner.
2. Filter Common Words:
- Implement a feature where common words like “the”,
“is”, “and”, etc., are not counted. Provide an option for
the user to toggle this filter on or off.
3. Graphical Representation:
- Represent the word count in a graphical manner,
perhaps using a bar graph where each word’s frequency
is depicted visually.

Steps to Complete the Challenge:

1. Enhance the Word Counter:
- Modify your HTML form to allow for the input of
multiple paragraphs. This could be achieved using
multiple text areas or a single text area where
paragraphs are separated by two newline characters.
- In your view function, split the text into individual
paragraphs using Python’s split function.
“`python
paragraphs = user_text.split(‘\n\n’)
“`
- Iterate over each paragraph and calculate the word
count as you did before.
2. Filter Common Words:
 - Create a list of common words to filter.
“`python
common_words = [“the”, “is”, “and”, “of”, “in”, “to”,
“a”, “with”, “as”, “for”]
“`
- In your word counting logic, check if a word is in the
`common_words` list before counting it.
- Add a checkbox in your form that allows users to
enable or disable this filter.
3. Graphical Representation:
- There are many JavaScript libraries available for
graphical representations, like Chart.js. However, for
simplicity, we will use a basic HTML approach.
- For each word, represent its frequency with a
horizontal bar. The length of the bar will be directly
proportional to the word’s count.
- Here’s a simple way to represent a word with a
frequency of 5:
“`html
<div style=“background-color: blue; width: 50px;
height: 10px;”></div>
“`
The width can be adjusted based on the word’s
frequency.

Tips and Hints:

- Be sure to test your website thoroughly after
implementing each feature. This ensures that any issues
are detected and fixed early.
- If you’re stuck, remember to consult the Django
documentation or revisit the earlier chapters. There’s no
harm in reviewing!
Conclusion:
Congratulations on taking on this challenge! Whether
you found it easy, hard, or somewhere in between,
you’re making progress. The best way to learn is through
doing, and by taking on challenges like this one, you’re
reinforcing your knowledge and building confidence in
your abilities. In the next chapter, we will wrap up our
Word Counter Website and prepare for the next big
project!

(Note: The solutions provided in this chapter are quite

high level and simplified for clarity. There are many
possible solutions and optimizations that could be made,
and readers are encouraged to explore on their own and
seek out additional resources if they wish to dive
deeper.)

Wrapping up our Word

Counter Website
Assets, Resources, and Materials:
- Django 2.2
- Text editor (like Visual Studio Code, which can be
downloaded from [ https://code.visualstudio.com/]
(https://code.visualstudio.com/) )
- Web Browser (like Chrome, Firefox, etc.)
- Sample texts for testing (you can find free public
domain texts at [Project Gutenberg](
https://www.gutenberg.org/ )

Introduction
As we near the completion of our first project, the Word
Counter Website, it’s crucial to ensure that all
components are functioning seamlessly and to reflect on
what we’ve learned. This chapter aims to provide a
structured wrap-up to the Word Counter project by
revisiting each section, performing some final tests, and
suggesting potential improvements you might consider
for future iterations.

1. Project Recap
Over the course of this project, we’ve:
- Set up Django, created a new project, and familiarized
ourselves with the framework.
- Designed a simple interface to input text.
- Created URL routes and views.
- Used templates to dynamically generate HTML based
on user input.
- Created a function to count the frequency of each word
in a given text.
Now, let’s dive deeper into ensuring the integrity and
functionality of our project.

2. Testing
2.1. Test Word Counting Functionality
Input a variety of texts into the word counter. Use short
sentences, long paragraphs, and even entire chapters
from books (remember Project Gutenberg?). Confirm the
word count and most frequent words are being correctly
identified.
2.2. Check URL Routing
Ensure that each URL leads to the correct page and that
there are no broken links. Input incorrect URLs to make
sure your 404 page (Page Not Found) is working.
2.3. Test Form Submissions
Check if form data is correctly being sent and processed.
Also, test how your application behaves with extremely
large inputs or when given unusual characters.

3. Potential Improvements
3.1. Styling & User Experience
Although our primary goal was functionality, consider
enhancing the user experience with more advanced CSS
or JavaScript animations. Look into integrating
frameworks like Bootstrap or TailwindCSS for a more
polished look.
3.2. Advanced Word Count Features
Consider adding features like:
- Displaying synonyms for words using an API.
- Counting the number of sentences or paragraphs.
- Implementing a search feature where users can search
for the frequency of a specific word.
3.3. Database Integration
For repeated or lengthy tests, consider integrating a
database to store past inputs and their results. This
would allow users to revisit past inputs or even share
their results with others.

4. Reflection
Take a moment to reflect on the skills and knowledge
acquired throughout this project:
- Django Proficiency: By building from scratch, you’ve
gained a deeper understanding of Django’s components
and its MVC (Model-View-Controller) architecture.
- Python Skills: This project solidified your understanding
of Python, especially in the context of web development.
Handling data, such as the text input and word count,
involved a combination of string methods, dictionaries,
and loops.
- Web Development Basics: From handling HTTP
requests to understanding client-server interactions,
you’ve taken a significant step in your web development
journey.

5. What’s Next?
Having wrapped up this project, you are now ready to
move onto more complex web applications. But
remember, the learning never stops. Continuously revisit
your projects, refactor your code, and implement new
features as you learn. This iterative approach is the
essence of software development.

Conclusion
Congratulations on completing the Word Counter
Website! This is just the beginning of your Django
journey. With the foundational skills now in place, you’re
well-equipped to tackle more complex projects and delve
deeper into the expansive world of web development.

Section 3:
Git
Intro to Git
Assets, Resources, and Materials:
- Git Software: Git can be downloaded and installed from
its official website [git-scm.com]( https://git-scm.com/ ).
- Git Documentation: For any in-depth reading or
troubleshooting, readers can refer to the official
documentation available at [Git Documentation](
https://git-scm.com/doc ).
- Visual Aids: To understand Git visually, you might
consider using tools like [Git Graph](
https://marketplace.visualstudio.com/items?
itemName=mhutchie.git-graph ) for Visual Studio Code
which provides a graphic representation of the Git log.

Introduction
In the vast world of programming and web development,
collaboration is key. Whether you’re working in a team or
alone on a project, there’s an essential tool that
developers across the globe swear by: Git. As you
navigate through the dynamic landscape of web
development, understanding and using Git is an
invaluable skill that can revolutionize the way you
handle, distribute, and maintain code.

What is Git?
Git is a distributed version control system (VCS)
designed to handle projects ranging from small to very
large with speed and efficiency. But what does that
mean? At its core, Git tracks changes in your code,
allows multiple people to work on the same project
simultaneously, and ensures that you can merge those
changes without conflict.

Why Use Git?

1. Collaboration: Git allows multiple developers to work
on the same project simultaneously without stepping on
each other’s toes. With its branching feature, individual
developers can create separate branches, work on their
features, and later merge them back into the main
codebase.
2. History: One of the most significant advantages of Git
is that it keeps a history of your code. This means you
can revert to any previous version of your codebase at
any point in time.
3. Backup: Since Git is distributed, every developer’s
machine acts as a backup. This ensures that even if one
machine crashes, the code remains safe and available
on other devices.
4. Branching and Merging: Git allows you to branch out
from the original code, work on new features or fix bugs,
and then seamlessly merge your changes back. This
promotes parallel development without chaos.
5. Open Source: Git is open-source software. This
means that its source code is freely available, and the
global developer community continuously refines and
enhances it.

Key Git Terminologies:

- Repository (Repo): This is essentially your project
folder where all your project files and related data reside.
A Git repository contains all the project files and the
entire history of the changes.
- Commit: A commit is like taking a snapshot of your
code at a particular point in time. It’s a way to save your
changes.
- Branch: Think of a branch as an independent line of
development. You can take the main line of your project
(usually called the `master` or `main` branch) and branch
out to work on features or bugs, ensuring that the main
line remains untouched and stable.
- Clone: This is the act of copying a Git repository from
one place (usually a remote server) to your local
machine.
- Pull: When you fetch the changes from a remote
repository to your local machine, you’re performing a
pull.
- Push: The opposite of pull. When you send your
changes to a remote repository, you’re doing a push.
Conclusion
In this chapter, we’ve only scratched the surface of what
Git offers. As we delve deeper into subsequent chapters,
you’ll learn the intricacies of setting up Git, committing
changes, branching, and much more. With Git under
your belt, you’ll be well-equipped to handle any project,
whether you’re flying solo or working with a team of
developers. Remember, it’s not just about tracking
changes — it’s about understanding the history of your
project and ensuring smooth collaboration every step of
the way.

Next: In the next chapter, we will guide you step by step

on how to install Git, ensuring you have all the necessary
tools and knowledge to dive deeper into the world of
version control.

Installing Git A-Z

Assets, Resources, and Materials:
1. Official Git Website - To download the Git installer
(Accessible at: [Git-SCM]( https://git-scm.com/ ))
2. Command Line Interface (CLI) - To verify and perform
Git-related operations. (On Windows, you can use the
Command Prompt or Powershell; on Mac and Linux, you
can use the Terminal)
3. GitHub - A popular platform to host and share Git
repositories. (Optional for this chapter but useful for real-
world applications. Accessible at: [GitHub](
https://github.com/ ))

Introduction:
Git is a free and open-source distributed version control
system designed to handle everything from small to very
large projects with speed and efficiency. Its versatility
and powerful features have made it the first choice
among developers. In this chapter, we will guide you
through the step-by-step process of installing Git on
various operating systems, ensuring you have a smooth
setup process.

Installing Git on Windows:

1. Download the Installer
- Navigate to the official Git website: [Git-SCM]
(https://git-scm.com/)
- Click on the “Download for Windows” option. The
download should start automatically.
2. Run the Installer
- Once the download is complete, locate and double-
click the `.exe` file to initiate the installation process.
3. Setup Process
- Welcome Screen: Click ‘Next’.
- Select Components: Choose the components you
want to install. For most users, the default selections are
adequate. Click ‘Next’.
- Select Start Menu Folder: Choose the location for
Git’s start menu folder. The default is usually fine. Click
‘Next’.
- Choosing a Default Editor: Git requires a text editor.
You can select the default one or choose another one
from your system.
- Adjusting Your PATH Environment: Choose the “Use
Git from the Windows Command Prompt” option. This
allows Git to be used from both Git Bash and the
Windows command prompt.
- Configuring Line Ending Conversions: Choose
“Checkout Windows-style, commit Unix-style line
endings”. This is a safe option for Windows users.
- Configuring the Terminal Emulator: Select “Use
Windows’ default console window”. Click ‘Next’.
 - Configuring Extra Options: Leave the default options
checked. Click ‘Next’.
- Install: Click ‘Install’ to begin the installation process.
4. Completion
- Once the installation is complete, click ‘Finish’.
5. Verify the Installation
- Open the Command Prompt or Powershell.
- Type `git —version` and press Enter. If the
installation was successful, you should see the Git
version displayed.

Installing Git on macOS:

1. Download the Installer
- Navigate to the official Git website: [Git-SCM]
(https://git-scm.com/)
- Click on the “Download for Mac” option. The
download should start automatically.
2. Run the Installer
- Locate and double-click the `.dmg` file to initiate the
installation process.
- Drag the Git icon to the Applications folder.
3. Verify the Installation
- Open the Terminal.
- Type `git —version` and press Enter. If the
installation was successful, you should see the Git
version displayed.

Installing Git on Linux:

Different Linux distributions have their own package
managers. We’ll cover the installation process for some
of the popular ones:
- Ubuntu/Debian:
“`
sudo apt update
sudo apt install git
“`
- Fedora:
“`
sudo dnf install git
“`
- Arch Linux:
“`
sudo pacman -S git
“`
After installation, you can verify the installation on any
distribution with:
“`
git —version
“`

Configuring Git for the First Time:

Once you have successfully installed Git, it’s essential to
set your user name and email address. This information
will be used for every Git commit you make:
“`
git config —global user.name “Your Name”
git config —global user.email “[email protected]”
“`

Conclusion:
By now, you should have Git installed and configured on
your machine, ready to be used for version control.
Remember, Git is a powerful tool, and the more you use
it, the more comfortable and proficient you will become.
Onward to mastering version control!

Troubleshoo ng
Assets, Resources, and Materials for this Chapter:
1. Git Command-Line Interface (CLI): Make sure you
have Git installed. If not, revisit Chapter 21 for a guide on
installing Git.
2. Official Git Documentation: [Git SCM Documentation](
https://git-scm.com/documentation ) - An invaluable
resource for understanding and resolving common Git
issues.
3. GitHub’s Help Section: [GitHub Support](
https://support.github.com/ ) - An excellent place to find
answers to common Git and GitHub problems.

Introduction
Even seasoned developers occasionally run into issues
with Git. It’s an intricate tool with a vast array of
functionalities. In this chapter, we’ll address some
common challenges and their solutions, equipping you
with a solid foundation in Git troubleshooting.

1. Commit Issues
Problem: You made a commit, but realized you’ve made
a mistake in your code or commit message.
Solution:
- Modify the Last Commit: If you want to modify the most
recent commit (for instance, you forgot to add a file or
made a typo in your commit message), use the following:
 “`bash
git commit —amend
“`

2. Pulling Latest Changes

Problem: When trying to pull the latest changes, you’re
greeted with a message saying your local changes
would be overwritten.
Solution:
- Stashing your Changes: If you’ve made local changes
but aren’t ready to commit, you can “stash” those
changes, pull the latest changes from the repository, and
then reapply your stashed changes.
“`bash
git stash
git pull
git stash pop
“`

3. Merge Conflicts
Problem: You attempted to merge branches or pull the
latest changes, but now you’re seeing “CONFLICT”
messages.
Solution:
- Resolving Merge Conflicts Manually: Open the
problematic files in a text editor. Look for conflict markers
(`<<<<<<<`, `=======`, `>>>>>>>`). Decide which
changes to keep, make the necessary modifications,
then add and commit those files.

4. Unstaging Changes
Problem: You’ve added a file to staging but haven’t
committed yet and want to undo that.
Solution:
- Unstage the file:
“`bash
git reset HEAD <file_name>
“`

5. Discarding Local Changes

Problem: You’ve made local changes but want to discard
them to match the remote repository.
Solution:
- Revert changes for a specific file:
“`bash
git checkout — <file_name>
“`
- Revert all local changes:
“`bash
git reset —hard
“`

6. Checking Git History

Problem: Unsure about recent commits or want to review
changes.
Solution:
- View Commit Log:
“`bash
git log
“`
7. Accidentally Deleted Branches
Problem: You’ve deleted a branch either locally or
remotely and want it back.
Solution:
- Recovering a Deleted Local Branch: If you remember
the commit SHA of the branch tip:
“`bash
git checkout -b <branch_name>
<sha_of_deleted_branch>
“`

8. Remote Repository Issues

Problem: Git is saying your branch is behind the remote
branch by several commits, even after you’ve pulled all
the changes.
Solution:
- Force Update Your Local Branch: This will reset your
branch to match the remote branch. Be cautious as this
discards local changes.
“`bash
git fetch origin
git reset —hard origin/<branch_name>
“`

Conclusion
While the above solutions address a range of common
Git problems, remember that the intricacies of Git mean
that sometimes a deeper dive may be necessary. The
key to troubleshooting with Git, as with many things in
coding, is persistence, patience, and knowing where to
seek help. Always refer back to the official Git
documentation or relevant online communities when in
doubt.
Remember, practice makes perfect. The more you work
with Git, the more familiar you’ll become, and the easier
troubleshooting will be. Happy coding!

Section 4:
Project #2 - Your Personal
Portfolio Website
Project Intro
Assets, Resources, and Materials:
- Text editor (Recommend: Visual Studio Code; Available
for free at [Visual Studio Code website](
https://code.visualstudio.com/ ))
- Django documentation ([Django’s official website](
https://www.djangoproject.com/ ))
- Python (If not installed, download from [Python’s official
website]( https://www.python.org/ ))
- Sample images for your portfolio (Personal images or
free images from websites like [Unsplash](
https://unsplash.com/ ))
- Web browser (Recommend: Google Chrome or Mozilla
Firefox)

Introduction
Welcome to the second project of this book! By this
point, you’ve become familiar with Python and its basic
concepts, and you’ve built a Word-Counter Website.
That’s a significant achievement. Now, it’s time to
challenge yourself further by diving into a slightly more
complex project: Your Personal Portfolio Website.
Your portfolio is the window through which the world
views your work. For a web developer, it’s not just a
resume. It’s a platform to showcase your skill set, past
projects, and potential. Think of it as your online
business card. In this project, you’ll construct a website
that encapsulates your achievements, projects, and
provides a platform for your very own blog. By the end,
you’ll have a polished website that you can share with
potential employers, clients, or just to show off to your
friends.

What Will We Build?

Here’s a snapshot of what your portfolio will include:
1. Homepage: This will give visitors an immediate sense
of who you are. It might include a brief bio, a photo, and
links to the other sections of your portfolio.
2. Resume: A detailed section where you can list your
education, skills, certifications, and work experience.
3. Projects: A showcase of your projects with images,
descriptions, and possibly links to live versions and code
repositories.
4. Blog: A fully functional blog where you can share your
thoughts, tutorials, or any content you like. This is a
great way to keep your portfolio fresh and demonstrate
your knowledge.

Why a Portfolio?
For web developers, a portfolio is a practical way to
show off your skills. Instead of telling potential employers
or clients that you can do something, you can show
them. Furthermore, a personal portfolio:
- Validates Your Skills: By showcasing your past work,
you can prove that you have the skills you claim to
possess.
- Shows Your Style: Developers, like artists, have unique
styles. A portfolio can give potential clients or employers
a sense of your style and how you approach problems.
- Highlights Your Achievements: Whether it’s a
challenging project you’ve completed or a new skill
you’ve learned, a portfolio lets you share these
milestones.

Getting Started
Before diving into the coding, it’s always a good idea to
plan out your website. In the next chapter, we will sketch
out a basic layout for our website, considering both
desktop and mobile views. This will act as a roadmap
guiding our development process.
Remember, this project is more complex than the
previous one, so take your time. Rely on the Django
documentation when you get stuck, and don’t hesitate to
revisit previous chapters to refresh any concepts.
By the end of this section, you will not only have a fully
functional personal portfolio website but also a deeper
understanding of Django, databases, front-end
development, and more.
So, let’s get started on this exciting journey of building
your online presence!

End of Chapter Notes: As you move forward with this

project, always keep in mind the primary purpose of your
portfolio: to present the best version of your professional
self. Every feature, design choice, and piece of content
should serve this purpose.
In the next chapter, we will start by sketching our
website, laying a clear foundation for our development.
Onwards!

Sketch
Assets, Resources, and Materials Required for This
Chapter:
1. Sketch App: An intuitive vector editing tool primarily
used for interface design in websites and mobile apps.
You can acquire it from [Sketch’s official website](
https://www.sketch.com/ ). A free trial is available, but
you may need a license for prolonged use.
2. Sample Website Mockup Files: For the purpose of this
tutorial, we’ll provide a basic mockup file to begin with.
You can [download it here](#). (Note: You would need to
provide a link to a sample mockup file or direct the
reader to create one during the course of this chapter.)
3. High-quality Images: For portfolio items, personal
photos, or any graphical content. You can find free high-
quality images on websites like [Unsplash](
https://unsplash.com/ ) or [Pexels](
https://www.pexels.com/ ).

Introduction
Sketching, in the context of web design, doesn’t refer to
freehand drawing. Instead, we’re talking about creating
digital wireframes and designs for our website. The
Sketch app is an industry-standard tool for this purpose,
providing a canvas for designers to lay out their visions
for a website before any coding begins.
In this chapter, we’ll walk through the basics of using the
Sketch app to design a mockup for our Personal
Portfolio Website.

Setting Up
1. Installing Sketch:
- Head over to [Sketch’s official website]
(https://www.sketch.com/) and download the app.
- Follow the installation instructions specific to your
operating system.
 - Once installed, open the app and familiarize yourself
with the user interface.
2. Opening the Sample Mockup File:
- Once you’ve downloaded the sample mockup file
provided earlier, open it using the Sketch app. This will
give you a basic template to begin with.

Basic Elements of Sketch

Before diving into our project, it’s essential to understand
a few core elements of Sketch:
1. Artboards: These are like individual screens or pages
of your design. For our portfolio, we might have different
artboards for the homepage, about page, contact page,
etc.
2. Layers: Each element you add (be it a shape, text, or
image) becomes a layer. These layers can be stacked,
grouped, and organized.
3. Symbols: These are reusable components. For
instance, if you design a unique button that you’ll use
multiple times, you can save it as a symbol.

Designing the Personal Portfolio Homepage

1. Creating an Artboard:
- On the left panel, click the `+` sign and select
`Artboard`.
- Choose a responsive web design size. For this
tutorial, we’ll use `Desktop HD`.
2. Setting a Background:
- Drag a rectangle shape to cover the entire artboard.
- Fill it with a color or gradient of your choice or use a
high-quality image as a background.
3. Adding Navigation:
 - Use the text tool to add menu items like ‘Home’,
‘About’, ‘Portfolio’, and ‘Contact’.
- Align them at the top. You can use the alignment
tools for precision.
- Group these text layers by right-clicking and
selecting ‘Group’.
4. Designing the Hero Section:
- This section often has a headline, a brief
description, and a call-to-action (like ‘See my work’).
- Use the text tool to add these elements and position
them centrally.
- For the call-to-action, design a button using the
rectangle tool and overlaying text.
5. Adding Portfolio Items:
- Below the hero section, create squares or
rectangles to represent portfolio items.
- Fill them with sample images. Later, these will be
dynamically replaced with actual portfolio pieces.
6. Footer:
- At the bottom, add another rectangle for the footer.
- Add text for copyright info and any other footer items
you’d like.

Wrapping Up
Your homepage mockup for the Personal Portfolio
Website is now ready. You can follow similar steps to
design other pages of the site. Remember, this is a
visual representation, so feel free to experiment with
colors, fonts, and layouts until you’re satisfied.
Using a tool like Sketch ensures that you have a clear
vision of the end product, making the development
phase more streamlined. The great thing about Sketch is
the ability to easily make changes, so if you or a client
isn’t happy with a particular design aspect, it can be
adjusted without having to alter lines of code.

Virtualenv
Assets, Resources, and Materials:
- Python (Ensure Python is already installed. If not, refer
to Chapter 1.)
- Pip (Python’s package installer; typically comes
bundled with modern versions of Python.)
- Command Line Interface (CLI) or Terminal for
executing commands.

Introduction:
Virtualenv is an invaluable tool in the Python ecosystem.
It allows developers to create isolated Python
environments, ensuring that the libraries and
dependencies of one project do not conflict with those of
another. For web development, especially when working
with frameworks like Django, using virtual environments
is considered best practice.

Why Use Virtualenv?

1. Isolation: Virtual environments allow each project to
have its own dependencies, even if they require different
versions of the same package.
2. Version Control: If a specific project requires a
particular version of a package, you can ensure that
version is installed only in that environment.
3. Avoids Global Installation: Without virtual
environments, you’d be installing packages globally
which can lead to conflicts.

Setting Up Virtualenv:
1. Installation:
If you haven’t already installed virtualenv, you can do
so using pip:
“`bash
pip install virtualenv
“`
2. Creating a New Virtual Environment:
Navigate to your project’s root directory (or wherever
you’d like to create the environment) and run:
“`bash
virtualenv env_name
“`
Replace `env_name` with your desired environment
name. For our portfolio project, you could name it
“portfolio_env”.
3. Activating the Virtual Environment:
- On Windows:
“`bash
.\env_name\Scripts\activate
“`
- On macOS and Linux:
“`bash
source env_name/bin/activate
“`
Once activated, you’ll notice the environment name
appears at the beginning of the terminal prompt,
indicating the environment is active.
4. Deactivating the Virtual Environment:
Simply run:
“`bash
 deactivate
“`
5. Installing Packages Inside the Virtual Environment:
With the environment activated, any package you
install using pip will be installed in that environment,
isolated from the global Python setup.

Best Practices:
1. Requirements File: Whenever you install a new
package in your virtual environment, it’s a good practice
to freeze the versions of the packages. This helps
recreate the environment elsewhere:
“`bash
pip freeze > requirements.txt
“`
2. Git Integration: Avoid committing the virtual
environment to version control. Instead, just commit the
`requirements.txt`. Others can then recreate the
environment using:
“`bash
pip install -r requirements.txt
“`
3. Choosing an Environment Directory: While many
developers like to create the virtual environment inside
the project directory, others prefer to have a separate
directory for all environments. Choose what’s best for
you, but ensure consistency.

Integrating Virtualenv with Django:

For our portfolio website, once you’ve activated the
environment, any Django project you start or run will use
the Python version and packages from the virtual
environment. This ensures your Django project remains
independent of global Python settings and packages.
1. Install Django Inside Virtual Environment:
With your environment activated:
“`bash
pip install django
“`
2. Proceed with Django Project: Now, any Django
command you run, be it starting a new project or running
the server, will use the Django version from this
environment.

Conclusion:
Virtualenv is a fundamental tool that every Django
developer should be familiar with. It ensures our projects
remain clean and free from package conflicts. As we
delve deeper into building our personal portfolio website,
remember to always activate your virtual environment
before installing any new packages or running any
Django commands.

Gi gnore
Assets, Resources, and Materials:
- Git: A version control system that will be utilized in this
project.
(Acquisition: Download and install from the [official Git
website]( https://git-scm.com/ ))
- `.gitignore` template for Django: A predefined list of
common files and directories that should be ignored in
Django projects.
(Acquisition: Accessible from [GitHub’s collection of
.gitignore templates](
https://github.com/github/gitignore/blob/main/Python.gitig
nore ))

Introduction
When working on a web development project, especially
in a framework like Django, there will be certain files and
directories that we don’t want to track using our version
control system. These might include configuration files
with sensitive information, logs, or even compiled files.
That’s where the `.gitignore` file becomes essential.

What is .gitignore?
A `.gitignore` file is a plain text file where each line
contains a pattern for files or directories to ignore. It’s
commonly used in source code repositories to ensure
that certain files or directories, sensitive data, logs, or
compiled files don’t get included in your commits.

Why is it Important in Django Projects?

In Django, there are several files and directories
generated that don’t need to be tracked, such as:
- `__pycache__`: Python cache folders which contain
bytecode cache that’s regenerated at runtime.
- `*.pyc`: Compiled python code.
- `db.sqlite3`: The SQLite database. While handy for
development, you don’t want this in your production
code.
- `*.log`: Log files.
- `*.env`: Environment variables file which may contain
secret keys and other sensitive data.
Including these in your version control can not only bloat
the repository but may also pose security risks.

Setting Up .gitignore for Your Django Project

Step 1: Navigate to your project’s root directory.
“`bash
cd path_to_your_django_project
“`
Step 2: Create a `.gitignore` file.
“`bash
touch .gitignore
“`
Step 3: Open `.gitignore` in your favorite code editor.
Step 4: Populate `.gitignore` with patterns of files and
directories you wish to exclude. For a Django project,
start with:
“`
__pycache__/
*.pyc
db.sqlite3
*.log
*.env
“`
Step 5: To ensure a comprehensive list, consider
checking the `.gitignore` template for Django on GitHub.
This provides a list of common patterns to ignore in
Django projects. Copy and paste any additional patterns
you deem necessary.

Common Pitfalls & Tips:

1. Ensure you add .gitignore early in your project: This
ensures sensitive or unnecessary files aren’t accidentally
committed.
2. Review before committing: Even with a `.gitignore` in
place, always review your staged changes before
committing. This ensures no unwanted files sneak into
your repository.
3. Global .gitignore: If you find yourself using the same
ignore patterns across multiple projects, consider setting
up a global `.gitignore` on your development machine.
4. Removing previously committed files: If a file was
committed before it was added to `.gitignore`, you’ll need
to manually remove it from the repository.

Conclusion
A properly set up `.gitignore` file is a safeguard, ensuring
that only relevant and safe-to-share files are committed
to your repository. Especially in a Django project, where
you’re often working with sensitive information and
database files, it’s an essential practice to cultivate. By
following the steps and tips outlined in this chapter, you
can maintain a clean and secure repository for your
Personal Portfolio Website project.

Apps
Assets, Resources, and Materials for this Chapter:
- Django Framework (Acquire by running `pip install
django` in your terminal)
- A Python Integrated Development Environment (IDE)
like PyCharm or Visual Studio Code. (Download from
their respective official websites)
- Terminal or Command Prompt for running commands

Introduction to Django Apps

Django is designed around the concept of “apps”, which
are modular components that can be plugged into any
Django project. Think of an app as a plug-in module for
your project. Each app encapsulates a specific
functionality, making it reusable across projects.
For our Personal Portfolio project, creating separate
apps for different features, like a blog or resume, will
make our codebase organized, modular, and easier to
maintain.

Why Use Apps?

1. Modularity: Apps allow you to break up a project into
discrete chunks of functionality.
2. Reusability: Once you’ve built an app, you can reuse it
in other Django projects.
3. Separation of Concerns: Apps allow developers to
work on different parts of an application without stepping
on each other’s toes.

Creating Your First App

To create an app in Django, navigate to your project’s
root directory in the terminal and use the following
command:
“`bash
django-admin startapp [appname]
“`
Replace `[appname]` with the desired name for your
app. For our portfolio, let’s create an app called
`resume`.
“`bash
django-admin startapp resume
“`

Understanding the App Structure

Once the app is created, a new directory named
`resume` will appear with the following structure:
“`
resume/
├── admin.py
├── apps.py
├── __init__.py
├── migrations/
│ └── __init__.py
├── models.py
├── tests.py
└── views.py
“`
1. admin.py: This is where we register our app’s models
to make them available in Django’s admin interface.
2. apps.py: This contains the app’s configuration.
3. migrations/: This will contain database migration files,
which Django uses to propagate changes we make to
our models into the database schema.
4. models.py: This is where we define the data models of
our app.
5. tests.py: Here we can add tests for our app.
6. views.py: This file is for the app’s views, determining
what content is displayed.

Activating the App

For Django to recognize our app, we need to add it to
the `INSTALLED_APPS` setting of our project.
In your project’s `settings.py` file, add the app name:
“`python
INSTALLED_APPS = [
…
‘resume’,
 …
]
“`

Building the Resume Model

For our portfolio, our resume app can have a model to
represent job experiences. Here’s a basic example:
In `models.py` of the `resume` app:
“`python
from django.db import models
class Job(models.Model):
title = models.CharField(max_length=200)
company = models.CharField(max_length=200)
start_date = models.DateField()
end_date = models.DateField(null=True, blank=True)
description = models.TextField()
def __str__(self):
return self.title
“`

Migrations
After creating or updating a model, you need to create
migrations to update the database schema.
Run the following commands:
“`bash
python manage.py makemigrations
python manage.py migrate
“`
This will create a new migration file in the `migrations/`
directory and apply the migration, updating the database.

Conclusion
Apps are a fundamental part of Django’s design,
encouraging modularity and reusability. In this chapter,
we’ve introduced you to the concept of apps, shown you
how to create an app, and built a simple model for our
`resume` app. In the next chapters, we will dive deeper
into other Django functionalities and integrate them with
our apps.
Remember: A good Django project is built around well-
designed and reusable apps. Always think about how
you can encapsulate functionality in an app to make your
project cleaner and more efficient.

Models
Assets, Resources, and Materials:
1. Django Framework (You can acquire this by running
the command: `pip install django`)
2. Python (Download and install from [Python’s official
website]( https://www.python.org/ ))
3. Text editor or Integrated Development Environment
(IDE) such as PyCharm, VS Code, or Atom.

Introduction
In web development, especially when dealing with
database-driven applications like our Personal Portfolio
Website, it’s vital to understand the concept of models.
In Django, models are a single, definitive source of truth
about your data. They contain the essential fields and
behaviors of the data you want to store. Essentially, each
model maps to a single database table.
Defining a Model
Models are typically defined in an application’s
`models.py` file. They are defined as classes, and each
class corresponds to a table in the database.
To start with, let’s define a simple model for a job you
might want to showcase on your portfolio:
“`python
from django.db import models
class Job(models.Model):
title = models.CharField(max_length=200)
description = models.TextField()
image =
models.ImageField(upload_to=‘portfolio/images/’)
url = models.URLField(blank=True)
“`
Here’s a breakdown:
1. CharField: A field for small-to-large sized strings.
2. TextField: A field for large text data, like a blog post.
3. ImageField: A field to upload images. The `upload_to`
argument tells Django to save the uploaded image in a
directory named ‘portfolio/images/’.
4. URLField: A field for storing URLs. The `blank=True`
argument means this field is optional.

Migration: Bringing Models to Life

Once you’ve defined a model, you’ll need to create a
migration. Migrations are how Django keeps track of
changes to your models (and thus, database schema).
They’re stored as an autogenerated script in a
`migrations` directory of your app.
To create a migration for our `Job` model, run:
“`
python manage.py makemigrations
“`
Then, to apply it to the database, run:
“`
python manage.py migrate
“`

The Admin Interface

Django’s admin is a built-in app that provides a web-
based interface to interact with the database. But before
our `Job` model appears there, we need to tell the admin
to register it.
In `admin.py`, add:
“`python
from .models import Job
admin.site.register(Job)
“`
Now, when you visit the admin interface, you’ll be able to
add, edit, and delete jobs!

Relationships
Often, you’ll want to define relationships between
models. Django offers three ways to define relationships:
1. ForeignKey: A many-to-one relationship. For instance,
if you have a `Blog` model and each blog post is written
by a `User`, the `Blog` model might have a `ForeignKey`
to the `User` model.
2. OneToOneField: A one-to-one relationship. For
instance, if each `User` has one profile, you’d use a
`OneToOneField` to link the `User` model to a `Profile`
model.
3. ManyToManyField: Many-to-many relationship. For
instance, if a `Blog` can have many authors, and each
`User` can write many blogs, you’d use a
`ManyToManyField` on the `Blog` model to the `User`
model.

Meta Options
Django models have a `Meta` class that allows you to
set some options. For example:
“`python
class Job(models.Model):
…
class Meta:
ordering = [‘-date_posted’]
“`
This would order the jobs by the `date_posted` field in
descending order whenever you query the database.

Methods
Models can also have methods. For instance, if you
wanted a short version of the job description:
“`python
class Job(models.Model):
…
def short_description(self):
return self.description[:50]
“`
You could then use `job_instance.short_description()` to
get a truncated version of the job’s description.

Conclusion
Models play a crucial role in Django. They help you
define the data structures, relations, and more. By
understanding models, you’re now equipped to structure
the data for your Personal Portfolio Website. As we
move forward, you’ll see how these models integrate
with views and templates to display dynamic content to
the users.
In the next chapter, we will dive deeper into the admin
panel and see how it can be customized to provide a
better user experience.

Remember, always test your models and the methods

you add to ensure that everything works as expected.

Admin
Assets, Resources, and Materials for this Chapter:
- Django Framework (Get this by installing using `pip
install django`)
- SQLite Database (Comes pre-installed with Django)
- A web browser (e.g., Google Chrome, Firefox, etc.)

Introduction
The Django admin interface is one of the most powerful
features of the Django web framework. With just a few
lines of code, you can have a fully functional, web-based
interface for managing the data of your web application.
In this chapter, we’ll be diving deep into setting up and
customizing the admin interface for our Personal
Portfolio Website.

Setting up the Admin

Before you can use the admin interface, you need to
activate it. Most of the setup is done by default when you
create a Django project. But just to ensure:
1. In `INSTALLED_APPS` within the `settings.py` file of
your project, make sure `‘django.contrib.admin’` is
included.
2. The URL configuration (found in `urls.py`) should have
a path to include `admin.site.urls`.
“`python
from django.contrib import admin
from django.urls import path
urlpatterns = [
path(‘admin/’, admin.site.urls),
# … your other URL patterns …
]
“`

Accessing the Admin Site

Before accessing the admin site, ensure you’ve run the
migrations with:
“`
python manage.py migrate
“`
Now, start your development server:
“`
python manage.py runserver
“`
You can access the admin site by visiting:
`http://127.0.0.1:8000/admin/`. At this point, you’ll be
prompted for a username and password. If you haven’t
created a superuser, you’ll need to do so:
“`
python manage.py createsuperuser
“`
Follow the prompts to set up your superuser account.
Once set up, you can use these credentials to log in to
the admin site.

Registering Models with the Admin Site

For the purpose of our portfolio site, let’s assume you
have a `Job` model in your app to showcase your work
experience. To manage `Job` entries via the admin
interface, you’ll have to register the model.
In your app’s `admin.py` file:
“`python
from django.contrib import admin
from .models import Job
admin.site.register(Job)
“`
Once registered, you’ll see the `Job` model listed on the
admin site. Here, you can add, edit, or delete entries.

Customizing the Admin Interface

Django admin is highly customizable. Let’s make some
tweaks to our `Job` interface:
“`python
from django.contrib import admin
from .models import Job
class JobAdmin(admin.ModelAdmin):
list_display = (‘title’, ‘date’, ‘image’) # Columns to
display
search_fields = [‘title’, ‘description’] # Fields to
search by
list_filter = (‘date’,) # Filters by the side
 ordering = [‘-date’] # Order by date in descending
admin.site.register(Job, JobAdmin)
“`
Here’s a breakdown:
- `list_display`: Determines which fields of the model are
displayed in the admin list.
- `search_fields`: Adds a search bar allowing admin
users to search by the specified fields.
- `list_filter`: Provides a sidebar that lets users filter the
list by the fields specified.
- `ordering`: Specifies the default sorting order of the list.

Securing the Admin Interface

The Django admin interface is powerful, but it’s crucial to
secure it:
1. Change Admin URL: Instead of using the default
“admin/” path, change it to something less predictable.
2. Use Strong Passwords: When creating superusers,
use strong, unique passwords.
3. Limit Access: Only give admin access to those who
truly need it.
4. Regularly Update Django: Always update to the latest
version of Django to get the latest security patches.

Conclusion
The Django admin interface is an invaluable tool for
developers, allowing rapid model data management
without the need to write additional views or templates.
As you’ve seen in this chapter, with just a few tweaks,
you can highly customize and secure the admin interface
to suit the specific needs of your Personal Portfolio
Website.
Note: Always ensure that the Django admin interface,
while powerful, is not always the best or most user-
friendly tool for all end-users. Depending on your
project’s requirements, you may need to build custom
views or interfaces for data management.

psycopg2 fix
Assets, Resources, and Materials required for this
Chapter:
- psycopg2 Python package (`pip install psycopg2`)
- PostgreSQL Database (Can be downloaded and
installed from [official PostgreSQL website](
https://www.postgresql.org/download/ ))

Introduction
In the journey of developing a personal portfolio website,
we might opt for PostgreSQL as our database due to its
robustness, flexibility, and adherence to SQL standards.
When working with Django and PostgreSQL, `psycopg2`
is the most popular database adapter. However, during
the integration, you might face some issues. In this
chapter, we’ll understand what `psycopg2` is, why it is
needed, and how to tackle common issues related to it,
ensuring a seamless database connection for our
website.

What is psycopg2?
`psycopg2` is a PostgreSQL adapter for Python and is
used as a bridge between Python applications and
PostgreSQL databases. It allows your Django application
to interact with the database seamlessly. It supports
various PostgreSQL features and is optimized for a high
volume of inserts, updates, and queries.

Why do we need it?

With Django, it’s common to use SQLite as a default
database for quick prototyping. However, as you scale,
you might want to switch to more powerful databases
like PostgreSQL. When you make that switch, Django
needs a way to communicate with this new database,
and that’s where `psycopg2` comes into play.

Common issues and their fixes

1. Installation Error
Issue: Sometimes, when trying to install `psycopg2` via
pip, you might encounter errors.
Solution: In many cases, installing the binary package for
`psycopg2` can resolve the issue. You can do this with:
“`bash
pip install psycopg2-binary
“`
This package contains the `psycopg2` package with the
`libpq` library statically linked, avoiding the need to have
the correct PostgreSQL libraries installed on your
system.
2. Library not found
Issue: You might encounter an error like `Library not
loaded: libssl.x.dylib` or similar, suggesting some
libraries are missing.
Solution: This issue can arise due to PostgreSQL or
OpenSSL version mismatches. One solution could be to
use a package manager like Homebrew (on macOS) to
install the required libraries:
“`bash
brew install postgresql
brew install openssl
“`
3. OperationalError: could not connect to server
Issue: You might see this error if the PostgreSQL server
isn’t running or if Django is misconfigured.
Solution:
1. Ensure PostgreSQL server is running.
2. Double-check `DATABASES` settings in your Django
project’s `settings.py` file, ensuring the user, password,
and database name are correctly set.
4. Incompatibility with the PostgreSQL version
Issue: Sometimes, the version of `psycopg2` might not
be compatible with the installed PostgreSQL version.
Solution: Check the compatibility matrix and
documentation on the official `psycopg2` website. It’s
often recommended to keep both PostgreSQL and
`psycopg2` up-to-date to the latest stable versions.

Connecting Django to PostgreSQL using psycopg2

Now that we’ve tackled the common issues, let’s see
how we can integrate `psycopg2` into our Django
project.
1. Install `psycopg2`:
“`bash
pip install psycopg2-binary
“`
2. Update Django Settings:
In your `settings.py` file, modify the `DATABASES`
setting:
“`python
DATABASES = {
‘default’: {
‘ENGINE’: ‘django.db.backends.postgresql’,
‘NAME’: ‘your_db_name’,
 ‘USER’: ‘your_db_user’,
‘PASSWORD’: ‘your_db_password’,
‘HOST’: ‘localhost’,
‘PORT’: ‘5432’,
}
}
“`
Replace placeholders (`your_db_name`, `your_db_user`,
etc.) with your actual PostgreSQL credentials.
3. Migrate Database:
Run the following command to apply migrations:
“`bash
python manage.py migrate
“`
This will create necessary tables in your PostgreSQL
database.

Conclusion
Using PostgreSQL with Django through `psycopg2`
provides a scalable and reliable database solution for
real-world web applications. While you might face a few
hitches initially, the fixes are relatively straightforward.
Now that our database connection is fixed and running
smoothly, we can move ahead to structure and design
our Personal Portfolio Website.

(Note: The provided solutions are based on common

issues developers might face. Some unique issues may
require more specific troubleshooting or consultation
from official documentation or community forums.)

Postgres
Assets, Resources, and Materials:
- PostgreSQL (Available from [PostgreSQL official
website]( https://www.postgresql.org/download/ ))
- pgAdmin (A web-based administration tool for
PostgreSQL. Available alongside PostgreSQL during
installation or from [pgAdmin’s official site](
https://www.pgadmin.org/download/ ))
- psycopg2 (A Python adapter for PostgreSQL.
Installable via pip: `pip install psycopg2`)

Introduction
PostgreSQL, often simply referred to as Postgres, is a
powerful open-source relational database system. With
over 30 years of active development, it’s proven itself as
a robust and reliable database system, suitable for both
small-scale projects and large enterprises. It has a
strong focus on extensibility, allowing you to define your
own data types, build custom functions, or even develop
your own plug-ins.
In the context of our Personal Portfolio project, Postgres
will serve as the backbone to store and retrieve our data,
such as blog posts, job experiences, or user details.

Why Postgres?
While Django can work with several databases, we’re
choosing Postgres for a few key reasons:
- Scalability: Postgres is designed to handle large
volumes of data and concurrent users with ease.
- Extensibility: The ability to define custom functions and
data types can be handy as our project grows.
- JSON Support: Modern web apps often work with
JSON data, and Postgres has excellent built-in support
for JSON columns.
- ACID Compliance: This ensures data integrity and
reliability by following a set of properties - Atomicity,
Consistency, Isolation, and Durability.

Setting Up Postgres
1. Installation:
- Download the appropriate version for your operating
system from the [PostgreSQL official website]
(https://www.postgresql.org/download/).
- Follow the installation steps. Ensure that you choose
to install pgAdmin as well, as it’s a useful tool for
database management.
- Remember the superuser password you set during
installation, as you’ll need it to administer your Postgres
server.
2. Launching Postgres:
- Once installed, start the PostgreSQL service (how
you do this varies depending on your OS).
- Launch pgAdmin. This will open in your default
browser.
- Login using the superuser credentials you set during
installation.
3. Creating a New Database for Your Portfolio:
- In pgAdmin, right-click on `Databases`, then select
`Create` -> `Database…`.
- Name the database, for instance, `portfolio_db`, and
set the owner to be the Postgres superuser, or another
user of your choice.
- Click ‘Save’.

Connecting Django to Postgres

Now that our Postgres database is set up, it’s time to
connect it to our Django project.
1. Install the psycopg2 package:
 This Python adapter helps Django work with Postgres.
Install it with pip:
“`bash
pip install psycopg2
“`
2. Update Django settings:
In your Django project’s `settings.py` file, update the
`DATABASES` setting:
“`python
DATABASES = {
‘default’: {
‘ENGINE’: ‘django.db.backends.postgresql’,
‘NAME’: ‘portfolio_db’,
‘USER’: ‘<your_postgres_username>’,
‘PASSWORD’: ‘<your_postgres_password>’,
‘HOST’: ‘localhost’,
‘PORT’: ‘5432’,
}
}
“`
3. Run migrations:
With the database settings in place, tell Django to
create the necessary tables:
“`bash
python manage.py migrate
“`

Exploring Our Database with pgAdmin

With your database now connected to Django, any
models you define in your Django app will have
corresponding tables in Postgres. You can use pgAdmin
to view these tables, query your data, or even make
modifications (though it’s recommended to do data
operations through Django’s ORM to maintain data
integrity).
- In pgAdmin, expand the `Databases` tree on the left
and click on your `portfolio_db` database.
- You can view tables under the `Schemas` -> `public` ->
`Tables` directory.

Conclusion
Postgres is a powerful ally in the world of web
development, especially when combined with Django’s
ORM. It offers scalability, reliability, and numerous
advanced features out of the box. By now, you should
have a running Postgres instance connected to your
Django Personal Portfolio project, ready to store your
data.

Note: Always remember to back up your database

regularly and keep sensitive data, like database
passwords, secured and ideally out of the main
codebase (using environment variables or secret
management tools).

Test Your Skills - Blog Model

Chapter Assets and Resources:
- Django Framework (Install via pip: `pip install django`)
- SQLite (Comes pre-packaged with Django)
- Python (Install from the official website:
https://www.python.org/downloads/)
- Text Editor (Recommend VS Code, download from:
https://code.visualstudio.com/ )

Introduction
In this chapter, we’re going to put your knowledge to the
test. The aim is to solidify your understanding of
Django’s model system, particularly in creating a model
for a blog. The blog model will be a crucial part of your
Personal Portfolio Website, as it will represent individual
blog posts you want to showcase.

The Task
Your task is to create a model for a blog post with the
following fields:
- Title: Represents the title of the blog post.
- Content: Represents the main content of the blog.
- Author: Links to the user who wrote the post.
- Published Date: A timestamp indicating when the post
was published.
- Image: An optional image for the blog post.

Creating the Blog Model

Step 1: Setting up the Model
Navigate to the `models.py` file of your app and let’s get
started:
“`python
from django.db import models
from django.contrib.auth.models import User
class Blog(models.Model):
title = models.CharField(max_length=255)
content = models.TextField()
 author = models.ForeignKey(User,
on_delete=models.CASCADE)
published_date =
models.DateTimeField(auto_now_add=True)
image =
models.ImageField(upload_to=‘blog_images/’, null=True,
blank=True)
def __str__(self):
return self.title
“`
In the code above:
- We import the necessary modules and the default
`User` model from Django’s authentication system.
- We define the `Blog` class and inherit from
`models.Model`.
- Each attribute of the class corresponds to a field in our
database table.

Step 2: Migrations
Now that we’ve defined the model, we need to inform
Django about the changes and apply them to our
database.
1. Run the following command to create the migration:
“`bash
python manage.py makemigrations
“`
2. Apply the migrations to update the database:
“`bash
python manage.py migrate
“`
Step 3: Admin Interface
To easily manage and visualize our blog posts, we’ll also
register the `Blog` model with Django’s admin interface.
In your `admin.py` file:
“`python
from django.contrib import admin
from .models import Blog
admin.site.register(Blog)
“`

Testing Your Blog Model

Step 1: Creating a Superuser
If you haven’t already, create a superuser to access the
admin interface:
“`bash
python manage.py createsuperuser
“`
Follow the prompts to set up your superuser account.
Step 2: Access the Admin Interface
Run your server:
“`bash
python manage.py runserver
“`
In your web browser, navigate to:
`http://localhost:8000/admin`
Login with your superuser credentials.
Step 3: Create a New Blog Post
1. In the admin interface, click on `Blogs`.
2. Click `Add Blog +`.
3. Fill in the fields: title, content, author, and optionally,
an image.
4. Save the blog post.

Conclusion
Congratulations on creating your Blog model and
integrating it with the admin interface! The model you’ve
built will serve as the foundation for all the blog-related
features in your personal portfolio.
Remember, practice is key. Try creating a few more blog
models, or even extend the current one with features like
categories, tags, or comments to further solidify your
understanding.

Home Page
Assets, Resources, and Materials:
1. Bootstrap: (Acquire by visiting [Bootstrap’s official
website]( https://getbootstrap.com/ ). Download the CSS
and JS or link to them using their CDN.)
2. Images: Use free images for showcasing purposes
from websites like [Unsplash]( https://unsplash.com/ ) or
[Pexels]( https://www.pexels.com/ ). Always ensure you
have the right to use any images you select.
3. Font Awesome: (Optional for icons. Acquire by visiting
[Font Awesome’s official website](
https://fontawesome.com/ ) and linking to their CDN.)
4. Google Fonts: (Optional for typography. Visit [Google
Fonts]( https://fonts.google.com/ ) to select and embed a
font of your choice.)

Introduction:
The home page of your Personal Portfolio Website is the
first impression you’ll make on a visitor. This means it’s
crucial to get it right. A good home page is a blend of
well-structured content, appealing design, and
functionality, and our aim will be to hit all these points
using Django and Bootstrap.

1. Setting Up the Home Page View:

First, let’s create a view for our home page.
views.py:
“`python
from django.shortcuts import render
def home(request):
return render(request, ‘portfolio/home.html’)
“`

2. URL Mapping:
Link this view to a URL.
urls.py:
“`python
from django.urls import path
from . import views
urlpatterns = [
path(”, views.home, name=“home”),
]
“`

3. Base Template:
Before diving into the home page’s design, ensure you
have a base template (`base.html`) that has all common
elements like the header, footer, and any linked
stylesheets or scripts.
4. Designing the Home Page:
Now, let’s design our home page. Bootstrap will help
make our design responsive and modern.
portfolio/home.html:
“`html
{% extends “base.html” %}
{% block content %}
<!— Hero Section —>
<section class=“hero text-center py-5”>
<h1>Welcome to My Portfolio</h1>
<p>Hi, I’m [Your Name]. A passionate developer
specializing in Django & Python.</p>
</section>
<!— About Section —>
<section class=“about py-5”>
<h2>About Me</h2>
<p>I have been working with Django for X years…
[more about you]</p>
</section>
<!— Showcase Portfolio Items —>
<section class=“portfolio py-5”>
<h2>My Work</h2>
<!— Add images or links to your projects here —>
</section>
<!— Contact Section —>
<section class=“contact py-5”>
<h2>Contact Me</h2>
<p>If you’re interested in working with me, please
<a href=”#!”>contact me</a>.</p>
 </section>
{% endblock %}
“`
This basic structure utilizes Bootstrap classes like `text-
center` and `py-5` to apply styling.

5. Styling the Home Page:

Although Bootstrap provides a good foundation, adding
your own custom styles will make your portfolio stand
out.
static/css/styles.css:
“`css
.hero {
background-color: #f8f9fa;
border-bottom: 1px solid #dee2e6;
}
.about, .portfolio, .contact {
background-color: #ffffff;
border-bottom: 1px solid #dee2e6;
}
h1, h2 {
font-family: ‘Your Google Font Choice’, sans-serif;
}
“`
Remember to link this stylesheet in your `base.html`.

6. Adding Media:
To make your home page visually appealing, incorporate
high-quality images. Store these images in Django’s
media directory, ensuring you’ve set up media handling
in your Django settings.
settings.py:
“`python
MEDIA_URL = ‘/media/’
MEDIA_ROOT = os.path.join(BASE_DIR, ‘media/’)
“`
You can now display these images in the portfolio
section using the `{% static %}` template tag.

7. Optional Enhancements:
- Animated Scrolling: Use JavaScript libraries like [AOS](
https://michalsnik.github.io/aos/ ) to add animations.
- Interactive Portfolio: Add modals to show detailed
views of your projects when clicked.
- Contact Form: Integrate a contact form using Django’s
form system.

Conclusion:
The home page is pivotal in retaining your site visitors
and showcasing your skills. A clear, responsive, and
interactive design, backed by Django’s robustness,
ensures a seamless user experience. As you get more
comfortable, remember to continuously update and
refine this page to best represent your evolving skill set
and portfolio.

Exercises for the Reader:

1. Customize the home page further by changing colors,
typography, and layout.
2. Incorporate a testimonials section.
3. Enhance the contact me section with social media
icons using Font Awesome.
Bootstrap
Assets, Resources, and Materials:
- Bootstrap Framework: (Available at the official
Bootstrap website: [getbootstrap.com](
https://getbootstrap.com/ ))
- Bootstrap Documentation: (Available on the official
Bootstrap website, under the ‘Docs’ section)
- Web Browser: (For previewing and testing your site)
- IDE or Text Editor: (Such as VSCode, Atom, or Sublime
Text. Use for writing and editing your code)

Introduction:
Bootstrap is a powerful, open-source front-end
framework that helps developers build responsive and
attractive web designs with ease. Originally developed
by Twitter, Bootstrap provides a set of CSS and
JavaScript components that can be easily integrated into
any web project. The primary advantage of using
Bootstrap in your portfolio website is that it ensures your
site looks and functions beautifully across all devices,
from desktops to mobile phones.

Why Bootstrap for Your Portfolio?

1. Responsive Design: Bootstrap’s grid system ensures
your portfolio looks great on devices of all sizes.
2. Pre-designed Components: Save time with ready-
made design elements like navigation bars, modals, alert
boxes, and more.
3. Customizable Themes: While Bootstrap comes with its
own default styling, it’s easy to override these styles to
match your personal brand.

Setting Up Bootstrap:
There are two main ways to integrate Bootstrap into your
Django project:
1. CDN (Content Delivery Network): This is a quick way
to include Bootstrap. Simply add the following lines to
your HTML’s `<head>` section:
“`html
<!— Bootstrap CSS —>
<link rel=“stylesheet”
href=“https://stackpath.bootstrapcdn.com/bootstrap/4.5.2
/css/bootstrap.min.css”>
<!— Optional JavaScript, jQuery first, then Popper.js,
then Bootstrap JS —>
<script src=“https://code.jquery.com/jquery-
3.5.1.slim.min.js”></script>
<script
src=“https://cdn.jsdelivr.net/npm/[email protected]/dist/um
d/popper.min.js”></script>
<script
src=“https://stackpath.bootstrapcdn.com/bootstrap/4.5.2/j
s/bootstrap.min.js”></script>
“`
2. Download and Host: If you prefer, you can download
Bootstrap and host it yourself. This method is
recommended if you plan on customizing Bootstrap’s
Sass files. Download it from the official Bootstrap
website, then link to the CSS and JS files in your project.

Integrating Bootstrap with Django:

Once you’ve included Bootstrap via CDN or by hosting,
you can start using its components in your Django
templates.
For our portfolio website, let’s consider a few main
components:
1. Navbar: A navigation bar helps users easily navigate
your site.
“`html
<nav class=“navbar navbar-expand-lg navbar-light bg-
light”>
<a class=“navbar-brand” href=”#”>Your Name</a>
<button class=“navbar-toggler” type=“button” data-
toggle=“collapse” data-target=”#navbarNav” aria-
controls=“navbarNav” aria-expanded=“false” aria-
label=“Toggle navigation”>
<span class=“navbar-toggler-icon”></span>
</button>
<div class=“collapse navbar-collapse” id=“navbarNav”>
<ul class=“navbar-nav ml-auto”>
<li class=“nav-item active”>
<a class=“nav-link” href=”#”>Home</a>
</li>
<li class=“nav-item”>
<a class=“nav-link” href=”#”>Projects</a>
</li>
<li class=“nav-item”>
<a class=“nav-link” href=”#”>Blog</a>
</li>
<li class=“nav-item”>
<a class=“nav-link” href=”#”>Contact</a>
</li>
</ul>
</div>
</nav>
“`
2. Cards: Use Bootstrap’s card component to showcase
individual projects or blog posts.
“`html
<div class=“card” style=“width: 18rem;”>
<img src=“your-image-path.jpg” class=“card-img-top”
alt=“Project Name”>
<div class=“card-body”>
<h5 class=“card-title”>Project Name</h5>
<p class=“card-text”>Some quick description about
the project.</p>
<a href=”#” class=“btn btn-primary”>Go to
Project</a>
</div>
</div>
“`
3. Forms: For the contact section or a newsletter signup,
you can use Bootstrap’s form controls.
“`html
<form>
<div class=“form-group”>
<label for=“exampleInputEmail1”>Email
address</label>
<input type=“email” class=“form-control”
id=“exampleInputEmail1” aria-describedby=“emailHelp”>
<small id=“emailHelp” class=“form-text text-
muted”>We’ll never share your email with anyone else.
</small>
</div>
<div class=“form-group”>
<label
for=“exampleInputPassword1”>Password</label>
 <input type=“password” class=“form-control”
id=“exampleInputPassword1”>
</div>
<button type=“submit” class=“btn btn-
primary”>Submit</button>
</form>
“`

Customizing Bootstrap:
While Bootstrap provides a default theme, you may want
to customize it to fit your branding. This can be done by
overriding Bootstrap’s CSS. For instance, to change the
primary color:
“`css
.btn-primary, .navbar-light .navbar-nav .active>.nav-link {
background-color: #yourColor;
border-color: #yourColor;
}
“`
For deeper customizations, consider using Bootstrap’s
source Sass files.

Conclusion:
Bootstrap offers a wealth of design components and
utilities to make web design a breeze. By incorporating
Bootstrap into your Django portfolio, you ensure a
professional and responsive design without the stress of
building everything from scratch. Spend your valuable
time showcasing your skills and projects, and let
Bootstrap handle the heavy design lifting.

Show Jobs
Assets, Resources, and Materials for this Chapter:
- Bootstrap 4 (You can acquire Bootstrap through its
official website: ` https://getbootstrap.com/ `)
- Django ORM (Django’s Object-Relational Mapping
layer. It comes with Django, so no additional installation
required!)
- Sample Job Data (For demonstration purposes. You
can either create some dummy data or use real job
listings.)

Introduction
In this chapter, we’ll delve into showcasing the various
job positions you’ve held or tasks you’ve completed in
your professional journey on your personal portfolio. This
is pivotal for potential employers or clients to understand
your professional background, the challenges you’ve
faced, and the roles you’ve excelled in.

1. Setting Up the Model

Before you can display any job data on your website,
you first need to have a model that defines what a “job”
is in your database.
“`python
from django.db import models
class Job(models.Model):
title = models.CharField(max_length=100)
company = models.CharField(max_length=100)
location = models.CharField(max_length=100)
start_date = models.DateField()
end_date = models.DateField(null=True, blank=True)
description = models.TextField()
def __str__(self):
 return self.title
“`
This `Job` model allows you to store a job’s title,
company name, location, start and end dates, and a
detailed description. The end date is optional because
you might currently be working at the job.

2. Add the Job Model to Admin

To easily manage your job listings, integrate the model
with Django’s built-in admin.
“`python
from django.contrib import admin
from .models import Job
admin.site.register(Job)
“`
After registering, run migrations:
“`bash
python manage.py makemigrations
python manage.py migrate
“`
You can now access the Django admin panel to add,
edit, or delete job listings.

3. Design the Job Display

Using Bootstrap 4, design a card layout for each job.
“`html
<div class=“card mb-4”>
<div class=“card-header”>
<h5 class=“card-title”>{{ job.title }}</h5>
 <h6 class=“card-subtitle mb-2 text-muted”>{{
job.company }} - {{ job.location }}</h6>
</div>
<div class=“card-body”>
<p class=“card-text”>{{ job.description }}</p>
</div>
<div class=“card-footer text-muted”>
{{ job.start_date }} - {{
job.end_date|default:“Present” }}
</div>
</div>
“`

4. Fetching Job Data and Displaying it

In your `views.py`:
“`python
from django.shortcuts import render
from .models import Job
def show_jobs(request):
jobs = Job.objects.all()
return render(request, ‘jobs.html’, {‘jobs’: jobs})
“`
In your `jobs.html`:
“`html
{% for job in jobs %}
<!— Your Bootstrap Card Code Here —>
{% endfor %}
“`
5. Integrating with the Portfolio Page
Now, let’s integrate the job display into your portfolio
website. Wherever you want to display your jobs, use the
following:
“`html
<section id=“experience”>
<h2 class=“display-4”>Experience</h2>
{% for job in jobs %}
<!— Your Bootstrap Card Code Here —>
{% endfor %}
</section>
“`

6. Styling & Enhancement

Feel free to customize the Bootstrap components to
better match the overall theme and style of your portfolio.
You can adjust card colors, typography, or even add
some animations for when the job cards appear on the
screen.

Conclusion
The ‘Show Jobs’ functionality adds immense value to
your portfolio, allowing visitors to quickly grasp the roles
you’ve played in your professional journey. Keep your
job listings updated, and remember, each job
experience, whether long or short, adds a unique story to
your journey.
In the next chapter, we’ll dive into showcasing your
blogs, ensuring a holistic overview of both your
professional achievements and your thought leadership
in the domain.
(Note: This chapter is a general guideline and should be
adapted according to the specifics of your application’s
structure and requirements. Also, ensure that you handle
user inputs carefully, using Django’s built-in methods to
sanitize and validate data before saving to the
database.)

All Blogs
Assets, Resources, and Materials:
- Django Framework (You can download and install
Django from the official website [
https://www.djangoproject.com/download/ ])
- Python 3 (Download from
[https://www.python.org/downloads/])
- Text editor or IDE like Visual Studio Code (Available at [
https://code.visualstudio.com/Download ])
- SQLite3 Database (It comes bundled with Django by
default)
- Sample blog posts (For the purpose of this tutorial, you
can either use sample blog posts provided here or write
a few of your own)

Introduction
The core of any portfolio website, especially for
developers and writers, is showcasing their work. In the
case of a developer, this might include a description of
projects, code snippets, or any tech-related blogs they’ve
written. The “All Blogs” section will display a list of all the
blogs you have written, with the most recent ones at the
top.

1. Setting up the Blog App

Before displaying all blogs, ensure you have a dedicated
app for it. You can create one if you haven’t:
“`bash
python manage.py startapp blogs
“`
2. Define the Blog Model
In `blogs/models.py`, create a `Blog` model:
“`python
from django.db import models
class Blog(models.Model):
title = models.CharField(max_length=200)
body = models.TextField()
pub_date = models.DateTimeField(‘date published’)
def __str__(self):
return self.title
“`
Now, include the `blogs` app in your
`INSTALLED_APPS` setting:
“`python
# settings.py
INSTALLED_APPS = [
…
‘blogs’,
]
“`
Migrate the changes:
“`bash
python manage.py makemigrations
python manage.py migrate
“`
3. Admin Configuration
To easily manage our blogs, let’s register the `Blog`
model with the Django admin. In `blogs/admin.py`:
“`python
from django.contrib import admin
from .models import Blog
admin.site.register(Blog)
“`
You should now be able to add, edit, and delete blog
entries via the Django admin panel.
4. Views and URLs
In `blogs/views.py`, let’s create a view to display all
blogs:
“`python
from django.shortcuts import render
from .models import Blog
def all_blogs(request):
blogs = Blog.objects.order_by(‘-pub_date’)
return render(request, ‘blogs/all_blogs.html’, {‘blogs’:
blogs})
“`
Now, in `blogs/urls.py` (create this file if it doesn’t exist):
“`python
from django.urls import path
from . import views
urlpatterns = [
path(”, views.all_blogs, name=‘all_blogs’),
]
“`
Remember to include the `blogs` URLs in your main
`urls.py`:
“`python
from django.urls import path, include
urlpatterns = [
…
path(‘blogs/’, include(‘blogs.urls’)),
]
“`
5. Templates
Create an `all_blogs.html` file in `blogs/templates/blogs/`.
This will be used to render all blogs:
“`html
{% extends ‘base.html’ %}
{% block content %}
<h2>All Blogs</h2>
{% for blog in blogs %}
<div class=“blog”>
<h3>{{ blog.title }}</h3>
<small>{{ blog.pub_date }}</small>
<p>{{ blog.body|truncatewords:50 }}</p>
<a href=”#”>Read More</a>
</div>
{% endfor %}
{% endblock %}
“`
Note: This template assumes a `base.html` which is a
common structure for Django projects. Modify as per
your setup.
6. Styling the Blogs
While we won’t delve deep into CSS here, consider
giving the blog entries some basic style to distinguish
between individual blog posts. For instance:
“`css
.blog {
border-bottom: 1px solid #ccc;
margin-bottom: 20px;
padding-bottom: 10px;
}
.blog h3 {
font-size: 1.5em;
}
.blog small {
display: block;
margin-bottom: 10px;
}
“`

Conclusion
The “All Blogs” page is a vital part of your portfolio,
showcasing your writing, your insights, and your
expertise. It allows visitors to get a deeper understanding
of your thoughts, learnings, and experiences. With
Django, creating, managing, and displaying these blogs
becomes a streamlined process. Ensure to keep
updating this section, as continuous learning and sharing
are crucial in the tech world!
In the next chapter, we will delve deeper into individual
blog details, enhancing our portfolio’s depth and
interactivity. Stay tuned!
Blog Detail
Assets, Resources, and Materials:
- Django: (If you haven’t installed Django, please refer to
Chapter 11 for guidance.)
- Bootstrap (A popular front-end framework. Make sure
you have it integrated into your project as discussed in
Chapter 34.)
- Text Editor: Any text editor of your choice. Examples
include Visual Studio Code, Atom, or PyCharm.
- Database: We’re using Postgres in this book, but
SQLite can be used for development. Setup instructions
are in Chapter 31.
- Images and Content: Prepare sample content and
images for your blogs. Use royalty-free image websites
like Unsplash or Pexels if you don’t have personal
images to use.

Introduction
After creating our blog model and displaying all our blog
posts in the “All Blogs” section, it’s time to focus on
individual blog posts. In this chapter, we’ll create a
detailed view for each of our blog posts, allowing users
to click on a post from the “All Blogs” list and see more
detailed information.

Step 1: Creating the Blog Detail View in Django

Django makes it easy to handle views for detailed views
of database objects. We’ll use Django’s generic views for
this purpose.
1. In your `views.py` of your blog app, import the
necessary modules:
“`python
from django.shortcuts import render, get_object_or_404
from django.views.generic.detail import DetailView
from .models import Blog
“`
2. Create the `BlogDetailView` using the `DetailView`:
“`python
class BlogDetailView(DetailView):
model = Blog
template_name = ‘blog/detail.html’
context_object_name = ‘blog’
“`
Here, we’re specifying the model (`Blog`), the template
we’ll use, and the context variable name.

Step 2: Setting up the URL Pattern for the Detail View

1. Open `urls.py` of your blog app and import the view:
“`python
from .views import BlogDetailView
“`
2. Add a URL pattern for the detail view:
“`python
path(‘blog/<int:pk>/’, BlogDetailView.as_view(),
name=‘blog_detail’),
“`
This pattern means that any URL like `/blog/1/` will show
the detail for the blog with primary key (pk) 1.

Step 3: Creating the Blog Detail Template

Create a new file in your `blog/templates/blog` directory
named `detail.html`. This will be the template for our blog
details.
1. Start with the basic HTML structure and incorporate
Bootstrap for styling.
2. Use the `blog` context variable to display the blog
details:
“`html
{% extends ‘base.html’ %}
{% block content %}
<div class=“container mt-5”>
<h1>{{ blog.title }}</h1>
<p><strong>Published:</strong> {{
blog.pub_date.strftime(“%B %d, %Y”) }}</p>
<img src=”{{ blog.image.url }}” alt=”{{ blog.title }}”
class=“img-fluid mb-3”>
<div>
{{ blog.body|linebreaks }}
</div>
</div>
{% endblock %}
“`
Here, we’re displaying the blog title, publication date,
image, and body content.

Step 4: Linking to the Detail Page from the Blog List

In the template for your blog list (potentially
`all_blogs.html`), make sure the title or a “Read More”
button links to the blog’s detail page:
“`html
<a href=”{% url ‘blog_detail’ blog.pk %}”>{{ blog.title }}
</a>
“`
This dynamically generates the URL for each blog’s
detail page based on its primary key.

Step 5: Styling and Further Customization

With Bootstrap already integrated into your project, you
can add further styling and components to enhance the
detail page. Consider adding:
- A comment section
- Navigation links to the previous and next blog posts
- Related posts
- A sidebar with a brief author bio or related links

Conclusion
By the end of this chapter, you should have a fully
functional detail page for each of your blog posts. The
combination of Django’s generic views and its powerful
templating system makes it easy to generate detailed
views for any model in your database. Next, we’ll focus
on managing static files to enhance the appearance and
functionality of our portfolio website.

Sta c Files
Assets, Resources, and Materials for this Chapter:
- Django (You should have this installed as per the
previous chapters.)
- Bootstrap CSS and JS (Available for download at
[Bootstrap’s official website]( https://getbootstrap.com/ ))
- A code editor (Examples: Visual Studio Code,
PyCharm, Atom. If you don’t have one, I recommend
[Visual Studio Code]( https://code.visualstudio.com/ ).)

Introduction:
Static files refer to files that don’t change, such as CSS,
JavaScript, and images. These files remain the same for
every user and are not modified by the server. Serving
static files in Django can seem a bit confusing at first, but
it’s a crucial concept, especially when you want to style
your website and make it more interactive.

Setting up Static Files in Django:

1. Configuring Settings:
To start, open `settings.py` from your Django project’s
directory. Ensure you have the following configurations
set up:
“`python
STATIC_URL = ‘/static/’
STATICFILES_DIRS = [
os.path.join(BASE_DIR, “static”),
]
STATIC_ROOT = os.path.join(BASE_DIR,
“static_cdn”)
“`
2. Creating a Static Directory:
Within your main project directory (the same level as
your `manage.py` file), create a directory named `static`.
This is where all your static files will live.
3. Understanding Static Directories:
- `STATIC_URL` is the URL where your static files can
be accessed.
- `STATICFILES_DIRS` tells Django where it should
look for static files in the project. Here, we’re telling it to
look in the `static` directory we just created.
- `STATIC_ROOT` is where Django will collect all the
static files from various apps for deployment. We’ll dive
into this shortly.
4. Organizing your Static Files:
Inside the `static` directory, it’s common practice to
create subdirectories for different types of static files. For
example:
- `css/` for CSS files.
- `js/` for JavaScript files.
- `img/` for image files.
5. Using Bootstrap:
Since we’re going to use Bootstrap to style our
personal portfolio website, download the Bootstrap CSS
and JS files from the official website. Place the CSS files
in the `css/` subdirectory and the JS files in the `js/`
subdirectory.
6. Linking Static Files in Templates:
When you want to use a static file in a Django
template, you need to inform the template about your
static files first. At the top of your template, include:
“`html
{% load static %}
“`
Now, if you want to link a CSS file, you can use:
“`html
<link rel=“stylesheet” href=”{% static
‘css/bootstrap.min.css’ %}”>
“`
For a JavaScript file:
“`html
<script src=”{% static ‘js/bootstrap.min.js’ %}”>
</script>
“`
And for an image:
 “`html
<img src=”{% static ‘img/myimage.jpg’ %}” alt=“My
Image”>
“`
7. Handling Static Files During Deployment:
When you’re ready to deploy your website, you’ll run
`python manage.py collectstatic`. This command tells
Django to gather all static files from the various apps and
the main `static` directory into the `STATIC_ROOT`
directory. From there, you can serve these static files
using a web server or a content delivery network (CDN).

Summary:
In this chapter, we’ve delved into how to set up and use
static files in Django. By now, you should have a solid
understanding of how to organize, link, and deploy static
files for your personal portfolio website. Remember, the
proper organization is key to maintaining a scalable and
efficient web application. In the next chapter, we’ll be
polishing our portfolio website, ensuring it’s as sleek and
professional as possible.

Polish
Assets, Resources, and Materials for this Chapter:
- Web browser (You probably already have one, but if
not, consider Chrome, Firefox, or Safari)
- Text Editor (VS Code, Atom, Sublime Text, etc.)
- [Bootstrap]( https://getbootstrap.com/ ) (For refining our
styling)
- [Google Fonts]( https://fonts.google.com/ ) (For using
custom fonts)
- [Font Awesome]( https://fontawesome.com/ ) (For
adding vector icons)
- Sample Images (You can acquire royalty-free images
from sites like [Unsplash]( https://unsplash.com/ ) or
[Pexels]( https://www.pexels.com/ ))

Introduction:
Polishing a website is crucial to its presentation. It
differentiates a basic site from a professional-looking
one. The details might seem small, but they make all the
difference. In this chapter, we will focus on refining the
Personal Portfolio website’s look and feel, ensuring it
stands out and leaves a lasting impression.

1. Typography and Fonts:

Fonts play an essential role in the overall design of a
website. They can set the mood, tone, and give a unique
identity to your portfolio.
How to incorporate Google Fonts into your Django
project:
- Visit [Google Fonts](https://fonts.google.com/).
- Search and choose a font. For instance, let’s go with
“Roboto.”
- Click on the font and select the desired weights (e.g.,
regular 400, medium 500).
- Copy the provided link tag and paste it into the
`<head>` of your base template in Django.
“`html
<link href=“https://fonts.googleapis.com/css2?
family=Roboto:wght@400;500&display=swap”
rel=“stylesheet”>
“`
- In your CSS, set the font family for the body or
specific elements as:
“`css
body {
font-family: ‘Roboto’, sans-serif;
}
“`

2. Icons and Graphics with Font Awesome:

Font Awesome provides a collection of scalable vector
icons that can easily be customized using CSS.
Integrating Font Awesome:
- Visit [Font Awesome](https://fontawesome.com/) and
click on “Start for Free.”
- Include the provided script in the `<head>` of your
Django base template.
“`html
<script src=“https://kit.fontawesome.com/yourkitcode.js”
crossorigin=“anonymous”></script>
“`
- Now, you can embed icons directly in your templates
using the `<i>` tags. For example, to include a “user”
icon:
“`html
<i class=“fas fa-user”></i>
“`

3. Enhancing the Design with Bootstrap:

We previously integrated Bootstrap for responsiveness,
but now we’ll use its utility classes for design tweaks:
* Refining Spacing: Use spacing classes such as `mt-5`
(margin-top) or `pb-4` (padding-bottom) to provide
adequate space between elements.
* Button Styling: If you have any call-to-action buttons
like “Check out my projects,” consider giving them a
distinct color or hover effect. Use Bootstrap classes like
`btn-primary` or `btn-outline-dark`.

4. Improving Images:
High-quality, relevant images can elevate your portfolio’s
appearance.
* Using Royalty-Free Images: Sites like [Unsplash](
https://unsplash.com/ ) provide high-quality images you
can use without worrying about licensing.
* Image Optimization: Large image files can slow down
your website. Consider using tools like [TinyPNG](
https://tinypng.com/ ) to compress images without
sacrificing quality.

5. Enhancing User Experience:

* Smooth Scrolling: Instead of an abrupt jump, a smooth
scroll looks cleaner when navigating through different
sections. Include this in your CSS:
“`css
html {
scroll-behavior: smooth;
}
“`
* Feedback on Hover: Buttons or clickable elements
should change (e.g., color shift, slight scale) slightly on
hover, indicating interactivity.
“`css
button:hover {
background-color: #555;
transform: scale(1.05);
}
“`

6. Testing on Different Devices:

Ensure that your website looks good not just on your
machine but also on mobile phones, tablets, and other
screen sizes. Use the “Inspect” tool in browsers like
Chrome to check your site’s appearance in various
device modes.

Conclusion:
Polishing is all about refining details. The more effort you
invest in these details, the more professional your
website will appear. Always gather feedback, test on
multiple devices, and never stop refining. Your portfolio
is a reflection of you, so make it shine!

Section 5:
VPS
Intro to VPS
(Virtual Private Servers)
Assets, Resources, and Materials for this Chapter:
- DigitalOcean (Available at [DigitalOcean.com](
https://www.digitalocean.com/ )): We’ll be using
DigitalOcean as our primary example for VPS in this
book. Although there are many VPS providers available,
DigitalOcean is renowned for its user-friendly interface
and documentation.
- A web browser (like Google Chrome, Mozilla Firefox):
To access and manage our VPS.
- SSH client (For Windows users, you can use ‘PuTTY’.
For macOS and Linux users, the terminal will suffice):
This tool will allow us to securely connect and control our
VPS from our local machine.

Introduction to Virtual Private Servers (VPS):

In the ever-evolving landscape of web development,
hosting plays a crucial role. After all, a web application is
only as good as its accessibility to the world. One of the
best ways to host web applications, especially when you
want more control and resources, is by using a VPS or
Virtual Private Server.

What is a VPS?
A VPS is a virtualized server that acts like a dedicated
server within a larger physical server. Think of it as
renting a slice of a physical server, where you get a
dedicated portion of the server’s resources.

Why use a VPS?

1. Control: Unlike shared hosting, where resources and
configurations are shared among multiple users, a VPS
offers you complete control. You can choose the OS,
software, and configurations suitable for your application.
2. Dedicated Resources: You have your own set of
resources which won’t be affected by other users.
3. Cost-Effective: It’s more affordable than renting a full
dedicated server.
4. Scalability: As your application grows, you can easily
upgrade your VPS resources without much downtime.

How does it relate to Django and Web Development?

When you develop a Django application, it runs on a
local server. This setup is not suitable for real-world
users. To make your application available to the world,
you need to host it. A VPS provides an environment
much like your local machine but with the capability to
make it accessible to everyone on the internet.

Why DigitalOcean?
DigitalOcean, often referred to as DO, is a cloud
infrastructure provider. Their Droplets, which is their
name for VPS, are easy to set up, and they offer a
variety of OS and configurations tailored for web
applications. They also provide extensive
documentation, making it easier for beginners to dive in.

In the upcoming chapters…

We’re about to embark on an exciting journey! We will go
through setting up a VPS on DigitalOcean, securing our
VPS, and deploying our Django applications. We’ll cover
databases, servers, domain setups, and everything in
between. With each step, we’ll ensure you have the
necessary resources and knowledge to make your web
application live.

Remember, while the world of VPS might seem

intimidating initially, with the right tools and guidance, it
can be a smooth experience. So, buckle up, and let’s
dive deep into the world of Virtual Private Servers!

Digital Ocean
Assets, Resources, and Materials for this Chapter:
- Digital Ocean Account: [Sign up here](
https://www.digitalocean.com/ ) (You’ll need a valid email
and credit card. Often, there are promotional offers
available that provide free credits to newcomers,
allowing you to get started without any immediate
expenses.)
- Putty (Windows) or Terminal (Mac and Linux): These
tools will be used for SSH access to your Digital Ocean
droplet. While Mac and Linux systems come with a built-
in terminal, Windows users will need to download Putty
from [here]( https://www.putty.org/ ).

Introduction
Within the realm of VPS (Virtual Private Server)
providers, Digital Ocean has carved a unique niche for
itself. With its user-centric design and robust features, it
serves both beginners and experts alike. As you gear up
to deploy your Django applications, understanding the
intricacies of Digital Ocean becomes pivotal. This
chapter offers a comprehensive guide to Digital Ocean
and how you can leverage its features for your Django
applications.

1. Why Choose Digital Ocean?

Digital Ocean’s appeal lies in its simplicity and
transparency. Let’s delve into its standout features:
- Transparent Pricing: Predicting monthly costs becomes
easier with flat, monthly pricing across all data centers.
- Droplets: These virtual machines are where your web
applications reside. Depending on your application’s
requirements, droplets can be resized and configured.
- Rich Documentation and Active Community: Digital
Ocean’s repository of tutorials, Q&A sections, and a
thriving community simplifies troubleshooting and
ongoing learning.

2. Setting Up Your Digital Ocean Account

Before diving into droplet creation, you’ll first need to set
up an account:
1. Navigate to the [Digital Ocean signup page](
https://www.digitalocean.com/ ).
2. Provide your email and set a password.
3. Add your billing details. Look out for promotional
offers, which often grant free initial credits.

3. Embarking on the Droplet Journey

Droplets are the heart of Digital Ocean. Here’s a step-by-
step guide to create your first droplet:
1. Post-login, click the “Create” button, then select
“Droplet”.
2. Choose from a variety of options:
- Distributions: For Django deployment, Ubuntu is
highly recommended.
- Plan: Start with the Basic plan and upgrade as your
needs evolve.
- Datacenter Region: For optimal performance, select
the region closest to your target audience.
- Authentication: For enhanced security, opt for SSH
keys. If this is unfamiliar territory, begin with a password
and modify it later.
3. Hit “Create Droplet”. Shortly, your droplet will be active
and ready.
4. Connecting to Your Droplet
With your droplet up and running, establishing a
connection is your next step:
1. Locate your droplet’s IP address on your dashboard.
2. Launch your terminal (or Putty for Windows users).
3. Input:
“`
ssh root@YOUR_DROPLET_IP
“`
 Replace `YOUR_DROPLET_IP` with the noted IP
address.
4. On your first connection, you’ll be prompted to
authenticate the host. Enter “yes”.
5. Provide your password (or use the private key if you
opted for SSH key authentication).

5. Basic Droplet Management

Mastering a few fundamental commands can
significantly ease your droplet management:
- Rebooting: On rare occasions, you might need to
reboot your droplet. The command is:
“`
reboot
“`
- Shutting Down: The following command shuts down the
droplet:
“`
poweroff
“`
- System Package Updates: Regular updates ensure
your droplet remains secure:
“`
sudo apt update && sudo apt upgrade
“`
- Domain Setup: Link your domain to the droplet by
tweaking your domain’s DNS settings.

6. Deploying Your Django Application

While Digital Ocean offers a conducive environment for
your applications, deployment entails a few additional
steps:
1. Upload your project: Use Git or SCP to upload your
Django project to your droplet.
2. Set up a database: Depending on your project, you
might need a database like Postgres.
3. Install required packages: Make sure all necessary
Python packages are installed using pip.
4. Configure Gunicorn and Nginx: These tools serve your
application and manage traffic respectively.
(Note: Detailed steps for deploying Django with Gunicorn
and Nginx will be covered in subsequent chapters.)

Conclusion
Digital Ocean is more than just a VPS provider. Its
intuitive interface, transparent pricing, and rich feature
set make it an ideal platform for deploying and managing
Django applications. As you move forward, remember to
regularly consult Digital Ocean’s documentation and
community forums to keep up with best practices and
updates.
Up Next: Security is paramount in today’s digital age.
The next chapter focuses on fortifying your Digital Ocean
droplet against potential threats, ensuring a safe and
stable environment for your applications.

As with any technology, practice makes perfect. So,

don’t hesitate to create, delete, and recreate droplets as
you familiarize yourself with Digital Ocean. As your
comfort level grows, so will your proficiency in deploying
and managing your Django applications.

Security
Assets, Resources, and Materials for this Chapter:
1. SSH Key Pair: This will be used for authentication.
They can be generated using the `ssh-keygen` tool
which comes pre-installed on most UNIX systems.
2. UFW (Uncomplicated Firewall): Used for managing
the firewall on your VPS. It can be installed via the
package manager with `sudo apt install ufw`.
3. Fail2Ban: Protects against brute-force login attempts.
It can be installed via the package manager with `sudo
apt install fail2ban`.

Introduction
Security is paramount when it comes to deploying web
applications on the internet. A Virtual Private Server
(VPS) exposed to the vast ocean of the internet is a
potential target for a wide array of threats, from brute-
force login attempts to DDoS attacks. This chapter aims
to provide you with the essential security measures to
harden your VPS and protect your Django applications.

1. Secure Shell (SSH) Hardening

SSH is the primary way you’ll be accessing your server.
Let’s ensure it’s locked down:
- SSH Key Pair Authentication: Passwords can be
guessed, but SSH key pairs, which consist of a public
and a private key, offer a much more secure
authentication method. Ensure you’ve set up SSH key
pair authentication and disable password authentication.
“`bash
# Generate an SSH key pair
ssh-keygen
# Copy the public key to your server
ssh-copy-id your_username@your_server_ip
“`
 Once you’ve copied your key, modify the SSH
configuration to disable password authentication.
“`bash
sudo nano /etc/ssh/sshd_config
“`
Find the line that says `PasswordAuthentication` and
change it to `no`. Also, ensure `PermitRootLogin` is set
to `no` to disable root logins. After making these
changes, restart the SSH service:
“`bash
sudo service ssh restart
“`

2. Setting Up a Firewall with UFW

UFW, or Uncomplicated Firewall, is a simple interface to
manage iptables, the user space utility for managing
packet filtering in Linux.
- First, ensure UFW is installed:
“`bash
sudo apt update
sudo apt install ufw
“`
- Before enabling UFW, allow SSH connections to
ensure you don’t lock yourself out:
“`bash
sudo ufw allow OpenSSH
“`
- Now, enable UFW:
“`bash
sudo ufw enable
 “`
- Any additional ports that need to be opened (e.g., for
your web server or database) can be done so with `sudo
ufw allow port_number`.

3. Install and Configure Fail2Ban

Fail2Ban is a log-parsing tool that can monitor system
logs for signs of malicious activity and adjust firewall
rules to prevent future breaches.
- Install Fail2Ban:
“`bash
sudo apt install fail2ban
“`
- Enable and start the service:
“`bash
sudo systemctl enable fail2ban
sudo systemctl start fail2ban
“`
By default, Fail2Ban comes with a set of filters and
actions. For custom configurations, copy the `jail.conf`
file to `jail.local` and modify the latter to prevent
overriding during package updates.

4. Regular Software Updates

Regularly updating your server software is crucial.
Security vulnerabilities are discovered over time, and
software updates often contain patches for these.
- Update your package list and upgrade:
“`bash
sudo apt update
sudo apt upgrade
 “`

5. Disable Unnecessary Services

Your VPS might come with services you don’t
necessarily need. These can be potential security risks.
- To check running services:
“`bash
sudo systemctl list-unit-files —state=enabled
“`
- To disable a service:
“`bash
sudo systemctl disable service_name
“`

Conclusion
Security is an ongoing concern, and the steps
highlighted in this chapter are foundational. Regularly
review the security configuration of your VPS, keep
abreast of the latest threats and security best practices,
and always keep your software updated. Your Django
application deserves a secure home, and with these
steps, you’re on the right path to providing it.

Postgres and Virtualenv

Assets, Resources, and Materials for this chapter:
- PostgreSQL: (You can download PostgreSQL from its
official website at ` https://www.postgresql.org/download/
`).
- Virtualenv: (To install Virtualenv, you can use pip by
running the command `pip install virtualenv`).
Introduction
In the world of web development, especially when
deploying Django applications, two critical components
often arise: databases and virtual environments.
PostgreSQL, commonly known as Postgres, is a
powerful, open-source database that offers extensibility
and compliance with SQL. On the other hand, Virtualenv
is a tool that helps developers create isolated Python
environments. When working on a Virtual Private Server
(VPS), combining these tools can ensure that our
application runs in a safe, controlled environment while
interacting seamlessly with a robust database system.

1. Setting Up PostgreSQL on a VPS

a. Installing PostgreSQL:
Once you’ve SSH’d into your VPS:
“`bash
sudo apt update
sudo apt install postgresql postgresql-contrib
“`
b. Basic PostgreSQL Commands:
After installing, the PostgreSQL service will start
automatically. Here are some basic commands to
interact with it:
- Start the service: `sudo service postgresql start`
- Stop the service: `sudo service postgresql stop`
- Restart the service: `sudo service postgresql restart`
c. Creating a Database and User for our Django Project:
It’s always a good practice to create a separate
database and user for each project to maintain isolation.
“`bash
sudo -u postgres psql
“`
Now, inside the PostgreSQL shell:
“`sql
CREATE DATABASE mydb;
CREATE USER myuser WITH PASSWORD
‘mypassword’;
ALTER ROLE myuser SET client_encoding TO ‘utf8’;
ALTER ROLE myuser SET default_transaction_isolation
TO ‘read committed’;
ALTER ROLE myuser SET timezone TO ‘UTC’;
GRANT ALL PRIVILEGES ON DATABASE mydb TO
myuser;
\q
“`
Replace `mydb`, `myuser`, and `mypassword` with your
desired names and password.

2. Setting Up Virtualenv on a VPS

a. Installing Virtualenv:
Ensure pip is installed:
“`bash
sudo apt install python3-pip
pip3 install virtualenv
“`
b. Creating a Virtual Environment:
Navigate to your project directory or a directory where
you want your virtual environments to live:
“`bash
cd /path/to/your/project
virtualenv venv_name
“`
Replace `venv_name` with your desired environment
name.
c. Activating the Virtual Environment:
“`bash
source venv_name/bin/activate
“`
Once activated, your terminal prompt will change to
show the name of the activated environment.
d. Deactivating the Virtual Environment:
When you’re done working within the virtual
environment:
“`bash
deactivate
“`

3. Integrating PostgreSQL with Django in a Virtual

Environment
Now, with our virtual environment active and Postgres
set up, it’s time to integrate the two.
a. Installing PostgreSQL Driver:
Django communicates with PostgreSQL using a driver.
We need to install the `psycopg2` package for this:
“`bash
pip install psycopg2
“`
b. Updating Django Settings:
Navigate to your Django project’s `settings.py` and
update the database settings:
“`python
DATABASES = {
‘default’: {
‘ENGINE’: ‘django.db.backends.postgresql’,
‘NAME’: ‘mydb’,
‘USER’: ‘myuser’,
‘PASSWORD’: ‘mypassword’,
‘HOST’: ‘localhost’,
‘PORT’: ‘5432’,
}
}
“`
Replace the placeholders with your actual Postgres
details.

Conclusion
Having set up PostgreSQL and Virtualenv on your VPS,
you’ve laid down a solid foundation for deploying robust
Django web applications. Ensuring your app runs within
an isolated Python environment with a powerful
database ensures both security and performance. As
you continue to deploy more projects, this setup process
will become second nature, reinforcing the importance of
each step in maintaining the integrity of your web
applications.

Git Push and Pull

Assets, Resources, and Materials Required for this
Chapter:
- Git (You can acquire and install Git from [here](
https://git-scm.com/ ))
- A repository on GitHub, GitLab, or any other similar
platform (For this example, we’ll be using GitHub. You
can create a free account and repository at [GitHub](
https://github.com/ ))
- Terminal or Command Prompt for local operations
- SSH keys for authentication (Details on setting this up
can be found [here](
https://docs.github.com/en/authentication/connecting-to-
github-with-ssh ))

Introduction
In the world of web development, particularly when
deploying your Django application to a VPS,
understanding Git’s basic operations like pushing and
pulling becomes invaluable. These commands enable
developers to transfer code between their local
machines and remote repositories. In this chapter, we
will deep dive into `git push` and `git pull` commands,
their significance, and how they function within the
context of deploying to a VPS.

1. Understanding Git Push

`git push` is utilized to upload local repository content to
a remote repository. After making your local changes
and committing them, pushing transfers those changes
to the remote repository so that others can view or even
deploy them.
Basic Syntax:
“`
git push [remote-name] [branch-name]
“`
For instance, if you want to push changes from your
local master branch to a remote named origin (the
default name given to the remote you cloned from),
you’d use:
“`
git push origin master
“`

2. Understanding Git Pull

On the other hand, `git pull` is used to fetch changes
made in the remote repository and merge them into your
local working branch. This ensures that you are working
with the most recent codebase.
Basic Syntax:
“`
git pull [remote-name] [branch-name]
“`
For example, to fetch changes from the origin’s master
branch:
“`
git pull origin master
“`

3. Working with a VPS

When deploying to a VPS, especially with services like
DigitalOcean, you might use Git to transfer (or push)
your web application’s code from your local machine to
your server. Here’s how this can work:
1. Setting Up the Remote Repository on VPS: Log in to
your VPS and navigate to your project directory. Then,
initialize a bare Git repository:
“`
git init —bare myproject.git
“`
2. Pushing to VPS: On your local machine, add your
VPS as a remote repository:
“`
git remote add vps
user@your_server_ip:/path/to/myproject.git
“`
Now, you can push your local changes directly to your
VPS:
“`
git push vps master
“`
3. Setting Up a Post-Receive Hook: To automate the
deployment process on your VPS, you can use a post-
receive hook. This is a script that Git executes after
receiving changes. For example, you can set it up to
move the code to your web directory and restart the
server whenever you push changes.

4. Handling Merge Conflicts

Sometimes when you `pull` changes from the remote
repository, Git may not be able to merge the changes
automatically. This usually happens when changes occur
in the same parts of a file on both sides. When this
happens, Git will notify you of a “merge conflict”.
Resolving merge conflicts involves:
1. Opening the conflicted file and looking for the conflict
markers `<<<<<<<`, `=======`, and `>>>>>>>`. The
changes from the remote branch will be on top (between
`<<<<<<<` and `=======`), and your changes will be
below (between `=======` and `>>>>>>>`).
2. Decide which changes you want to keep or merge the
changes manually as needed.
3. Save the file.
4. Run `git add filename` to mark the conflict as
resolved.
5. Finally, complete the merge with `git commit`.

5. Conclusion
Understanding `git push` and `git pull` is fundamental for
developers working in teams or those deploying their
applications to remote servers. As you’ve seen, these
commands, although simple, are powerful tools in your
development workflow, especially when deploying to a
VPS.
In the next chapter, we’ll explore Gunicorn, a popular
web server gateway interface (WSGI) HTTP server, and
how it can help serve your Django applications on a
VPS.

With this, you have a detailed understanding of the Git

push and pull operations, especially in the context of
working with a VPS. It combines theory with practical
instructions to give a holistic overview of the topic.
Adjustments can be made based on specific VPS
configurations or other unique requirements related to
your book’s content and target audience.

Gunicorn
Assets, Resources, and Materials:
1. Gunicorn: It is a Python WSGI HTTP server that is
suitable for serving production-ready applications. You
can install it using pip with the command `pip install
gunicorn`.
2. Python: Ensure you have Python installed, as
Gunicorn is a Python package. If you haven’t already
installed Python, refer to Chapter 1.
3. Django project: As we’ll be showing how to integrate
Gunicorn with a Django project, ensure you have one
ready. If not, you can follow the steps in previous
chapters to set one up.

Introduction:
Welcome to the chapter on Gunicorn! When you develop
web applications, one of the critical steps is deploying
the application to a production server. While Django’s
built-in development server is excellent for development,
it’s not suited for production. This is where Gunicorn
comes in. Gunicorn is a Python Web Server Gateway
Interface (WSGI) HTTP server that is highly efficient and
lightweight, perfect for serving Django applications in
production.

1. Why Gunicorn?:
Gunicorn, or “Green Unicorn”, stands out for a few
reasons:
- Efficiency: Gunicorn works on the pre-fork worker
model, meaning it forks multiple worker processes to
handle incoming requests. This ensures optimal CPU
usage and the capability to handle several simultaneous
connections.
- Compatibility: Gunicorn is compliant with WSGI, which
means it can serve any Python application that
implements the WSGI standard, including Django.
- Simplicity: Its configuration and setup process are
straightforward, making the transition from a
development environment to production smooth.

2. Installing Gunicorn:
If you’ve set up a virtual environment for your Django
project (as covered in Chapter 25), ensure you have it
activated. Then, simply run:
“`
pip install gunicorn
“`
This will fetch and install the latest version of Gunicorn
and its dependencies.

3. Testing Gunicorn with your Django Project:

Navigate to your Django project directory. You can test if
Gunicorn can serve your application using:
“`
gunicorn projectname.wsgi:application
“`
Replace `projectname` with the name of your Django
project. If everything is set up correctly, you should see
Gunicorn start and bind to `localhost` on port `8000`.

4. Configuration:
While the basic command can get Gunicorn up and
running, in a production environment, you’ll likely need
more customization. Here’s a basic Gunicorn
configuration you can start with:
“`bash
gunicorn projectname.wsgi:application —bind
0.0.0.0:8000 —workers 3
“`
- `—bind 0.0.0.0:8000`: This tells Gunicorn to bind to all
available network interfaces on port `8000`.
- `—workers 3`: This starts Gunicorn with three worker
processes. The optimal number of worker processes
depends on the server’s hardware, but a general rule of
thumb is to have a number of workers equal to twice the
number of CPU cores available.
5. Integrating with Nginx:
While Gunicorn is efficient, it’s not optimized to serve
static files (e.g., CSS, JavaScript). It’s common practice
to use a web server like Nginx in front of Gunicorn to
handle client requests, serve static files, and forward
dynamic requests to Gunicorn.
In the next chapter, “Nginx”, we’ll dive deep into setting
up Nginx as a reverse proxy for your Gunicorn server.

6. Running Gunicorn as a Service:

In a production environment, you’ll want Gunicorn to
start automatically whenever the server reboots. For this,
you can use a system manager like `systemd`.
Here’s a basic example of a `systemd` service file for
Gunicorn:
“`bash
[Unit]
Description=gunicorn daemon for Django project
After=network.target
[Service]
User=username
Group=groupname
WorkingDirectory=/path/to/your/django/project
ExecStart=/path/to/your/virtualenv/bin/gunicorn
projectname.wsgi:application —bind 0.0.0.0:8000 —
workers 3
[Install]
WantedBy=multi-user.target
“`
Replace placeholders (`username`, `groupname`, etc.)
with appropriate values. Save this as `gunicorn.service`
in `/etc/systemd/system/`. Then, you can start and
enable the service with:
“`bash
sudo systemctl start gunicorn
sudo systemctl enable gunicorn
“`

Conclusion:
Congratulations! You’ve now set up Gunicorn to serve
your Django project in a production environment. With its
simplicity and efficiency, Gunicorn is a staple in the
Django community for deployment. Remember to couple
it with a robust web server like Nginx for the best
performance.
In the next chapter, we will delve into the intricacies of
setting up Nginx and integrating it with Gunicorn. Stay
tuned!

Nginx
Assets, Resources, and Materials:
- Nginx: [To install, visit the official Nginx website at
nginx.org or use a package manager like apt for Ubuntu
or yum for CentOS]
- DigitalOcean VPS [Assuming you’re using
DigitalOcean, but if not, any VPS service would do. You
can sign up for a DigitalOcean account at
www.digitalocean.com ]

Introduction
Nginx (pronounced “Engine-X”) is a powerful web server
software. It can also be used as a reverse proxy, load
balancer, mail proxy, and HTTP cache. Originally
developed to tackle the “C10K problem” (serving 10,000
clients simultaneously), Nginx can efficiently serve
multiple simultaneous client requests using minimal
memory.
When dealing with web applications, especially Django
apps, it’s common to use Nginx in tandem with another
web server (like Gunicorn) that runs your Python code.
Nginx handles incoming traffic and forwards it to
Gunicorn, which then serves your Django app.
In this chapter, we’ll walk through the process of setting
up Nginx for our Django applications on a VPS,
specifically DigitalOcean, and explain why using it is
beneficial.

Why Use Nginx with Django?

1. Static File Handling: Django itself isn’t great at serving
static files (like CSS, JS, and images) in a production
environment. Nginx can do this more efficiently.
2. Security: Nginx acts as a protective barrier for your
application. It shields your app from malicious attacks,
ensures only valid HTTP traffic gets through, and can
help mitigate DDoS attacks.
3. SSL/TLS: If you want to serve your site over HTTPS
(which you should), Nginx makes it straightforward to set
up SSL/TLS certificates.
4. Load Balancing: If you have multiple app instances,
Nginx can distribute the traffic among them.

Installing Nginx
On a Ubuntu server, this is straightforward:
“`
sudo apt update
sudo apt install nginx
“`
After installation, you can start the Nginx service with:
“`
sudo service nginx start
“`
Visit your server’s IP address in a web browser. You
should see the default Nginx landing page, which
confirms it’s running.

Configuring Nginx for Django

1. Static and Media Files:
First, you need to collect all the static files for your
Django application in one place. Typically, this is done
using:
“`
python manage.py collectstatic
“`
This command gathers all static files into a folder,
usually named ‘static’. Ensure your Django `settings.py`
has the correct path for `STATIC_ROOT`.
2. Nginx Configuration:
Navigate to the Nginx sites-available directory:
“`
cd /etc/nginx/sites-available/
“`
Create a new configuration file, say `mydjangoapp`:
“`
sudo nano mydjangoapp
“`
Add the following:
“`nginx
server {
 listen 80;
server_name yourdomain.com
www.yourdomain.com;
location /static/ {
alias /path/to/your/staticfiles/;
}
location / {
proxy_pass http://127.0.0.1:8000;
proxy_set_header Host $host;
proxy_set_header X-Real-IP $remote_addr;
proxy_set_header X-Forwarded-For
$proxy_add_x_forwarded_for;
}
}
“`
Adjust the paths and domain accordingly.
3. Activate Your Configuration:
Create a symbolic link to the sites-enabled directory:
“`
sudo ln -s /etc/nginx/sites-available/mydjangoapp
/etc/nginx/sites-enabled
“`
Test the configuration:
“`
sudo nginx -t
“`
If there are no errors, restart Nginx:
“`
sudo service nginx restart
 “`
Your Django application should now be accessible
through your domain, with Nginx efficiently handling
incoming traffic and static files.

Setting Up SSL with Nginx

Securing your web application with SSL/TLS is a best
practice. Tools like Certbot make this process simpler
with Nginx. If you’d like to set up SSL, consider looking
into Let’s Encrypt and Certbot for a free and automated
solution.

Conclusion
Nginx offers a robust solution for serving web
applications. With its ability to handle static files, secure
your application, and manage traffic, it’s an essential tool
for any Django developer. By integrating Nginx into your
VPS setup, you ensure that your Django applications are
performant, scalable, and secure.
In the next chapter, we’ll explore domains and how to
point them to your VPS, bringing us one step closer to a
complete, live Django application.

Note: This is a basic setup for Nginx with Django.

Depending on your application’s requirements, you might
need additional configurations like setting up load
balancing, adding caching mechanisms, or adjusting
security settings. Always refer to the official
documentation when in doubt.

Domains
Assets, Resources, and Materials for this chapter:
- Domain Registrar: Platforms like GoDaddy,
Namecheap, or Google Domains where you can
purchase and manage your domain. (Can be acquired
by visiting their respective websites and purchasing a
domain name)
- DigitalOcean Account: As mentioned in the previous
chapters, this is where our VPS resides. (Can be set up
by signing up on the DigitalOcean website)
- A Basic Text Editor: For taking notes or saving
important details, like Notepad or VSCode. (Can be
acquired by downloading from their official websites or
from a platform like the Microsoft Store)

Introduction
Every website on the internet has its own unique
address known as a domain name. For instance,
`google.com` is a domain name. When we enter this
address into our browser, it’s translated into an IP
address, which leads us to Google’s servers, and
subsequently, its website. In this chapter, we’ll explore
the nuances of domains, how they connect to our Virtual
Private Server (VPS), and the steps to set one up for our
Django web applications.

1. What is a Domain?
A domain is the human-readable address of a website. It
consists of two main parts:
- Second-Level Domain (SLD): This is the name of your
website (e.g., ‘google’ in google.com).
- Top-Level Domain (TLD): This is the extension
attached to the SLD (e.g., ‘.com’ in google.com). There
are many TLDs available, such as .net, .org, .edu, and
many more.
Together, the combination of an SLD and a TLD forms a
unique domain name.

2. Why is a Domain Necessary?

While our VPS has its own IP address, remembering
numeric IP addresses for every website we wish to visit
would be challenging. Domains make this process
simpler by providing memorable names that map to
these IP addresses.

3. Acquiring a Domain
You can purchase a domain from domain registrars.
Here’s a simplified process:
1. Search for Availability: Input your desired domain
name on platforms like GoDaddy, Namecheap, or
Google Domains.
2. Purchase: If the domain is available, proceed to
purchase it. Prices can vary based on the domain’s
popularity and TLD.
3. Manage: Once purchased, you’ll have access to the
domain’s control panel. From here, you can configure
your domain settings.

4. Pointing Domain to Your VPS

After acquiring your domain, you need to point it to your
VPS IP address. This process can slightly vary based on
the registrar, but the core steps are as follows:
1. Locate DNS Settings: In your domain control panel,
navigate to the DNS settings.
2. Add an A Record: The ‘A Record’ (Address Record)
points your domain to an IP address. Set the host to ‘@’
and point it to your DigitalOcean VPS IP address.
3. Propagation: Changes might take anywhere from a
few minutes to 48 hours to propagate across the
internet. During this time, some users might be directed
to the old IP address (if there was one), while others will
be directed to the new one.

5. Domain Privacy and Security

Most registrars offer domain privacy (often termed as
WHOIS protection). This service masks your personal
information in the domain’s registration. Without it, one
can easily see the name, address, phone number, and
email of the domain owner. It’s usually a good idea to opt
for this protection.
Additionally, ensure that your domain registrar offers
domain lock features to prevent unauthorized transfers.

6. Conclusion
Domains play a pivotal role in the web’s infrastructure.
They provide human-friendly addresses to the myriad of
IP addresses on the internet. By acquiring a domain for
your Django application and pointing it to your VPS,
you’re setting the foundation for users to access your
site with ease. Ensure you maintain domain security and
privacy to safeguard your digital presence.

Next, in Chapter 48, we’ll begin our final project: building

a clone of the Product Hunt website.

(Note: Remember that setting up domains and

integrating them with web applications also require
proper server configurations, which we’ve covered in the
previous chapters, especially with tools like Nginx and
Gunicorn. Always ensure you follow best practices for
security and performance.)

Section 6:
Project #3 - Product Hunt
Clone Website
Project Intro
Assets, Resources, and Materials for this chapter:
1. Django Framework: (You can download and install
Django by using the pip command: `pip install django`)
2. Python: (If not installed, download it from the official
website: [python.org](
https://www.python.org/downloads/ ))
3. Text Editor or Integrated Development Environment
(IDE): I recommend using Visual Studio Code (You can
download it from [Visual Studio Code’s official website](
https://code.visualstudio.com/ )).
4. Web Browser: Chrome or Firefox is recommended.
5. Product Hunt’s Official Website: ([producthunt.com](
https://www.producthunt.com/ )) - For reference and
understanding of our target clone.

Introduction:
Welcome to the third and one of the most exciting
projects of our Django journey - the Product Hunt Clone
Website!
Product Hunt is an online platform where makers,
entrepreneurs, and enthusiasts share and discover new,
exciting tech products. Every day, the most upvoted
products are highlighted, making it a hotbed for tech
innovation and a great place to showcase new tech
products. The aim of this project is not to create an exact
duplicate but to make a simplified version that captures
the essence of Product Hunt.
By the end of this project, you’ll have a deeper
understanding of Django’s capabilities, especially
regarding its authentication system, template reuse,
model relationships, and more. You’ll also gain valuable
experience working with more complex web app
functionalities.
Objective of Our Product Hunt Clone:
Our version of Product Hunt will have the following
features:
1. User Authentication: Users will be able to sign up, log
in, and log out.
2. Product Submission: Once logged in, users will be
able to submit tech products, including a title,
description, and an image or icon.
3. Product Details Page: Each product will have its own
details page, displaying the product’s information and
allowing users to upvote their favorite products.
4. Homepage: A clean, responsive homepage displaying
all the submitted products, sorted by the number of
upvotes.

What You’ll Learn:

This project is a culmination of many of the elements
we’ve discussed earlier in the book. Here’s a sneak peek
of what you’ll learn:
1. Extending and Reusing Templates: To maintain
consistency across our website.
2. User Authentication System: Managing user sign-ups,
logins, and logouts.
3. Complex Model Relationships: How different models
(like users and products) can interact and relate to each
other in Django.
4. Styling and Icons: Making our website visually
appealing with base styling and adding icons via Iconic.
5. Product Details: How to create detailed views for
individual products.
6. Sorting and Displaying Data: Displaying products on
the homepage, sorted by their popularity.
Conclusion:
By the time you complete this project, you’ll have a fully
functional web app that resembles Product Hunt,
showcasing your advanced skills in Django. Not only will
this project be a testament to your web development
prowess, but it will also serve as a fantastic portfolio
piece to show potential employers or clients.
So, let’s get started on creating our very own Product
Hunt Clone!
In the next chapter, we’ll start by sketching the layout
and flow of our website to get a clear picture of what we
want to achieve.

Sketch
Assets, Resources, and Materials for this chapter:
- Sketch App (Available at [Sketch website](
https://www.sketch.com/ ); offers a free trial, after which
there’s a purchase fee)
- Sketch Cloud (Optional; for sharing and collaborating
on designs)
- Web Browser (To access the actual Product Hunt
website for reference)

Introduction
In the world of web development, it’s always a good idea
to first visualize the structure and design of your website
before jumping into coding. This is where the “Sketch”
tool comes into play. Sketch is a design toolkit built to
help you create your best work — from early ideas,
through to final assets. In this chapter, we will be using
Sketch to design our Product Hunt Clone Website, which
will help us map out the UI/UX elements effectively.

1. Getting Started with Sketch

Step 1: Visit the official [Sketch website](
https://www.sketch.com/ ) and download the application.
While it’s not a free tool, they do offer a free trial which is
perfect for our tutorial.
Step 2: Once downloaded, install and open the
application.

2. Setting Up the Canvas

Step 1: Click on ‘File’ and select ‘New’ to create a new
project.
Step 2: On the right sidebar, select the ‘+’ icon and
choose ‘Artboard’. For our design, select ‘Web 1920’
which is a standard desktop size.

3. Designing the Header

Headers are crucial because they house the main
navigation links, branding elements, and possibly
authentication controls.
Step 1: Using the ‘Rectangle’ tool (R), draw a rectangle
across the top. Choose a deep color, perhaps a shade of
blue or green, reminiscent of the Product Hunt color
palette.
Step 2: Add the website’s logo on the left. This can be a
simple text like “PH Clone” using the ‘Text’ tool (T).
Step 3: For navigation, add text items like “Home”, “New
Products”, “Top Rated”, and “Login/Signup”.

4. Creating the Main Content Area

This area will display products, their descriptions, and
user interactions.
Step 1: Use the ‘Rectangle’ tool (R) to create product
cards. Make sure they’re equally spaced.
Step 2: Inside each product card, add an image
placeholder for the product, product title, description, and
upvote count.
Step 3: On the right side of each product, you can add
an ‘Upvote’ button using a combination of the rectangle
and text tools.

5. Designing the Footer

Footers typically contain copyright information,
secondary navigation links, and social media links.
Step 1: Use the rectangle tool to create a footer at the
bottom of the page. Opt for a color slightly darker than
the header for a balanced look.
Step 2: Add secondary navigation items like “About Us”,
“Contact”, and “Terms of Service”.
Step 3: On the right, you can add small icons
representing social media platforms. This can be
placeholders for now.

6. Mobile Responsive Design

Given the importance of mobile browsing, it’s essential to
consider how the website will look on mobile devices.
Step 1: Add a new artboard by selecting the ‘+’ icon, but
this time choose ‘Mobile Portrait’.
Step 2: Repeat the design process, but this time, ensure
elements fit well within the mobile screen’s constraints.
The navigation might be a dropdown or hamburger
menu, and product cards might span the full width of the
screen.

7. Sharing and Feedback

With Sketch Cloud, you can share your designs with
team members or stakeholders to gather feedback. This
is optional but can be useful if collaborating.
Step 1: Click on the ‘Cloud’ icon on the top right and
select ‘Share’.
Step 2: Choose who you want to share with and send
them the generated link.

Conclusion
Sketching out our Product Hunt Clone Website gives us
a clear roadmap of how our final product should look and
function. This visual guide will be invaluable when we
start coding, ensuring we’re always aligned with our
initial design vision.
Remember, a good design should not only be
aesthetically pleasing but also user-friendly. Always
prioritize the user experience when making design
decisions.

Extending Templates
Chapter 50: Extending Templates
Assets, Resources, and Materials required for this
chapter:
- Django (installed and set up)
- A code editor (we recommend Visual Studio Code,
which you can download from [vscode’s official website](
https://code.visualstudio.com/ ))
- Product Hunt Clone project (from the previous
chapters)
- Basic understanding of HTML and Django templating

Introduction:
In the realm of web development, you’ll often find
yourself needing to reuse certain components or parts of
a page across different templates. Wouldn’t it be tedious
to copy and paste the same header, footer, or sidebar
code in each template? This is where Django’s template
extending comes in handy. In this chapter, we’ll dive into
the powerful feature of extending templates in Django
and demonstrate how it can make your web application
more organized and efficient.

1. The Base Template

Before we can extend a template, we need a *base*
template. This base template will contain common
elements that you want to reuse across multiple pages,
such as the header, footer, navigation bar, etc.
Let’s create a base template for our Product Hunt Clone
website:
base.html:
“`html
<!DOCTYPE html>
<html lang=“en”>
<head>
<meta charset=“UTF-8”>
<meta name=“viewport” content=“width=device-width,
initial-scale=1.0”>
<title>Product Hunt Clone</title>
<!— Here, you can add links to your CSS, JavaScript,
and other assets —>
</head>
<body>
<header>
<!— Your navigation bar code here —>
</header>
{% block content %}
<!— This is where content from child templates will
be injected —>
{% endblock %}
<footer>
 <!— Your footer code here —>
</footer>
</body>
</html>
“`
Here, `{% block content %}` and `{% endblock %}` are
Django template tags that define a placeholder where
content from child templates will be placed.

2. Extending the Base Template

Now that we have a base template, we can create other
templates that extend from this base. This allows us to
inherit all the common components from the base
template and just fill in the unique content for each page.
For instance, let’s create a template for our product
details page:
product_detail.html
“`html
{% extends “base.html” %}
{% block content %}
<h1>Product Details</h1>
<!— Your unique content for the product details page
goes here —>
{% endblock %}
“`
In this template, the `{% extends “base.html” %}` tag tells
Django that this template should inherit from `base.html`.
The `{% block content %}` tag specifies the unique
content for this page, which will replace the
corresponding block in the base template.

3. Benefits of Extending Templates

- Consistency: By using a common base template, you
can ensure a consistent look and feel across your entire
website.
- Maintenance: If you need to make a change to a
shared component, like the navigation bar or footer, you
only need to update the base template instead of every
individual page.
- Efficiency: Less repetition means less room for error.
By reusing components, you can avoid potential
inconsistencies and reduce the amount of code you
need to write.

4. Using Multiple Blocks

Your base template isn’t limited to just one block. You
can define multiple blocks to give child templates even
more flexibility.
For example, you might want to have different
stylesheets or scripts for different pages:
base.html (updated):
“`html
<head>
<!— … other head elements … —>
{% block extra_head %}
<!— Child templates can add extra elements to the
head here —>
{% endblock %}
</head>
<!— … rest of the base template … —>
“`
Then, in a child template:
some_page.html
“`html
{% extends “base.html” %}
{% block extra_head %}
<link rel=“stylesheet”
href=“path_to_some_page_stylesheet.css”>
{% endblock %}
{% block content %}
<!— Unique content for “some_page” goes here —>
{% endblock %}
“`

5. Overriding and Super

Sometimes, you might want to use most of a block from
the base template but add a little something extra in a
child template. The `{% super %}` tag comes in handy
here. It allows you to insert the content from the parent
block into the child block.
base.html (example):
“`html
{% block content %}
<p>This paragraph is in the base template.</p>
{% endblock %}
“`
child_template.html:
“`html
{% extends “base.html” %}
{% block content %}
{{ block.super }}
<p>This paragraph is added in the child template.</p>
{% endblock %}
“`
The resulting page from `child_template.html` will have
both paragraphs.

Conclusion:
Template extending in Django offers a powerful way to
build organized, efficient, and maintainable web
applications. By mastering this concept, you can save
time, reduce errors, and ensure consistency across your
Product Hunt Clone and any other future web projects.
In the next chapter, we’ll dive into styling our extended
templates to make our Product Hunt Clone look even
more appealing.

Base Styling
Assets, Resources, and Materials:
- Bootstrap CSS Framework - (Bootstrap is a widely-
used open-source CSS framework. You can integrate it
by linking it from a CDN (Content Delivery Network) or
by downloading it from the [official website](
https://getbootstrap.com/ )).
- Font Awesome Icons - (Font Awesome provides a wide
variety of free icons that you can use in your web
projects. Get it from the [official website](
https://fontawesome.com/ ) or link from a CDN.)
- Custom CSS file - (For the custom styling beyond
Bootstrap and Font Awesome.)

Introduction:
One of the most important aspects of any web
application is its design and user experience. While
functionality is essential, the design ensures that users
can navigate and interact with your web application
efficiently and effectively. In this chapter, we’ll look at
how to apply a base styling to our Product Hunt Clone
website using Bootstrap, Font Awesome icons, and our
custom CSS.

1. Integrating Bootstrap:
Bootstrap is a popular CSS framework that allows web
developers to build responsive and modern websites
quickly. Here’s how to integrate it:
a. Using a CDN:
Include the following links in the `<head>` section of your
base template:
“`html
<link rel=“stylesheet”
href=“https://stackpath.bootstrapcdn.com/bootstrap/4.5.2
/css/bootstrap.min.css”>
<script src=“https://code.jquery.com/jquery-
3.5.1.slim.min.js”></script>
<script
src=“https://cdn.jsdelivr.net/npm/@popperjs/[email protected]/
dist/umd/popper.min.js”></script>
<script
src=“https://stackpath.bootstrapcdn.com/bootstrap/4.5.2/j
s/bootstrap.min.js”></script>
“`
b. Downloading from the official site:
Visit [Bootstrap’s website]( https://getbootstrap.com/ ),
download the compiled CSS and JS version, and include
it in your Django project’s static files.

2. Integrating Font Awesome Icons:

a. Using a CDN:
Include this link in the `<head>` section of your base
template:
“`html
<link rel=“stylesheet”
href=“https://use.fontawesome.com/releases/v5.15.1/css
/all.css”>
“`
b. Downloading:
Similar to Bootstrap, you can download the Font
Awesome package from their [official website](
https://fontawesome.com/ ) and integrate it into your
Django project’s static files.

3. Creating a Custom CSS File:

In your Django static directory, create a new folder called
“css”. Inside this folder, create a file named “style.css”.
This will be your main custom stylesheet.
To include it in your templates, ensure you load static
files at the top of your base template:
“`html
{% load static %}
“`
And then link to your CSS file:
“`html
<link rel=“stylesheet” href=”{% static ‘css/style.css’ %}”>
“`

4. Applying Base Styling:

Now that we’ve integrated Bootstrap and Font Awesome,
let’s start by styling our navigation bar and footer,
ensuring they align with the Product Hunt aesthetic.
a. Navigation Bar:
Using Bootstrap’s Navbar component, let’s create a
responsive navigation bar:
“`html
<nav class=“navbar navbar-expand-lg navbar-light bg-
light”>
<a class=“navbar-brand” href=”#”>ProductHunt</a>
<button class=“navbar-toggler” type=“button” data-
toggle=“collapse” data-target=”#navbarNav” aria-
controls=“navbarNav” aria-expanded=“false” aria-
label=“Toggle navigation”>
<span class=“navbar-toggler-icon”></span>
</button>
<div class=“collapse navbar-collapse” id=“navbarNav”>
<ul class=“navbar-nav ml-auto”>
<li class=“nav-item active”>
<a class=“nav-link” href=”#”>Home <span
class=“sr-only”>(current)</span></a>
</li>
<!— Add other navigation items as needed —>
</ul>
</div>
</nav>
“`
b. Footer:
For the footer, let’s keep it simple:
“`html
<footer class=“bg-light py-3”>
<div class=“container”>
<p class=“text-center mb-0”>© 2023 ProductHunt
Clone. All Rights Reserved.</p>
</div>
</footer>
“`
You can now customize colors, padding, and other CSS
properties in the “style.css” file.

5. Customizing the Look with CSS:

Let’s modify some of Bootstrap’s defaults to better match
the Product Hunt aesthetic:
“`css
/* style.css */
body {
font-family: ‘Arial’, sans-serif;
background-color: #f6f6f6;
}
.navbar {
box-shadow: 0 2px 4px rgba(0, 0, 0, 0.1);
}
footer {
box-shadow: 0 -2px 4px rgba(0, 0, 0, 0.1);
}
“`

Conclusion:
With Bootstrap, Font Awesome, and some custom CSS,
we’ve set a solid foundation for the styling of our Product
Hunt Clone. As you progress in creating the website,
always ensure that the styling remains consistent and
the user experience is front and center. Design is a
combination of aesthetics and functionality, so as you
continue, test the website on various devices to ensure
responsiveness and overall user satisfaction.

Sign Up
Assets and Resources Required:
1. Django Framework (Install via pip with `pip install
django`)
2. Django’s built-in authentication views and forms (`from
django.contrib.auth import views as auth_views`, `from
django.contrib.auth.forms import UserCreationForm`)
3. Bootstrap (For design and responsiveness. Can be
acquired from [Bootstrap’s official website](
https://getbootstrap.com/ ))
4. SQLite or PostgreSQL database (Configured when
setting up the project)

Introduction:
Every modern web application, especially one that
allows users to submit or save their own content,
requires a mechanism for user registration and
authentication. In our Product Hunt Clone, it’s essential
to have users sign up and log in before they can submit
products or write comments. Django, with its “batteries-
included” philosophy, provides a built-in authentication
system to handle user registration and login.

Setting up Django’s Authentication System:

Before diving into the Sign Up process, ensure that
`‘django.contrib.auth’` and `‘django.contrib.contenttypes’`
are included in the `INSTALLED_APPS` setting of your
Django project.
1. URLs:
First, we need to set up URLs for our authentication
views. In your `urls.py`:
“`python
from django.urls import path
from django.contrib.auth import views as auth_views
urlpatterns = [
 # … other url patterns
path(‘signup/’,
auth_views.UserRegistrationView.as_view(),
name=‘signup’),
]
“`
2. The Sign Up Template:
For our sign-up page, we’ll use Django’s built-in
`UserCreationForm`. Create a new template in your
templates directory named `signup.html`.
“`html
{% extends ‘base.html’ %}
{% block content %}
<div class=“container mt-5”>
<h2>Sign Up</h2>
<form method=“post”>
{% csrf_token %}
{{ form.as_p }}
<button type=“submit” class=“btn btn-primary”>Sign
up</button>
</form>
</div>
{% endblock %}
“`
Here, we extend a `base.html` (which you should have
set up earlier with necessary Bootstrap styles and
scripts) and simply render the form.
3. Create the Sign Up View:
While we’ve used Django’s default view in our URL
configuration, for more complex applications you might
want to override or extend this. Here’s a simple example:
“`python
from django.contrib.auth.forms import UserCreationForm
from django.contrib.auth import login
from django.shortcuts import render, redirect
def signup(request):
if request.method == ‘POST’:
form = UserCreationForm(request.POST)
if form.is_valid():
user = form.save()
# Log the user in.
login(request, user)
return redirect(‘home’)
else:
form = UserCreationForm()
return render(request, ‘signup.html’, {‘form’: form})
“`
4. Update your URLs:
If you’ve created your own view as shown above,
remember to update your `urls.py` to point to this view
instead of the built-in one.

Customizing User Model:

For many applications, the default User model provided
by Django will be sufficient. However, if you want to add
additional fields, like a profile picture or a bio, you’d need
to extend the default User model. This is an advanced
topic and is recommended once you are comfortable
with the basic signup process.

Conclusion:
With Django’s built-in tools, creating a sign-up system is
straightforward. While this chapter provides the basics
for setting up user registration, Django’s authentication
system offers many more features like password reset,
user groups, permissions, and more.
In the next chapter, we will dive deeper into user
authentication, exploring the login and logout
mechanisms, ensuring our users can seamlessly access
our Product Hunt Clone website.
Note: Always ensure to test the Sign Up functionality in
various scenarios to catch any potential issues or bugs.

Login and Logout

Assets, Resources, and Materials:
- Django’s built-in User model and authentication
system.
- Django’s Authentication Views (To acquire: `pip install
django`)
- Bootstrap 4 (CDN link or download from [Bootstrap’s
official website]( https://getbootstrap.com/ ))

Introduction:
One of the core functionalities of most web applications
is the ability to identify users. This not only adds an extra
layer of security but also allows for user personalization.
In our Product Hunt Clone website, the authentication
system is crucial, as users should be able to log in to
submit new tech products and to comment or upvote
other products. In this chapter, we’ll focus on
implementing the login and logout features using
Django’s built-in authentication system.

Step 1: Setting Up Django’s Built-in User Model and

Authentication System
If you haven’t already, ensure the `‘django.contrib.auth’`
and `‘django.contrib.contenttypes’` are both included in
the `INSTALLED_APPS` of your Django settings.
“`python
INSTALLED_APPS = [
…
‘django.contrib.auth’,
‘django.contrib.contenttypes’,
…
]
“`

Step 2: Creating the Login Template

In your templates directory, create a new HTML file
named `login.html`.
Here’s a simple Bootstrap 4 based form you can use:
“`html
{% extends ‘base.html’ %}
{% block content %}
<div class=“container”>
<h2>Login</h2>
<form method=“post”>
{% csrf_token %}
{{ form.as_p }}
<button type=“submit” class=“btn btn-
primary”>Login</button>
</form>
</div>
{% endblock %}
“`

Step 3: Setting Up the Login View

Django provides a built-in view for handling login. First,
ensure you’ve imported it:
“`python
from django.contrib.auth.views import LoginView
“`
Then, in your `urls.py`, add the following:
“`python
path(‘login/’,
LoginView.as_view(template_name=‘login.html’),
name=‘login’),
“`
This will use Django’s default `LoginView` but will
override the template used to display the login form.

Step 4: Adding the Logout Functionality

Just as Django provides a `LoginView`, it also provides a
`LogoutView`. Here’s how to set it up:
First, import it:
“`python
from django.contrib.auth.views import LogoutView
“`
Then, add the following to your `urls.py`:
“`python
path(‘logout/’, LogoutView.as_view(), name=‘logout’),
“`
By default, the `LogoutView` will log out a user and
redirect them to the site’s homepage.
Step 5: Restricting Access
Django offers a very handy decorator to restrict access
to views for authenticated users: `@login_required`.
Import the decorator:
“`python
from django.contrib.auth.decorators import
login_required
“`
Then, use it to decorate any view function you want to
restrict:
“`python
@login_required
def some_protected_view(request):
…
“`

Step 6: Linking to Login and Logout in the Navbar

In your `base.html` (or whichever template you’re using
for your navbar), you can use the following to display
login/logout links appropriately:
“`html
{% if user.is_authenticated %}
<a href=”{% url ‘logout’ %}”>Logout</a>
{% else %}
<a href=”{% url ‘login’ %}”>Login</a>
{% endif %}
“`

Conclusion:
With these steps, you’ve set up a basic login and logout
system for the Product Hunt Clone website. Remember,
authentication is key to managing user interactions and
ensuring security for your web application.
Remember to test the system thoroughly and ensure that
all paths (like wrong password, etc.) are handled
gracefully. Ensure also that the links in the navbar
display correctly according to the authentication status of
the user.

Products Model
Assets and Resources Required for This Chapter:
1. Python: (Download and install Python from the official
website: https://www.python.org/downloads/ )
2. Django: (After installing Python, you can install Django
using pip: `pip install django`)
3. Django Documentation: (Always handy to refer to
Django’s extensive documentation:
https://docs.djangoproject.com/en/2.2/ )

Introduction
In the quest to recreate a simplified version of Product
Hunt, one of the most essential components will be the
`Product` model. This model will serve as the
foundational structure for the products that users will
add, view, and upvote. In this chapter, we’ll define the
attributes and methods of the `Product` model and
integrate it into our Django application.

Setting the Stage

Before diving into the model, ensure that you’ve set up a
new Django app within your project, perhaps named
`products`. If you haven’t done so, create it using:
“`
python manage.py startapp products
“`
Once created, add `‘products’` to the
`INSTALLED_APPS` list in your project’s settings.
Defining the Product Model
Let’s begin by defining our `Product` model in the
`models.py` file of our `products` app. A typical product
on Product Hunt has a name, description, a link to the
actual product, a publish date, and an image. For
simplicity, we’ll start with these attributes.
“`python
from django.db import models
class Product(models.Model):
title = models.CharField(max_length=255)
body = models.TextField()
url = models.URLField()
pub_date =
models.DateTimeField(auto_now_add=True)
image =
models.ImageField(upload_to=‘product_images/’)
“`
Here’s a breakdown of what each field does:
- `CharField`: A field for storing character data. The
`max_length` parameter is required to determine the
maximum number of characters the field can store.
- `TextField`: Used for longer pieces of text.
- `URLField`: A field for storing URLs.
- `DateTimeField`: A datetime field, where
`auto_now_add=True` means the time is saved
automatically when an object is created.
- `ImageField`: A field for storing images. The
`upload_to` parameter tells Django to store the uploaded
image in a directory named `product_images` within your
`MEDIA_ROOT`.

Migrations
After defining the model, you need to tell Django that
you’ve made changes to the model and that you’d like to
store these changes as a migration.
Run the following command:
“`
python manage.py makemigrations products
“`
After creating the migration file, apply the migration to
your database with:
“`
python manage.py migrate
“`

Admin Interface
To easily manage our products from the Django admin
interface, let’s add the Product model to `admin.py`
within our `products` app.
“`python
from django.contrib import admin
from .models import Product
admin.site.register(Product)
“`
This simple addition allows you to leverage Django’s
built-in admin interface to add, edit, or delete products.

Further Considerations
1. User Association: In future chapters, when we
incorporate user authentication, consider associating
each product with a user to indicate who posted it.
2. Votes: Products on Product Hunt can be upvoted. You
might want to add an upvote functionality, perhaps
represented as an integer field in the model.
3. Comments: An advanced feature could be to let users
leave comments on products. This would be a new
model related to `Product` via a ForeignKey.

Summary
In this chapter, we’ve laid the foundation for our Product
Hunt clone by creating the `Product` model. As you
progress in building the application, this model will play a
crucial role in storing and displaying the products.
Remember to always run migrations after changes and
to consult the Django documentation for any additional
information or functionalities you’d like to add.

Crea ng Products
Assets, Resources, and Materials:
- Django Framework (Get it via pip: `pip install django`)
- PostgreSQL (Download from the official PostgreSQL
website or use your package manager)
- Django’s psycopg2 connector (Install via pip: `pip install
psycopg2`)
- An Integrated Development Environment (IDE) like
Visual Studio Code, PyCharm, or any other of your
choice.
- Web browser for testing

Introduction:
In this chapter, we’re going to delve into the heart of our
Product Hunt clone: the product creation functionality. By
the end of this chapter, users will be able to create new
products, which will then be visible to all users of our
platform.

1. Setting up the Product Model

Before we create products, we need to define what a
product is in terms of data. In Django, this is done using
a Model.
“`python
from django.db import models
from django.contrib.auth.models import User
class Product(models.Model):
title = models.CharField(max_length=255)
url = models.URLField()
pub_date =
models.DateTimeField(auto_now_add=True)
votes_total = models.IntegerField(default=1)
image =
models.ImageField(upload_to=‘products/images/’)
icon =
models.ImageField(upload_to=‘products/icons/’)
body = models.TextField()
hunter = models.ForeignKey(User,
on_delete=models.CASCADE)
“`
This model defines a product with:
- A title
- A URL
- A publication date
- A total vote count
- An image
- An icon
- A body description
- A user (hunter) who created the product.

2. Migrating the Model

After defining the model, we need to create a migration
and then migrate it to create the associated database
table.
Run:
“`bash
python manage.py makemigrations
python manage.py migrate
“`

3. Product Creation Form

For users to create a product, we need a form. Django
simplifies this process by providing `ModelForm`.
“`python
# forms.py
from django import forms
from .models import Product
class ProductForm(forms.ModelForm):
class Meta:
model = Product
fields = [‘title’, ‘url’, ‘image’, ‘icon’, ‘body’]
“`

4. Product Creation View

Now, let’s create the view where our form will be
processed.
“`python
# views.py
from django.shortcuts import render, redirect
from django.contrib.auth.decorators import
login_required
from .forms import ProductForm
@login_required
def create(request):
if request.method == ‘POST’:
form = ProductForm(request.POST,
request.FILES)
if form.is_valid():
product = form.save(commit=False)
product.hunter = request.user
product.save()
return redirect(‘home’)
else:
form = ProductForm()
return render(request, ‘products/create.html’, {‘form’:
form})
“`
Note that we added the `@login_required` decorator.
This ensures that only logged-in users can create
products.

5. Product Creation Template

Finally, let’s create the template for our product creation
page.
`products/create.html`
“`html
{% extends ‘base.html’ %}
{% block content %}
<h2>Add a New Product</h2>
<form method=“post” enctype=“multipart/form-data”>
{% csrf_token %}
{{ form.as_p }}
<button type=“submit”>Add Product</button>
</form>
{% endblock %}
“`

6. URL Configuration
To make our view accessible, we need to add it to our
URL configuration.
“`python
# urls.py
from django.urls import path
from . import views
urlpatterns = [
# … other paths
path(‘create/’, views.create, name=‘create’),
]
“`

7. Testing the Product Creation

Now, run your development server:
“`bash
python manage.py runserver
“`
Visit `http://localhost:8000/create/` in your web browser,
and you should be able to add a new product.

Conclusion:
Creating products is central to our Product Hunt clone.
With the steps above, you’ve set up the essential pieces
to let users create and showcase their products on your
platform.

Iconic
Assets, Resources, and Materials:
- Iconic Website: [ https://useiconic.com/]
(https://useiconic.com/) (Visit the website to access the
vast library of icons. While they do offer premium icons,
there’s also a free version available.)
- Django: Ensure Django is set up and running. You
should be familiar with it, as it is the primary framework
we are using.
- Your Product Hunt Clone project: We will be integrating
Iconic icons into this project.

Introduction to Iconic:
Welcome to the world of beautifully designed icons by
Iconic. They are more than just symbols; they can make
or break the user experience of your web application. An
appropriate icon can efficiently communicate a function
or feature without using words. In this chapter, we’ll be
diving deep into how to integrate the Iconic library into
our Product Hunt Clone Website.

Why Iconic?:
Iconic offers a unique blend of icons designed for clarity
and - most importantly for web developers - scalability.
Their icons are not just flat images; they’re smartly
designed SVG (Scalable Vector Graphics) that ensures
they look crisp and clear at any size, on any device. This
is crucial for our Product Hunt Clone, as we anticipate
users accessing our site from various devices.
Getting Started with Iconic:
1. Access the Iconic Library: Visit the official Iconic
website at [https://useiconic.com/]
(https://useiconic.com/).
2. Choose Your Icons: Browse through their collection.
For the purpose of our project, focus on icons that would
be apt for representing different tech products, user
interactions, etc.
3. Download: Once you’ve selected an icon, you can
download it. For the sake of this tutorial, we’ll be using
the free version.

Integrating Iconic Icons into our Django Project:

1. Setup Static Files: If you haven’t already set up static
files, refer back to Chapter 38. We need this in place to
serve our icons.
2. Place Icons in Static Directory: Navigate to your
project’s static directory and create a new folder called
`icons`. Move all the downloaded Iconic icons to this
folder.
3. Use Iconic in Templates: In your Django templates,
where you want to display an icon, you’ll reference it like
this:
“`html
<img src=”{% static ‘icons/name_of_icon.svg’ %}”
alt=“Description of Icon”>
“`
Replace `name_of_icon.svg` with the actual name of the
Iconic file you’re trying to access.

Styling and Sizing:

Given that Iconic icons are SVGs, they can be easily
styled with CSS. Let’s say you want to change the color
or size of an icon.
“`html
<style>
.iconic {
width: 50px; /* Change width as per requirement */
height: 50px; /* Change height as per requirement
*/
fill: #007BFF; /* Change color using the fill
property */
}
</style>
<img src=”{% static ‘icons/name_of_icon.svg’ %}”
alt=“Description of Icon” class=“iconic”>
“`

Accessibility with Icons:

It’s crucial that while using icons, we don’t forget about
accessibility. Always include an `alt` attribute that
describes the function or content of the icon. This will
ensure that screen readers can convey the meaning of
the icon to users who rely on such technologies.

Conclusion:
Integrating Iconic icons into our Product Hunt Clone
website not only elevates the overall aesthetic but also
enhances user experience. Icons provide a visual clue
about functionality and help users navigate through our
application with ease. Remember, while icons are a
great visual tool, always ensure they are used
appropriately and augment the user’s understanding,
rather than confuse or mislead.
In the next chapter, we will dive deeper into building the
details of each product. Stay tuned!

Note: Ensure you have the necessary permissions to

use any icon or asset in a commercial project. Always
read and understand the license agreements associated
with any third-party resource you use.

Product Details
Assets, Resources, and Materials Required:
- Django Framework (Acquire by running `pip install
django`)
- Bootstrap 4 (Acquire via CDN or download from
[Bootstrap’s official site]( https://getbootstrap.com/ ))
- Sample Product Images (For demonstration purposes,
you can use any royalty-free image website, such as
[Unsplash]( https://unsplash.com/ ))
- Iconic Icons (Acquire via CDN or download from
[Iconic’s official site]( https://useiconic.com/ ))

Introduction
A Product Hunt clone is incomplete without a detailed
view of each product. The product details page plays a
crucial role in this website. This page will not only
showcase the product’s images and description but also
highlight user comments, ratings, and other important
details.
In this chapter, we will walk through creating a detailed
view for our products. This will include displaying the
product’s name, description, image, and allowing users
to interact through comments and ratings.

Setting up the Product Details Model

Before we can create the detailed view, we need to
ensure that our Product model has all the necessary
fields.
models.py:
“`python
from django.db import models
from django.contrib.auth.models import User
class Product(models.Model):
title = models.CharField(max_length=200)
url = models.URLField()
pub_date = models.DateTimeField()
votes_total = models.IntegerField(default=1)
image = models.ImageField(upload_to=‘images/’)
icon = models.ImageField(upload_to=‘images/’)
body = models.TextField()
hunter = models.ForeignKey(User,
on_delete=models.CASCADE)
“`
Ensure that you have already set up media file handling
in your Django settings.

Setting up the Product Details View

To display the product’s details, we’ll create a view.
views.py:
“`python
from django.shortcuts import render, get_object_or_404
from .models import Product
def product_detail(request, product_id):
product = get_object_or_404(Product, pk=product_id)
return render(request, ‘products/detail.html’,
{‘product’: product})
“`
Here, `product_id` will be passed from the URL to fetch
the relevant product. `get_object_or_404` ensures that if
the product doesn’t exist, the user sees a 404 error.

Setting up the URL

To map the view to a URL, make this addition in urls.py:
“`python
from django.urls import path
from . import views
urlpatterns = [
#… other url patterns
path(‘<int:product_id>/’, views.product_detail,
name=‘product_detail’),
]
“`

Product Detail Template

We will use Bootstrap to style our product details page.
Here’s a basic template for products/detail.html:
“`html
{% extends ‘base.html’ %}
{% block content %}
<div class=“container mt-5”>
<div class=“row”>
 <div class=“col-md-6”>
<img src=”{{ product.image.url }}” alt=”{{
product.title }}” class=“img-fluid”>
</div>
<div class=“col-md-6”>
<h2>{{ product.title }}</h2>
<p>{{ product.body }}</p>
<a href=”{{ product.url }}” class=“btn btn-primary”
target=“_blank”>Visit Product</a>
</div>
</div>
<div class=“row mt-5”>
<div class=“col-md-12”>
<h3>Comments</h3>
<!— Placeholder for comments. You can expand
this in future chapters —>
</div>
</div>
</div>
{% endblock %}
“`

Wrapping up
You now have a fully functional product details page.
When a user clicks on a product, they’ll be taken to this
detailed view, showcasing the product’s image, name,
description, and eventually, user comments.
Remember, while we’ve set up the basics, you can
always expand upon this with more stylization, more
information, and more interactive features to make your
Product Hunt Clone even better.
Home Page
Assets, Resources, and Materials:
- Django (Installation required, refer to Chapter 11)
- Bootstrap 4 (Acquired via [Bootstrap’s official website](
https://getbootstrap.com/ ))
- Product Hunt Logo & Images (For this guide, we will
use placeholder images. In a real-world scenario, ensure
you have the appropriate permissions to use any logo or
imagery.)
- Iconic (Acquired via [Iconic’s official website](
https://useiconic.com/ ))
- A code editor (Like Visual Studio Code, which is free to
download and use from [VSCode’s official site](
https://code.visualstudio.com/ ))

Introduction
The home page is the first page visitors see when they
visit a website. For our Product Hunt clone, the home
page will display a list of tech products, their
descriptions, and associated imagery. We’ll incorporate a
modern, user-friendly design using Bootstrap 4 to make
our site responsive and visually appealing.

1. Setting up the Template

1.1. Create a new HTML File
Navigate to the `templates` directory of your Django
project and create a new file named `homepage.html`.
1.2. Basic HTML Structure
In `homepage.html`, start by laying out the basic HTML
structure:
“`html
<!DOCTYPE html>
<html lang=“en”>
<head>
<meta charset=“UTF-8”>
<meta name=“viewport” content=“width=device-width,
initial-scale=1.0”>
<title>Product Hunt Clone</title>
<link
href=“https://stackpath.bootstrapcdn.com/bootstrap/4.5.0
/css/bootstrap.min.css” rel=“stylesheet”>
</head>
<body>
<!— Content goes here —>
</body>
</html>
“`

2. Designing the Navbar

A navigation bar (or navbar) provides quick access to
different sections of a website.
2.1. Using Bootstrap’s Navbar
Insert the following code within the `<body>` tags to
create a navbar:
“`html
<nav class=“navbar navbar-expand-lg navbar-light bg-
light”>
<a class=“navbar-brand” href=”#”>ProductHunt</a>
<!— Add other navbar items here —>
</nav>
“`
3. Displaying Products
Our home page will showcase the tech products.
3.1. Product Grid
Below the navbar, create a section to display products in
a grid format:
“`html
<div class=“container mt-5”>
<div class=“row”>
<!— Individual product cards will go here —>
</div>
</div>
“`
3.2. Django Templating
Use Django’s templating system to loop through the
products and display each one:
“`html
{% for product in products %}
<div class=“col-md-4”>
<div class=“card”>
<img src=”{{ product.image.url }}” alt=”{{
product.name }}” class=“card-img-top”>
<div class=“card-body”>
<h5 class=“card-title”>{{ product.name }}</h5>
<p class=“card-text”>{{ product.description }}
</p>
<a href=”{{ product.link }}” class=“btn btn-
primary”>Learn More</a>
</div>
</div>
</div>
{% endfor %}
“`
Ensure you pass the `products` context from your
Django view to make this work.

4. Footer Section
A footer typically contains information like copyrights,
links to terms of service, etc.
4.1. Adding the Footer
Below the product grid, add:
“`html
<footer class=“mt-5”>
<div class=“container text-center”>
<p>&copy; 2023 ProductHunt Clone. All rights
reserved.</p>
</div>
</footer>
“`

5. Styling and Responsiveness

Using Bootstrap ensures our site is mobile-responsive.
However, you can further tweak styles with custom CSS
if required.

6. Testing the Home Page

Finally, run your Django server and navigate to the home
page URL. Ensure that the products display correctly,
and the site looks good on both desktop and mobile.

Conclusion
In this chapter, we laid out the foundation for the Product
Hunt clone’s home page. With the combination of Django
and Bootstrap, we efficiently displayed our products in a
visually appealing manner. As you continue building out
this project, you can add more features, like sorting or
filtering products, highlighting featured products, and
more. Remember, the key is to maintain user-
friendliness while offering valuable content.

Polish
Assets, Resources, and Materials required for this
chapter:
- A functioning Product Hunt Clone developed in the
preceding chapters.
- Bootstrap 4 (You can get this from the official Bootstrap
website or include it using a CDN in your HTML files).
- Iconic for icons (Available from [useiconic.com](
https://useiconic.com/ )).
- A web browser for viewing and testing.
- Any text editor or Integrated Development Environment
(IDE) for writing and editing the code (e.g., Visual Studio
Code, PyCharm).

Polishing your website is an essential step before

deployment. This ensures that your website is not only
functional but also visually appealing and user-friendly.
In this chapter, we will refine the aesthetics and
functionality of our Product Hunt Clone Website to make
it look professional and intuitive.

1. Responsive Design with Bootstrap 4

Before we dive deep into the polish, we need to ensure
that our site is responsive. This means it should look and
function well on all devices, whether desktop, tablet, or
mobile.
Review Bootstrap Grid System: Remember, Bootstrap’s
grid system allows up to 12 columns across the page.
Use the classes `.col-`, `.col-sm-`, `.col-md-`, and so on
to control the layout based on different device sizes.
Mobile Navbar: If not already done, implement the
collapse navbar for smaller screen sizes using
Bootstrap’s navbar component.

2. Homepage Enhancements
Let’s begin with the homepage.
- Header: Use a larger font size for the website’s title and
align it to the center. Make sure it’s easily readable and
stands out.
- Product Listings: Make sure each product listing has a
clean design. Add padding and margins where
necessary. Every product should have:
- A thumbnail or image.
- Title and brief description.
- An upvote button with the count of upvotes.
- A link to view more details.
- Footer: Add a footer with relevant links, such as terms
of service, privacy policy, and a link back to the
homepage.

3. Product Details Page

- Image Gallery: If a product has multiple images, create
a carousel or slider for the images.
- Description: The product’s description should be clear
and readable. Use appropriate headers and paragraphs.
Consider adding a “Read More/Less” button if the
description is too long.
- Comments Section: Display user comments in a
structured manner. The most recent comments should
appear at the top. Users should also have the option to
upvote or downvote comments.
4. Icons with Iconic
To make your website more interactive and user-friendly,
use icons where necessary.
- Upvote Button: Instead of a plain text upvote button,
use an upward-pointing arrow or thumbs-up icon.
- Comments: Use a speech bubble or chat icon.
- User Profiles: Represent user profiles with a person or
user icon.
Remember, icons should enhance the user experience,
not clutter it. Use them judiciously.

5. User Feedback
Include subtle animations or color changes to provide
feedback when users interact with the website. For
example:
- A slight bounce or change in color when the upvote
button is clicked.
- Form validation feedback, showing green for valid
inputs and red for errors.

6. Consistent Styling
Maintain consistency in font styles, colors, and spacing
across all pages. This not only makes your website look
professional but also provides a seamless experience for
users.

7. Test on Multiple Devices

Before concluding, test your website on various devices.
Ensure:
- Text is readable on all devices.
- All elements are clickable, and there’s no overlap.
- The site loads efficiently on both desktop and mobile
devices.
In conclusion, polishing your website is a mix of design
principles and user experience enhancements. While
functionality is crucial, the look and feel play a significant
role in retaining users and ensuring they have a pleasant
experience. As you continue your journey in web
development, you’ll find that this ‘polish’ phase can often
take as much time as building the core functionality.
However, the effort is worth it, as a polished website
stands out and leaves a lasting impression on its users.

Conclusion
As you close the final pages of this guide, I’d like you to
take a moment to reflect on the journey you’ve embarked
upon. From the humble beginnings of a Python
refresher, all the way to deploying intricate web
applications, you’ve traversed the complexities of Django
2.2 and the broader spectrum of web development. Let’s
summarize and reflect upon what you’ve achieved.

Revisiting the Course Objectives

- Python Refresher: Python is the backbone of Django.
You have revisited its fundamentals, understood its data
structures, and the OOP paradigm, setting a solid
foundation for the rest of the book.
- Word-Counting Website: Your first taste of Django in
action. By creating this simple yet functional site, you’ve
grasped the basics of Django projects, URL routing,
templates, and forms.
- Personal Portfolio: A step up in complexity, you delved
deeper into Django’s capabilities. Working with
databases, the admin panel, static files, and Bootstrap,
you built a site that you can proudly showcase to the
world.
- Git: Understanding version control is paramount in a
developer’s journey. With Git, you learned how to
manage code changes, collaborate with others, and
ensure that you always have a safety net to fall back on.
- VPS and Deployment: The thrill of seeing your work
live on the internet! You comprehended the intricacies of
web deployment, from working with DigitalOcean to
understanding web servers like Gunicorn and Nginx.
- Product Hunt Clone: The pinnacle of your Django
learning experience. Building this sophisticated web
application fortified your understanding of user
authentication, template reuse, model relationships, and
added a touch of aesthetics with Iconic.

Continued Learning
The world of web development is ever-evolving, with
new frameworks, tools, and best practices emerging
regularly. Django, despite being around for a while,
continues to evolve. Always keep an eye out for updates,
new packages, and community advice. Join forums,
attend Django conferences, or engage in online
communities to stay updated.

Your Next Steps

- Dive Deeper into Django: While we’ve covered a lot,
there’s always more to learn. Django’s documentation is
extensive and can provide insights into areas we haven’t
touched upon.
- Specialize: Maybe you found databases fascinating, or
perhaps front-end development with Bootstrap piqued
your interest. Consider diving deeper into these areas
and become a specialist.
- Collaborate: Join open-source Django projects. This
will not only improve your coding skills but will also
expose you to real-world challenges and collaborations.
- Create: The best way to learn is to do. Think of a web
application you’d like to see come to life and start
building. With the knowledge you’ve gained, the sky’s
the limit.

A Final Note
I want to thank you for investing your time in this guide. I
hope it served as a comprehensive, enlightening, and
enjoyable journey into the world of Django 2.2 and web
development. Remember, every developer, regardless of
their stature today, started with a single step, a single
line of code. With the foundations laid in this book, you’re
well on your way to creating impactful, functional, and
aesthetically pleasing web applications. Keep coding,
keep learning, and most importantly, enjoy the process!
—