PM289 ch5

GEORGE ASIMELLIS LECTURES IN OPTICS, VOL 1
5 MICROSCOPES AND TELESCOPES
5.1 MICROSCOPES
5.1.1 Glancing at the Small and Near…
The case of a simple magnifying lens involves a converging lens to achieve a simple
magnification. The simplicity of the setup may be appealing, but there are limits to the useful
magnification attained as well as to working (object) distances. The microscope (μικρο- for
small & -σκοπώ for viewing) is employed to observe an object (usually small) located at a very
small distance.
The invention of the compound microscope dates back to the Dutch spectacle-makers of
th
the 16 century and is related to the invention of the telescope during the same time period.
The invention is claimed by a counterfeiter, Zaccharias Janssen (Ζαχαρίας Ιωαννίδης). This first
hand-held microscope consisted of three draw tubes with lenses inserted into the ends of the
flanking tubes. The objective lens was planoconvex, while the eyepiece lens was biconvex.
Focusing was achieved by sliding the draw tube in or out while observing the sample. Fully
extended, this microscope could achieve a magnification of 10×.
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INTRODUCTION TO OPTICS
Figure 5‐1: (left) Janssen’s compound microscope (1595) on display at the National Museum of Health and
Medicine. (right) Replica of the van Leeuwenhoek simple microscope (1670). (Left image by Alan Hawk
from Wikimedia Commons under license CC0; right image by Jeroen Rouwkema from Wikimedia Commons
under license CC BY‐SA 3.0.)
The success is also claimed by another Dutchman, Hans Lippershey, although Lippershey
is more closely associated with the telescope invention. Around the same time, Italian lens
craftsmen were experimenting with the idea of using lenses to magnify. It is very likely that
Galileo was also a beneficiary of these developments, as he was the first to make a noteworthy
discovery with his telescope (§ 5.2.4.4).
Figure 5‐2: The microscope ‘fathers’: Zaccharias Janssen (1580−1638), Antonie van Leeuwenhoek
(1632−1723), and Hans Lippershey (1570−1619) (portraits from Wikimedia Commons under license CC0).
Yet another Dutchman, Antonie van Leeuwenhoek, proved how valuable a small device
such as a microscope can be. With two turning screws, he managed to accomplish very tight
focusing over tiny samples. He achieved magnifications on the order of 100× and thus opened
the world of exploration into the microcosm. This is why he is called a ‘father’ of microscopy.
Figure 5‐3: Microscope designs of (left) Robert Hooke (1670) and (right) Powell & Lealand (1850) (images
from The National High Magnetic Field Laboratory reprinted with permission).
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MICROSCOPES AND TELESCOPES
Four Nobel prizes have been awarded for work related to microscopy: in 1925 to Richard
Zsigmondy for his ‘ultramicroscope,’ in 1953 to Frits Zernike for his phase-contrast microscope,
in 1986 to Ernst Ruska for his electron microscope, and in 1986 to Gerd Binnig and Heinrich
Rohrer for their scanning tunneling microscope.
5.1.2 Microscope Principle of Operation
The microscope operates on the principle of the combination of two lenses; for this reason, the
microscope is called compound.44 The two lenses are the objective lens and the eyepiece, or
ocular lens. These lenses themselves are generally compound lenses, but we call them simply
the objective and the eyepiece. The objective is so called because it is the proximate to the
object. The eyepiece is so called because we observe the final image through this ‘piece.’ The
image observed through the eye or the recording camera has a magnification substantially
larger than 1.0.
The objective forms a real image with a primary magnification. This intermediate image
is the ‘object’ of the eyepiece. The objective (focal length fo) and the eyepiece (focal length fe)
lens are separated by a distance d = fo + L + fe, which means that their internal foci are separated
by L. The distance L is called the optical tube length and is typically between 16 and 20 cm. The
distance d between the objective and the eyepiece is termed the mechanical tube length.
Figure 5‐4: Architecture of the compound microscope.
44
The compound microscope, a combination of an objective lens and an eyepiece, is the most prevalent microscope configuration.
This simple microscope uses just one lens, the eyepiece, and operates as a magnifying lens.
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The intermediate image is magnified, real, and inverted, and is formed at the eyepiece
focus. The corresponding magnification is the objective magnifying power:
x΄ L  fo L
Mobjective    
x   X fo  fo
We attain the above by using (in the denominator) X = fo × 2/L, where X is the axial separation
of the initial object from the objective lens (as illustrated in Figure 5-4).
This initial image is observed with the eyepiece. Just as in a magnifying lens, for the
largest magnification, the final image is formed at the near point (≈ 25 cm), while for more
comfortable observation (no accommodation) at optical infinity, the primary image is formed at
the eyepiece focal length. If we express the focal length fe in centimeters, the secondary
magnification is
25 cm
Secondary Magnification with image at 25 cm: Meyepiece  1 (5.1)
fe
25 cm
Secondary Magnification with image at ∞: Meyepiece  (5.2)
fe
The total microscope magnification, which is the product of the two magnifications, is
L 25 cm
Microscope Magnification: Mmicroscope  Mobjective  Meyepiece    (5.3)
fo fe
Figure 5‐5: (left) Image of a compound insect eye under a microscope. (right) High‐power objective lenses
in a scientific optical microscope (photos from www.nicepik.com).
The final image is inverted compared to the initial object, with the inversion indicated by
the negative sign of the magnification. This image is, however, a virtual image and may be
simply observed with the naked eye or with another lens. Because the magnification is the
product of two magnifications, it can be very large; with a primary magnification of 20× for the
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objective and a 10× eyepiece, the magnification can reach 200×. For maximum magnification,
we need a very large lens separation L, a short objective focal length fo, and a short eyepiece
focal length fe.
Figure 5‐6: Optical layout of the compound microscope. The entrance pupil is the edge of the objective
lens, and the exit pupil matches the eye’s entrance pupil.
5.1.3 Microscope Resolution
We may be tempted to use a lens system with very short focal lengths (large optical power) and
large separation to increase magnification at will. The problem is that the microscope resolution
sets a limit to how much we can actually magnify. The limit is dependent on the numerical
aperture (NA) of the objective, which is roughly defined by the objective lens diameter.
Diffraction, a wave optics effect, states that the smallest possible image dimension formed by a
point object, the Airy disk, has a radius34 = 1.22 · λ · f/# = 0.61 · λ/NA. This dimension also
expresses the smallest separation between two observable points and thus determines the
resolution. In a microscope, this parameter is magnified by M, the instrument magnification.
Thus, the resolution limit at the exit of the eyepiece is
f 
Microscope Resolution (linear): M  1.22   (f /#)  M  1.22    M  0.61 (5.4)
D NA

Microscope Resolution (angular): M 1.22 (5.5)
D
Example ☞: A microscope with a resolution limit of 0.4 nm can distinguish between two points spaced by
least 0.4 nm. When using shorter wavelengths (for example, blue light instead of red light), the resolution
limit can be nearly halved, which means that the resolving power is nearly doubled.
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The microscope resolution limit must be compatible with the optics that we use to
observe the image, which, in most cases, is the human eye. Wave optics dictates that the human
eye may resolve34 two points if they form approximately 1 arcmin = 0.3 mrad. At the minimum
distance for near vision (near point at 25 cm), their separation (resolution limit) is
Microscope Resolution Limit (eye viewing): 0.3 mrad  0.25 m  0.075 mm (5.6)
   
eye resolving power near point
Useful magnification Museful is the magnification that matches this limit such that two
points can be observed as separate by the human eye:

Useful Magnification (linear): Museful  0.61  0.3 mrad  0.25
 m (5.7)
NA near point
This relationship often approximates numerically to
Useful Magnification: Museful ≈ 200 × NAobjective (5.8)
although it may be extended up to 400×NA when using blue light (shorter wavelength) or a
larger eye pupil diameter. This is why under dim lighting the eye pupil dilates up to 7 mm,
enabling a resolution limit of about 0.05 mrad, which allows for a larger useful magnification.
Beyond this limit, an increase in microscope magnification is meaningless, as the human eye
may not be able to see details that are more closely spaced.
Example ☞: We construct a microscope using the objective lens Nikon Plan Fluor, 20×, NA = 0.5. The
useful magnification ranges between 100× and 200×. We use an eyepiece with power 20×. This is a ‘poor’
combination because, while the magnification is 400×, the useful magnification is far smaller. For the
specific objective lens, it is better to choose an eyepiece of 10×, giving 200× magnification, which is closer
to the useful magnification.
5.1.4 Types of Compound Microscopes
There are two main types of compound microscopes: light and electron.
5.1.4.1 Light Microscopes
In light microscopes, illumination is provided by light, typically visible light. These microscopes’
useful magnification can be from 20× up to 1000×. The resolution limit is on the order of
submicrons (for example, 0.2 µm), about the size of a large virus or a small cell. Light
microscopes are low cost and relatively easy to use, and they can view living tissue. For many
applications, such as screening tissues for signs of cancer or other pathology, light microscopy is
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the preferred tool. A disadvantage of light microscopes is their very shallow depth of field;
when we look at the foreground, the background is defocused.
Light microscopes can have a variety of configurations, including the dissecting, the
bright-field, the dark-field, the phase-contrast, the differential interference contrast, and the
fluorescence microscope.
The dissecting microscope is for viewing large, 3-D specimens in far greater detail than
can be viewed by the naked eye. This microscope provides a view that is comparable to a
strong magnifying lens. It typically magnifies 20× to 40× and requires an external light source.
Most microscopes used in education are bright-field microscopes and require specimens that
either have natural contrast or are stained to provide sufficient contrast. Some stains, called vital
stains, can be used on living tissue; most stains need the sample to be dried and fixed.
The bright-field microscope is not suitable for observation of live cells (no stain); due to
poor contrast, cells look white on a bleached background. This microscope works well with
stained cells. Although the stain kills the cells, it improves contrast. The bright-field microscope
produces the most realistic images of a cell, which appears as white against a dark background.
The phase-contrast microscope is the most sensitive of the microscope types. Live cells
are viewed under 3-D contrast visualization. This microscope uses two beams of light and a
prism; by moving the prism, we see different colors. The phase-contrast microscope has the
best resolution of the light microscopes and is a good option for viewing live cells.
The fluorescence microscope employs ultraviolet light. Cells are stained with fluorescent
dyes called fluorochromes, which energize electrons to create visible light, and thus the
specimen cells become observable.
5.1.4.2 Electron Microscopes
Electron microscopes use a beam of electrons rather than light. They operate at very high
voltages, typically 100,000 V, and in vacuum. Therefore, they are costly and sensitive to
vibrations. Because electrons do not interact well with the light atoms of common organic
elements such as carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen, to improve interaction and increase
contrast, coatings need to be applied over exposed surfaces, or stains need to be applied to the
tissue. Thus, electron microscopes are unable to view living tissue.
The main advantage of electron microscopes is their resolving power. These

microscopes have the highest possible resolution power of all microscopes (up to one million-
fold is possible). The two major types of electron microscope are the transmission electron
microscope (TEM) and the scanning electron microscope (SEM).
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Transmission electron microscopes transmit a beam of electrons through a thin

sample. Samples are either adsorbed directly (as in a virus sample) or prepared as an ultra-thin
section of tissue that has been fixed, stained, dehydrated, and embedded in resin to form a hard
matter. This allows one to view sections of the specimen’s cells, revealing internal structures.
The TEM uses lenses that focus electron radiation. Staining is achieved with heavy metal
salts instead of dyes. Areas with low levels of impregnation of these metal salts produce bright
regions, and heavily impregnated areas produce dark images (low electron transmission). The
advantage of the TEM is the ability to view objects at a very high resolution and to see the
interior of common biological materials. Drawbacks include the limitations of only viewing a
small sample at a time and the need for very thin (0.25 µm) specimens.
Scanning electron microscopes work by scanning a beam of electrons across the

surface of a sample. Secondary electrons emitted by the sample are trapped by a detector that
converts electrons into light signals, which, in turn, are amplified and drive a cathode-ray tube
(similar to a television tube). The resulting image can be viewed and photographed.
SEMs have a large depth of field, as objects in both the foreground and the background
appear almost equally sharp and crisp. By contrast, light microscopes have a very shallow depth
of field, as only a small part of the image is in focus at any one time. Another advantage of the
SEM is that the sample can be very large (such as an entire insect or small flower) and still be
displayed in its entirety in one view. The SEM, therefore, gives the most realistic view of a
specimen. However, this view is only of the outside of the cell; unlike the TEM, the SEM cannot
image inside of cells. The SEM also needs to operate in vacuum, so the viewed cells are never
alive. Its resolution can be 10× better than a bright-field microscope.
A special type of SEM is the scanning probe microscope. This microscope forms
images of surfaces by mechanically moving the probe in a raster scan over the specimen,
forming pixels along the scan lines. The probe–surface interaction is recorded as a function of
position. A raster scan is the pattern of image detection and reconstruction in CRT-type
televisions and is the pattern of image storage and transmission used in most computer image
systems. Each scan line can be transmitted as it is read by the detector, or it can be stored
digitally as an array of pixel values. After each scan line, the position of the scan line is
advanced, typically downward across the image, in a process known as vertical scanning; the
next scan line is then detected, transmitted, stored, retrieved, or displayed.
One advantage of scanning probe microscopy is that its resolution limit is not the optical
aperture but rather the size of the probe–sample interaction volume. Disadvantages of scanning
probe microscopy are that scanning techniques are generally slower in acquiring images due to
the scanning process, and the largest possible image size is generally smaller than that of other
types of SEMs. This type of microscopy also gives a 3-D view of the specimen.
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5.2 TELESCOPES
5.2.1 Observing the Distant…
With a telescope (τηλε- for far & -σκοπώ for viewing) we can observe very distant objects. The
Greek name ‘telescope’ was proposed by the renowned mathematician, Ioannis Dimisianos
(Ιωάννης Δημησιάνος) during a symposium honoring Galileo, at the Academia dei Lincei in 1611.
The invention of the telescope is related to that of the microscope. It is likely that the
first person to build a telescope was Hans Lippershey. The glory, however, goes to Galileo
(Galileo di Vincenzo Bonaiuti de’ Galilei), who was first to demonstrate the use of the telescope
as a scientific tool by proving that there are objects in space that cannot be seen by the unaided
eye. His primitive telescope was just a tube with two lenses fitted at each end. It had poor
magnification, initially 3× and later 10× (see further discussion on this telescope in § 5.2.4.4).
The legend is that on 7 January 1610, Galilei turned his ‘toy’ toward the sky, discovering
Jupiter’s four largest moons (Io, Europa, Ganymede, and Callisto), which he initially named
‘Cosmica Sidera’ (Cosimo’s stars) in honor of Cosimo II de’ Medici, his patron. This was the first
group of objects found to orbit a celestial body other than Earth.
Figure 5‐7: (left) Illustration of the Ptolemaic geocentric system designed by the Portuguese cosmographer
and cartographer Bartolomeu Velho, 1568 (Bibliothèque Nationale, Paris), showing Earth at the center of
all celestial bodies. (right) The heliocentric model of Copernicus, with the sun at the center (both images
from Wikimedia Commons under license CC0).
Galileo’s discovery set into motion a revolution in physical thought, as it shattered the
then current, dominant geocentric theory of the Ptolemaic world system, which placed Earth at
the center of the universe. After observing that other celestial bodies such as Jupiter and Saturn
had satellites orbiting them, the geocentric theory was proven wrong and was gradually
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superseded by the heliocentric model suggested by Copernicus, with the sun at the center of
the universe. Galileo’s observations provided the first-ever validation of Copernican theory.
Figure 5‐8: (left) Galilei demonstrates his telescope to the Doge of Venice, Leonardo Donato. (right) Detail
from Galileo’s notes on his observation of Jupiter’s satellites (images from Wikimedia Commons under
license CC0).
5.2.2 Telescope Principle of Operation
Just like the microscope, the telescope relies on the combined action of the optical elements.
The optical power and the arrangement / location of the lens / reflecting surfaces determine its
properties. Contrary to the microscope, the observed object is located far away. Thus, a nearly
collimated ray bundle is incident on the objective lens. In the microscope, the ray bundle is
highly diverging due to the close proximity of the observed object.
The simplest form of a telescope comprises two converging lenses, one serving as an
objective lens and the other as the eyepiece. The lenses are separated by a distance equal to
the sum of their focal distances. A real image is formed by the objective lens on the focal point
of the eyepiece, as the collimated beam from a distant object focuses on the back focal plane of
the objective. The eyepiece then forms a virtual image from this real, initial image to optical
infinity. This virtual image can be observed by the naked eye at the exit pupil of the optical
system.
The telescope length is d = fo + fe. This is a mathematical expression of the fact that the
back focus of the objective coincides with the front focus of the eyepiece (Figure 5-9). Thus,
outside the telescope tube, we have only collimated beams. Both the object-space beam (from
the object to the objective lens) and the image-space beam (between the eyepiece and the exit
pupil) are collimated.
The telescope, therefore, is an afocal system, having zero optical power F. This may
derive directly from Gullstrand’s relationship,45 in which F is the optical power, f is the focal
45
Geometrical Optics § 6.1.1 Equivalent Optical Power and Focal Length.
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length, and d is the spacing along the axis between the two elements. Subscripts o and e
correspond to objective and eyepiece, respectively:
d 1 1 f  fe 1 1 fe  fo f  fe
Ftelescope  Fo  Fe   Fo  Fe    o     o  0 (5.9)
1 fo fe 1 fo fe fe  fo fe  fo
Figure 5‐9: Telescope optical setup.
The fact that a telescope is an afocal system means that both of its principal planes are
located at infinity. Indeed, the locations δ and δ΄ of the principal points are derived from the
relationships in Eq. (6.5) presented in Geometrical Optics:46
Fo 1 Fo Fe 1 Fe
΄   d   = d  = and   d  = d = (5.10)
Ftelescope 1 0 Ftelescope 1 0
Just as in a microscope, the aperture stop and the entrance pupil coincide with the edge
rim of the objective lens, while the exit pupil (the image of the objective lens rim formed by the
eyepiece lens) is defined by the objective lens diameter and the telescope magnification.
5.2.3 Magnification, Light-Gathering Power, and Resolution
5.2.3.1 Telescope Magnification
It may be difficult to understand how the telescope magnifies since both the entering beam and
the exiting beam are collimated. The explanation lies in the fact that the exiting beam has a
smaller diameter than the entering beam. This is why objects viewed through the telescope
appear larger compared to the way they appear to the naked eye. The telescope ‘compresses’
the collimated beam (coming from a distant object such as a celestial body) from a diameter
equal to that of the objective lens (entrance pupil) to a diameter equal to that of the eye’s pupil
(exit pupil). The telescope thus increases the angle by which the object is viewed.
46
Geometrical Optics § 6.2.1 Principal Points and Principal Planes.
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Telescope magnification is the apparent magnification that compares the viewing angle
through the telescope to the viewing angle through the eye. It is, therefore, an angular
magnification,47 defined as a ratio of angles (ϑe / ϑo), which also equals the ratio of beam
diameters (entrance lo / exit le) and equals the ratio of focal lengths (objective fo / eyepiece fe):
o l f d
Telescope Magnification: M   o  o  (5.11)
e le fe fe
where the approximation is valid for d = fo + fe ≈ fo, under the condition that fe « fo.
Figure 5‐10: In the telescope, magnification is the ratio of beam diameters (entrance lo / exit le), which also
equals the ratio of angles ϑe/ϑo and equals the ratio of focal lengths (objective fo / eyepiece fe).
To achieve large magnification, both a large telescope length (essentially, a large

objective lens focal length) and a short eyepiece focal length are required. For a given telescope
length, if we swap the eyepiece with another eyepiece having twice the optical power (half of
the focal length), then the telescope magnification simply doubles, and the diameter of the
exiting beam le shrinks by a factor of two.
• The concept of linear magnification does not apply to telescopes because a telescope is
an afocal system.
• Angular magnification compares the angular subtense created by the telescope to the
angular subtense in the unaided eye.
• The telescope magnification can be considered as equalling the ratio of the exit pupil to
the entrance pupil, which approximately equals the ratio of the focal distance of the
objective to the focal distance of the eyepiece lens.
47
Geometrical Optics § 3.3.1 Angular Magnification.
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This argument may suggest that it is rather easy to increase the telescope magnification.
Simply using an eyepiece lens with a very short focal length (very large optical power) may
increase the telescope magnification. This, however, is not realistic. There are two main
parameters that practically limit the extent of magnification for a given configuration:
• The exit pupil may not be smaller than the smallest size of the eye’s pupil, which is 1 to
2 mm in diameter. This sets an upper limit to telescope magnification. On the other
end, the exit pupil may not be larger than the largest size of the eye’s pupil, which is 6 to
7 mm. This sets a lower limit to telescope magnification.
• The telescope resolution ability, which defines the size of the visible detail, is dependent
not on the eyepiece, but on the objective lens, and is related to the useful telescope
magnification in a fashion similar to the microscope’s relation to its useful magnification.
Magnification between 25× and 50× is considered to be small and is suitable only for
observation in a wide field; 50×−100× is useful for simple astronomical observations; and
120×−250× is considered to be large and is used for observing small celestial objects and
double stars. Magnification larger than 200× demands delicate manipulation and a very clear
atmosphere.
Is the telescope actually magnifying?
Unlike a microscope, the telescope lateral magnification is smaller than 1.0; we can observe a real image
of the sun projected onto a screen via a telescope.
The image’s diameter is much smaller than the diameter of the sun, so the lateral magnification is a very
small number.
This image, however, is perhaps 20 to 50 times larger than it would appear through the naked eye.
5.2.3.2 Telescope Light-Gathering Power
Every optical image, including a telescope image, is a light distribution pattern. A requirement
for seeing a very dim star is the ability to collect light from it.
Light-gathering power (or light grasp) describes this property. It is dependent mainly
on the entrance pupil diameter D, which, in practice, is the diameter of the objective lens or
mirror that defines the entry of the image-forming luminous flux into the instrument. The
relationship that expresses how much brighter a star appears is called telescope gain and is 5
log(D/δ). A telescope of diameter D mm (compared to the human eye pupil of diameter
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δ = 7 mm) may collect up to (D/7)2 = M2 times more light from the same star. For example, if
D = 140 mm, then the telescope gathers 400 times more light. Because the ratio of diameters
(entry lo / exit le) equals M, the cross-section surface of the beam bundle is reduced at the exit
pupil by a factor of M2. However, the luminous flux is fixed, so the intensity at the image plane
increases by a factor of M2.
With the telescope, therefore, we may observe faint objects because the light intensity at
the image is M2 times brighter. Most of the stars observed with a telescope are not visible with
the unaided eye. For the same reason, we should never stare at any part of the solar image
formed by a telescope because high brightness can damage the eye.
How bright a star appears to an observer on Earth depends on the amount of light a star
gives off and its distance from Earth. In astronomy, celestial objects are classified by the
apparent visual magnitude mV, a measure of brightness as seen by an observer on Earth. The
larger the mV, the dimmer a star appears. The magnitude scale is logarithmic; a difference in
magnitude of 1 corresponds to a brightness difference by a factor of [1/ log(e)] = 2.512. The
scale extends from negative numbers (very bright objects) to numbers larger than 6 (faint
objects). The brightest stars in the night sky are Sirius (mV = −1.42) and Vega (mV = +0.03). The
apparent magnitude of the sun is −26.5, and the mean apparent magnitude of the full moon is
−12.5. The dimmest stars observable with the unaided eye have mV = 6.5. With a telescope of D
= 60 mm and exit pupil δ = 6 mm, we may observe a star of mV = 11.5.
5.2.3.3 Telescope Resolving Power
The main purpose of a telescope is not just to magnify an object. If this was the case, we could
simply place a magnifying lens over a print photograph of the night sky. The problem is that no
additional information is derived from such an action. The key to obtaining new information is
increased resolution (along with, of course, the detection of dimmer objects). There are, indeed,
relatively inexpensive telescopes that may offer magnifications on the order of 200×, while a
scientific telescope offering the same magnification may be very expensive to buy because it can
resolve finer details. The minimum angle of resolution ϑoMIN is an expression of the resolution limit.
Astronomy refers to angles ‘on’ the sky as if stars and other celestial bodies were spots
on a dome ceiling. The angular separation is not the actual distance between the observed
objects, which may be many light years apart. Angles are reported in arcminutes
(1΄ = º/60 ≈ 0.29 mrad) and arcseconds (1" = 1΄/60 ≈ 4.85 μrad). An arcsecond (1") is a typical
resolution of a good telescope. Very powerful telescopes resolve fractions of an arcsecond.
In a telescope, the entrance pupil is defined by the diameter of the objective lens;
therefore, the larger the objective lens diameter D, the smaller the smallest resolvable angle. For
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the mean visible wavelength (λ = 0.5 μm), a simple formula for the minimum angle of resolution
expressed in arcseconds is
116
Minimum angle of resolution ["] = (5.12)
D mm
where the objective lens diameter D is expressed in millimeters. This empirical formula is called
Dawes limit after William Rutter Dawes, who described in 1867 a practical limit of resolution for
astronomical observations by simple experimentation. For a finer (smaller) resolving limit, we
would need an objective lens with a larger diameter.
Example ☞: A telescope with an objective lens of D = 2 m can resolve (under visible light) objects that are
angularly separated by ≈ 0.06".
Resolution can be affected by the wavelength or color. In critical cases, we can use
chromatic filters. A shorter wavelength provides better resolution, as the minimum angle of
resolution is proportional to the wavelength of the observed object.
Food for thought : We struggle to resolve a double star with a telescope (i.e., the double star is not
resolved). To improve resolution, we decide to employ a chromatic filter. Would we choose a blue filter
or a red one?
5.2.3.4 Splitting a Double Star
The importance of a large resolving power in a telescope is evident when observing a double
star, which is a pair of stars with very small angular separation that appear as one when viewed
with the naked eye or a low-resolution telescope. An optical double star consists of two stars
that appear to be close together, but are merely in a coincidental alignment as seen from Earth.
While in fact they may be many light years apart, the two stars appear close to each other due
to the projection effect. A binary star is a physical double star system consisting of two stars
revolving around their common center of gravity; it can also appear as a double star.
It is estimated that one-third to one-half of all stars belong to double-star systems.

Some double stars consist of a faint star close to a bright star, while others consist of two stars
of nearly equal magnitudes. There are also systems with three or more members, called
multiple stars. In amateur astronomy, double stars offer both fascination and challenges as they
are tempting observing targets. Double-star splitting (or separation) means observing a
double star with adequate resolution.
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One of the most stunning and easily observed double stars is Albireo (mv = 3.0) in
Cygnus, the ‘swan’ constellation (β Cycni). Of its two stars, the brighter golden Albireo A
(mv = 3.1)48 is in sharp contrast to the dimmer Albireo B blue-green (mv = 5.1). These stars have
an apparent separation of ≈ 35". The unaided eye cannot see the two stars, but a simple 7×
telescope will split this double star [Figure 5-11 (left)].
Figure 5‐11: Double stars (left) Albireo viewed through a simple telescope and (right) Capella viewed
through the Cambridge Optical Aperture Synthesis Telescope (COAST/MRAO). (Left image from The
University of Manchester Jodrell Bank Observatory www.jodrellbank.manchester.ac.uk; right image from
www.skyandtelescope.com.)
Another impressive double star is Eta Cassiopeiae, whose yellow and red stars are
separated by 13 arcsec. Capella, designated α Aurigae, is the brightest star in the constellation
Auriga (the ‘charioteer’), the sixth brightest in the night sky, and the third brightest in the
northern celestial hemisphere, with mv = 0.08. It is a system of four stars grouped in two binary
pairs [Figure 5-11 (right)]. The primary pair consists of two bright, type-G, giant stars, the
Capella Aa and Capella Ab, which are ‘suns’ of about 3 times the mass of our sun. Their
separation is very tight, nearly 0.05", which is very small: 20× smaller than a 1" separation.
Capella can only be resolved by very powerful telescopes.
5.2.3.5 Useful and Maximum Magnification
The reason we magnify with the telescope is none other than to render its resolution visible to
the eye (or the detector). The value of magnification that optimizes resolution is called useful
magnification. In a manner similar to that used with a microscope, to calculate useful
magnification we need the minimum angle of resolution at the eyepiece exit, which is the
minimum angle of resolution of the objective times the telescope magnification:
1.22  
e MIN  M  o MIN  M  (5.13)
  D
eyepiece minimum angle of resolution
48
Albireo A has been found with advanced telescopic techniques to be two stars as well.
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We then equate this value to the minimum angle of resolution for the eye, which is
approximately 0.3 mrad (or 1΄ ) for a pupil diameter D = 2 mm:

Museful  1.22   0.3 mrad (5.14)
 
D  eye resolving power
eyepiece minimum angle of resolution
With a bit of math we find that, for the mean visible wavelength (λ = 0.55 μm), the useful
telescope magnification is
Telescope Useful Magnification: Museful = 5 · D [cm] = 0.5 · D [mm] (5.15)
and may reach 10 × D (expressed in centimeters) or D (expressed in millimeters) for a larger pupil,
for which the minimum angle of resolution is the smallest (largest resolving power of the eye).
It is of no real benefit to further increase the telescope magnification beyond the useful
magnification. By increasing the magnification (with a more powerful eyepiece), the images do
increase in size, but are dimmer, with no gain in resolving power; in other words, we gain no
new information. For this reason, the largest telescope magnification is at most twice the useful
magnification. A simple formula equates maximum telescope magnification to the objective
lens diameter, expressed in millimeters:
Mmax = D [mm] (5.16)
Example ☞: A telescope with objective lens diameter lens D = 10 cm has a useful magnification 50× and a
maximum magnification 100×.
5.2.3.6 Exit Pupil and Minimum Resolution
In a telescope, the exit pupil may be optimally matched (in pupil size and location) to the
observing eye. This way the observation is optimized. We now apply simple math: The
entrance pupil coincides with the aperture stop, which is the objective lens with diameter D. The
exit pupil, which is the image of the aperture stop through the eyepiece, has diameter Dep
D D fe
Exit Pupil Diameter: Dep   fe  (5.17)
M d  f #o
where (f/#)o refers to the objective lens’ F-number (f/#), which equals fo/D = d/D.
Example ☞: A telescope with objective f/# = 5 and eyepiece fe = 25 mm has exit pupil D = 5 mm.
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Example ☞: A telescope with D = 50 mm and M = 7× is, according to the above rule, properly designed, as
the exit pupil has D = 7.1 mm (50/7 = 7.1). On the contrary, an 8 × 25 pocket binocular set has exit pupil D
= 3.1 mm (25/8 = 3.1).
The exit pupil diameter may be increased for smaller magnification (= D/M). There is no
point in increasing the exit pupil diameter beyond 7 mm, which is the largest diameter of the
human eye pupil in dim light. Furthermore, optical aberrations significantly increase in large eye
pupils. For this reason, we define the minimum telescope magnification as
D mm
Mminimum  (5.18)
7
Table 5‐1: Magnification, exit pupil diameter, and eyepiece focal length in a telescope.
Magnification Exit pupil size M fe
Minimum 7 mm D [mm] ÷ 7 7 × f/#

Useful 2 mm D [mm] ÷ 2 2 × f/#
Maximum 1 mm D [mm] f/#
Figure 5‐12: The telescope on the left (D = 90 mm, f/13.8) has a useful magnification of 45× and a
maximum magnification of 90×. This can be achieved with an eyepiece with fe = 14 mm. The telescope on
the right (D = 254 mm, f/10) has useful a magnification of 127× and a maximum magnification of 254×.
This may be achieved with an eyepiece with fe = 10 mm.
5.2.3.7 Telescope Field Stop and Field of View
While the edge of the objective in a telescope acts as the aperture stop and the entrance pupil,
the edge of the eyepiece acts as the field stop as well as the exit window. Because of this, the
edge of the eyepiece defines the field of view (FoV),49 which is an expression of the angular
extent of the sky that we can see at any given time.
49
Geometrical Optics § 7.3.4 Size of the Field of View.
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In a telescope, the field of view is defined by the eyepiece apparent field of view (i.e., the
FoV if the eyepiece were to be used alone) and the telescope magnification:
eyepiece apparent field

field of view = (5.19)
telescope magnification
Example ☞: We use a telescope with magnification 100× and an eyepiece with apparent field 50º. The real
angular field of view is 50º/100 = 0.50º = 30΄.
If the FoV is 30’, we may view a section of the sky that is as large as the solar disk. If this
telescope was terrestrial, it would be more useful to express the field of view in a linear form. At
1000 m this telescope may see in its entirety an object that is 8.72 m wide.
Figure 5‐13: The larger the telescope magnification, the smaller the field of view. From left to right, 1×, 2×,
4×, 8×, and 16×.
Another relationship concerning the field of view in a telescope is:
field stop diameter

field of view = (5.20)
objective focal length
The above relationship produces the field of view in radians, which can be converted to degrees
by 360º/2π = 57.3º.
A small field of view is not always desirable since observation is for one small part of the
sky at a time. For example, with an angular field of view (aFoV, see § 6.2.2) of 0.25º = 16΄, we can
observe part of the sky that surrounds a very interesting, unbarred, spiral galaxy NGC 772 in the
constellation Aries (Figure 5-14). With a half aFoV and the same focal length, the real
observable field becomes 8΄.
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Figure 5‐14: The spiral galaxy NGC 772 as seen through a telescope with (left) aFoV 15΄, (center) aFoV 8΄,
and (right) aFoV 8΄ with 2× more magnification (image by Ole Nielsen modified from Wikimedia Commons
under license CC BY‐SA 2.5).
5.2.4 Telescope Types and Designs
A major distinction in telescope types is based on the kind of objective imaging system used.
Refracting telescopes (refractors) use lenses, while reflecting telescopes (reflectors) use
mirrors. Refracting telescopes are currently mainly used for amateur astronomical observations,
while reflecting telescopes enjoy a far broader range of applications, from amateur use to large
exploratory observatories.
5.2.4.1 Astronomical / Kepler-type Telescope
The Keplerian architecture, designed by Johannes Kepler in 1611, is a simple refracting

telescope. It has a positive objective lens and a positive eyepiece separated by the sum of their
focal lengths (Figure 5-15). The image is inverted, but this is not a problem in astronomy
because, when viewing celestial bodies, the earthly reference of up–down is immaterial.50
Figure 5‐15: Optical arrangement of a Kepler‐type telescope.
50
Kepler actually considered placing a third positive lens between the objective and the eyepiece to erect the image. This
configuration was not realized because, without the erecting lens, the image, although inverted, is brighter (fewer refracting surfaces
and therefore fewer losses) and the field of view is larger.
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The Keplerian architecture has been extensively used in astronomical observations;

therefore, a Kepler-type telescope is also called an astronomical telescope. Among the
advantages of this type of telescope are a very wide field of view and greater eye relief
compared to other types, such as the Galilei-type telescope.
The use of Kleper-type telescopes in historical astronomical observations necessitated a

large objective lens. But how large? The largest objective diameter ever successfully used in an
astronomical telescope was 1 m. This was the large refractor [D = 1.04 m (40 inch), fo = 19.4 m]
at the Yerkes Observatory (Figure 5-16), Williams Bay, Wisconsin, built in 1897. Although
engineers pursued even larger objectives to improve the resolution, objective lenses had
reached their diameter limit and could be made no larger for the following reasons.
As the diameter increased, the lenses became more bulky and massive. It is challenging
to optically align and maintain shape tolerances over a large span of temperatures atop the
required long tube. Casting introduces bulk imperfections such as bubbles into the glass,
making the lenses unusable. Large lenses had to be so thick at the center that absorption was
significant. There was no gain in brightness other than that produced by the smaller mirrors of
reflecting telescopes (§ 5.2.4.7), which are less expensive and easier to build than glass lenses.
Figure 5‐16: The 1.0 m (40 inch) refractor at the Yerkes Observatory, the largest refractor ever put into
astronomical use. (left) Albert Einstein’s visit to the observatory in 1921. (right) Detail of the lens. (Photos
from Vatican Observatory www.vofoundation.org/blog/observing‐worlds‐largest‐refractor reprinted with
permission from Christopher M. Graney.)
Mounting such a heavy lens at the outer end of the tube and mechanically securing it
was also increasingly complicated. Because light has to pass through the entire lens for a
refracting telescope to work, the lens can only be supported by its thin edges. With no support
at the center, where the glass is thickest, the glass sags in the middle as a result of gravity
deforming the lens. The ascension motors (§ 5.2.4.2) had to be increasingly complicated, too.
The Great Paris Exhibition telescope (D = 1.25 m, fo = 57 m) would have been the largest
refractor ever, but it never achieved first light, a term used to note the inaugural operation. A
previous record-holder was the 25 inch refractor manufactured by Thomas Cooke in 1869 for
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Robert Stirling Newall (D = 62.5 cm, fo = 9.1 m). This telescope was initially placed at Newall’s
private observatory at Ferndene, Gateshead, England and then at the Cambridge Observatory
after his death in 1889. In 1958, the Newall telescope was donated to the National Observatory,
Greece, Penteli Astronomical Station (just north of Athens), where it is still used for outreach.
Figure 5‐17: (left) The R.S. Newall 25 inch refractor at the National Observatory, Athens, Greece aimed at
Orion (photo by Theofanis Matsopoulos reprinted with permission). (right) A typical amateur
astronomical telescope is usually fitted with a collinear small telescope for initial scoping. Prisms aid in
observation around the zenith orientation (image from Animesh Lahiri’s blog
www.lanimeshastro.blogspot.com/2012_05_01_archive.html).
Microscope: Telescope:
For observing near objects: For observing distant objects:
• The lens separation is larger than the sum of • The lens separation equals the sum of the
the focal distances. focal distances.
• The image is: • The image is:
• larger than the object • smaller than the object
• inverted • inverted (in most cases)
• dimmer • brighter
5.2.4.2 Telescope Mounts and Rotation
The earth rotates, as do observers who are standing on it. This gives the appearance that the
stars are circling in the sky, which is an apparent motion termed diurnal motion. Observed with
the bare eye, stars move very slowly (1 revolution in 24 hours). The telescope, however,
increases this speed proportionally; with a 100× telescope, stars move 100 times faster. Using
an eyepiece with aFoV of 50° in a telescope with a magnification of 100×, it takes just 2 minutes
for a star to cross the entire aFoV. This is an undesired effect for astrophotography, which
demands very precise polar alignment since imaging of faint stars, galaxies, or nebulae requires
tracking on the target with very long exposure times.
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Regardless of how long we may stare at the sky through an eyepiece, we will not be able
to see some faint stars. Taking a photograph, however, allows for light from these faint objects
to accumulate over a long exposure time, for example, 30 seconds. Even a star too dim to
register is eventually recorded if the exposure time is sufficient; for this to work, however, the
telescope must ‘fixate’ over the spotted star without rotating around the earth.
Exact compensation for the earth’s rotation is only possible if both the axis of the
telescope tube and the polar axis of the earth are in perfect and fixed alignment. The two main
configurations that permit this compensation use equatorial (or polar) mounts or altazimuth
(altitude-azimuth or alt-az) mounts.
Altazimuth mounts are designed for simple left – right and up – down operation in which
the tube rotates around the equator. Rotation about the vertical axis varies the azimuth, the
compass bearing of the telescope direction. Rotation about the horizontal axis varies the altitude,
the elevation angle. The altazimuth mount design is simple and thus affordable, particularly in the
Dobsonian version. However, these mounts are unable to properly track equatorial motion unless
they are equipped with computer-control–based, two-axis drive systems.
Equatorial mounts operate using a different principle than their altazimuth

counterparts. These mounts correspond more closely to the individual observer location and
the rotation of the earth as it relates to the sky. The north–south axis points to the celestial pole
(the pivot on which the sky appears to rotate), allowing an east–west arc swing. The
perpendicular declination axis allows a north–south arc swing (declination).
Figure 5‐18: The two main types of telescope mounts: (left) equatorial and (right) altazimuth.
With equatorial mounts, only one rotation is needed. The polar mount is employed for
impressive long-exposure night shots. The achieved circumpolar star trail effect (Figure 5-19) is
caused by the earth rotating while the camera is fixed toward the ‘stationary’ celestial pole.
North stars appear to move in a counter-clockwise circular motion around the North celestial
pole, and the sky appears to rotate westward, while the opposite occurs in the Southern
hemisphere.
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Figure 5‐19: Star trails appear to circle in these two long‐exposure photographs. The ‘spin’ effect is
created by the earth’s rotation while the telescope is centered on the celestial pole. (left) A South celestial
pole star trail photograph taken with a 9 hour exposure June 2014 in Cape Town, South Africa (by Eric
Nathan www.ericnathan.com reprinted with permission). (right) A North celestial pole star trail
photograph with a 3 hour exposure taken at the ancient theater of Dononi, Epirus District, Greece (by
Theofanis Matsopoulos reprinted with permission). The small arc (with the same angular degree) of the
star Polaris is recorded very close to the pole.
5.2.4.3 The Terrestrial Telescope
When observing earthly objects, we want the image to be erect rather than inverted. Therefore,
the terrestrial telescope is an erecting telescope. Although the simplest and oldest erecting
telescope was the Galilean, the term terrestrial is associated with a specific design that inverts
the inverted internal image—a modification of the Keplerian telescope. An additional positive
relay lens is placed between the objective and the eyepiece. Its location and focal length cause
the initial intermediate image to be formed at twice its focal distance. This relay lens then forms
a real image that is exactly the same size but, once again, inverted; thus, the final, observed
image is erect (Figure 5-20).
Figure 5‐20: Optical arrangement of an erecting terrestrial telescope.
This erect second image is formed at the primary focal point of the eyepiece and therefore
is observed at optical infinity. The telescope length is f1 + 4f3 + f2, which results in relatively long
tube lengths, particularly if a large magnification is desired, which necessitates a long f1.
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The two additional refracting surfaces introduced by the lens may reduce the luminous
flux by at least 8% unless anti-reflection coatings are used. Recall that for a typical air–glass
interface there is an approximately 4% loss by reflection.51 Furthermore, there are also losses
due to absorption and scattering by the additional optical surfaces that are introduced.
5.2.4.4 The Galilei-type Telescope
The Galilei-type telescope is the first-ever telescope and was designed by Galileo. The objective lens
is, as always, a positive converging lens that forms a real and inverted image at the primary focal
point of the eyepiece. The eyepiece is a diverging negative lens. The two lenses are separated by
not the sum, but by the difference, of their focal lengths. Precisely speaking, this separation is the
algebraic sum of the two focal distances since the eyepiece focal length is negative.
Figure 5‐21: Optical arrangement of a Galilei‐type telescope.
Because the eyepiece is negative, the observed image is erect (Figure 5-22). This design
was initially meant for earthly observations—to spy on incoming warships and forecast the
arrival of merchant ships (as in The Merchant of Venice). Advance information on a ship’s arrival
could be used to benefit people placing bets on the timing of such an occurrence.
Figure 5‐22: The observed image in the Galilei‐type telescope is erect. Compare with Figure 5‐15.
51
Wave Optics § 2.5.2.1 Fresnel Coefficients of Reflection.
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Due to its design, therefore, the Galilei telescope is an erecting telescope that does not
need an erecting lens as in terrestrial telescopes, or a prism as in binoculars. As in any
telescope, the magnification is the ratio of the focal length of the objective to the focal length of
the eyepiece.
In the original telescope built by Galilei, the objective lens was planoconvex with its
curved surface facing outward (fo = 1 m, D = 2.5 cm). The eyepiece was planoconcave (fe
= –5 cm). The field was ~ 0.25 º (15΄ ); in other words, it could see half of the lunar disk or 4 m at
1000 m. Qualitatively, compared to today’s lenses, these lenses would leave a lot to be desired.
They were of poor quality, containing trapped air bubbles. The clarity was also compromised as
the glass had a green tint. The lens curvatures were satisfactory at the center but disappointing
at the periphery, while the lens polish was poor. Thus, the image clarity was acceptable only at
the lens center. Despite these flaws and shortcomings, it was this telescope that opened the
world of exploration to today’s advanced optical instruments.
Figure 5‐23: Galileo telescope replica in the Extending the Eye exhibit at the Griffith Observatory in Los
Angeles, California. The replica was made by Jim and Rhoda Morris in 2006. (left) The telescope tube.
(right) Detail of the eyepiece lens side.
The fact that the eyepiece is a negative lens—a unique feature of the Galilei-type
telescope—gives specific, distinct properties to this type; the exit pupil is a virtual image (not a
real one) of the objective lens edge (which is the aperture stop) and is located between the two
lenses. Thus, when the telescope is fixed and the observer moves his eye, the movement of the
exit pupil appears to match the eye movement, while in the astronomical telescope types, this
movement appears to be opposite to the eye movement.
In addition, it is impossible to match the telescope exit pupil to the entrance pupil of the
eye (pupil matching); thus, the eye is placed at the closest possible point to the eyepiece. At
this position, the eye’s entrance pupil plays the role of the aperture stop (and exit pupil) for the
combined optical system telescope-eye.
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Figure 5‐24: In the Galilei‐type telescope, the field of view is dependent on the illumination.
The problem is that the field of view is variable since it is dependent on the eye’s pupil
diameter and not the specifics (fo, D, fe) of the telescope. The eye’s pupil diameter changes with
ambient light (from 2 mm to 7 mm), and, accordingly, as the observer focuses on the object—
with dim light reaching the pupil only through the telescope—the exit pupil increases in size.
The Galilei architecture is not used in observational telescopes, except for specific
applications that necessitate compactness, such as in opera glasses (Figure 5-25). Another
example of the compactness of the Galilei design (in an inverted version) is applied at the door
scopes. Galilei telescopes are also used as laser beam expanders because they lack a physical
internal focal point (energy condensed in a very tight spot), thus avoiding possible laser
ionization effects. These telescopes are also used as telescopic low-vision aids (§ 5.2.7).
Figure 5‐25: Compact Galilei‐type telescopes used as opera glasses (left image from
www.neweyesoldskies.com; right image from www.kovels.com).
Lens arrangement: (+) Objective and Lens arrangement: (+) Objective and
Galilean
Keplerian / Astronomical
(–) Ocular Eyepiece (+) Ocular Eyepiece

Aperture stop and entrance pupil: The Aperture stop and entrance pupil: The
objective lens rim objective lens rim
Exit pupil: Inside the telescope Exit pupil: Outside the telescope (can
Field of view: Smaller and variable achieve pupil matching)
Type of image: Erect Field of view: Larger and fixed
Magnification: Usually smaller Type of image: Inverted
Telescope length: Usually smaller Magnification: Usually larger

Telescope length: Usually larger
Figure 5‐26: Galilean telescope versus Keplerian telescope.
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5.2.4.5 Binoculars
The binocular, or prismatic telescope, is a type of erecting telescope of low to medium

magnification (up to ~ 20×). It is usually paired, offering binocular vision and therefore the
perception of depth. The monocular (single) version is called a spotting scope, which has larger
magnification than binoculars. The main ‘body’ of a binocular is a refracting telescope, having
all the features of its respective type.
Image erection, if needed, is achieved with a set of prisms between the objective and the
eyepiece, which are, in other words, inside the ‘body’ of the telescope. The two main prism
types are Porro and Pechan (roof). The Porro type is a right-angle prism in a 180° deviation
arrangement (as shown in § 3.3.3), in which the beams enter (and exit) perpendicularly to the
prism base, having been subject to total internal reflection at the side surfaces.
Figure 5‐27: Binocular types with (left) a Porro prism and (center) a Pechan prism. (right) Spotting scope
(monocular) with a Porro (erecting) prism.
In a simple Porro prism, after two internal reflections, there is right–left inversion, and
with a proper combination of two such prisms, there is a complete image inversion, which is
both right–left and up–down. In addition, the prisms, in part, also allow for a shorter device.
This is because, over a given length, the optical path length is longer due to the refractive index
of the media. Thus, the optical instrument can have a shorter length compared to an equivalent
telescope.
Figure 5‐28: Image inversion with Porro prisms.
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It is typical for the magnification M and the objective diameter D values to be inscribed
on the body of the binoculars (e.g., 8.5 × 42, which means M = 8.5× and objective D = 42 mm).
This provides a quick estimate of the suitability of a given set of binoculars, as well as the basic
features of the device. For example, the exit pupil diameter is the ratio of the objective (in
millimeters) to the magnification.
Figure 5‐29: Binoculars marked (left) 8.5 × 42 and (right) 7 × 50. The left set has a magnification of 8.5
and an objective lens diameter of 42 mm, while the right set has a magnification of 7 and an objective lens
diameter of 50 mm.
Table 5‐2: Field of view and magnification in binoculars.
8×42,
4×21 10×50
7×35, 7×50, 10×42, 12×50
Sports 8×42 10×50 Suitable for night
Nature
events and vision, having very
The 'typical' Small size, lovers, bird
opera large light-
binoculars wide field of watchers
viewing gathering power
view
Figure 5‐30: (left) The bright circular spot projected onto the observer’s eye corresponds to the exit pupil of
the ‘telescope.’ Note that the exit pupil is slightly larger than the eye’s pupil. (right) The exit pupil is the
white circle seen through the eyepiece. Top: 10 × 32 binoculars with aFoV 6.5°; bottom: 8.5 × 42 binoculars
with aFoV 7.4°. (Photos by Michael and Diane Porter www.birdwatching.com reprinted with permission.)
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I can see more with • Correct, but let's clarify the 'I can see more' part of this statement. The field of view is
more 'powerful' reduced, rather than increased, in more 'powerful' binoculars (capable of larger
magnification M). Binoculars with large M show more detail over a smaller field of view.
binoculars.
Larger (in terms of • Wrong. The objective size (diameter) does not influence magnification, which is
objective diameter) the ratio of the objective focal distance to the eyepiece focal distance. Binoculars
binoculars are more with a larger objective lens diameter, however, do have larger light-gathering
powerful. power and larger resolving power, both of which depend on the diameter.
5.2.4.6 Reflecting or Catoptric Telescopes
The reflecting telescope uses a primary (main) mirror at the back end of the tube (instead of an
objective lens at the front end of the tube), which is now simply open. Essentially, this telescope
design is able to fold the light path. The most popular type of reflecting telescope is the
Newtonian reflector, which uses a concave main mirror and a simple eyepiece lens at its focal
plane. To ease image viewing to the side, a small 45º deviating mirror is used.
The reflecting telescope is quite a different telescope in many ways. The weight is on the
back (as opposed to the front) of the telescope, which is lightweight since mirrors are usually
lighter than lenses, and there is no chromatic aberration,17 an effect associated with refraction.
The reflecting telescope makes possible very large-diameter optics; for a given size, a
mirror is always lighter and easier to fabricate and stabilize than a lens. Thus, larger telescopes
were built (with larger diameter primary mirrors), improving light grasp and resolution (§ 5.2.3.2).
Perhaps their only drawback in comparison to refracting telescopes is the small ‘obstruction’ of
the beam due to the deflecting / secondary mirror assembly.
Figure 5‐31: (left) Isaac Newton’s own illustration of his telescope (courtesy of Science Photo Library).
(center) Newton’s prototype, built in 1668, (the photograph shows a replica courtesy of The Royal Society)
had a primary mirror diameter of 7 cm and a focal length fo = 28 cm. With an eyepiece of focal length fe
= 10 mm, it had a magnification of 28×. (right) A current‐day Newtonian telescope.
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Figure 5‐32: Optical arrangement of the Newton‐type telescope.
Reflecting telescopes ultimately prevailed over refracting telescopes in the technological

battle. But, first, they had to overcome a significant initial limitation, which was mirror quality.
Despite the difficulties associated with the manufacture of large lenses (bubbles created during
casting, weight, absorption, and dispersion), the industry was eventually capable of producing
high-quality lenses.
Figure 5‐33: A modern, Newton‐type amateur telescope.
On the other hand, reflecting telescope mirrors were either too expensive, being made of
the highly reflective silver, or too poor in quality; initially, the mirrors were made of speculum
metal (a mixture of copper and tin), which had poor reflectivity. Newton’s mirrors were just 16%
reflective. Tarnishing over time would further reduce the mirror reflectivity.
A breakthrough came in the 1850s by way of a technique developed by the German

chemist Justus von Liebig, who coated a glass substrate with a thin layer of silver, which could
then be easily polished to create a highly reflective mirror. This technique required a lot less
silver, significantly reducing the cost. The silver coating would still tarnish over time, but it was
easier to simply replace it than to polish a tin or copper mirror. The lightweight and highly
reflecting silver on glass-substrate mirrors was a vast improvement over speculum metal mirrors.
Several variations of the refractive telescope were developed that differed mainly in the
secondary mirror configuration. The Newton type has a diagonal mirror for side viewing, while
the Cassegrain has a parabolic primary mirror and a hyperbolic secondary mirror that reflects
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light back through an aperture in the primary mirror. Other types have parabolic shapes to
compensate for spherical aberration.52
Figure 5‐34: (left) The silvered 60 inch mirror at the Mount Wilson Observatory. (right) The 200
inch mirror of the Hale Telescope at the Palomar Observatory. The Hale Telescope mirror was cast in Pyrex
glass in 1923 at Corning Glass Works, New York. Its honeycomb support substrate structure is visible. (Left
photo courtesy of Carnegie/Huntington Library from www.mtwilson.edu; right photo from Wikimedia
Commons under license CC0.)
A legendary large reflector was designed by William Herschel in Bath, England and was
constructed between 1785 and 1789. This large telescope had a 1.22 m mirror diameter and was
12.2 m long; it held the record of the largest telescope for nearly 50 years. It did not even use a
secondary mirror! The observer had to lean over the telescope opening to look at the image.
This meant that Herschel had to climb up to a platform above the tall telescope to make his
observations. With his telescope, Herschel discovered the planet Uranus in 1781.
Figure 5‐35: (left) William Herschel’s reflecting telescope (D = 1.22 m). (center) The Newtonian refracting
telescope (D = 1.5 m, 60 inch) at the Mount Wilson Observatory. (right) Edwin Hubble, here pictured
looking through the 100 inch Hooker Newtonian telescope, discovered that the Andromeda is a galaxy in its
own right. (Left photo courtesy of University of Cambridge, Institute of Astronomy Library under license CC
BY 4.0; center photo from 10 Minute Astronomy blog entry 19 August 2009; right photo from Deskarati
www.deskarati.com/2012/03/22/edwin‐hubble/.)
52
Geometrical Optics § 8.3.1 Spherical Aberration.
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A popular catoptric telescope design is the Cassegrain type, which comes in many
variations (Gregory, Dall–Kirkham, Ritchey–Chrétien, Gregory, Mersenne), which, in turn, differ in
the optical properties of the secondary mirror. The secondary mirror is typically not flat but has
a specific curvature (concave or convex) and, in combination with a paraboloid or ellipsoid
primary mirror curvature, is designed to minimize optical aberrations, primarily, spherical
aberration.
Table 5‐3: Advantages of catoptric telescopes in comparison to dioptric telescopes.
Only one surface is No need for

No chromatic Better weight
precision- large-volume
aberration support
manufactured glass
• Chromatic • The objective lens • In refracting • In refracting

aberration affects in a refracting telescopes, the telescopes, the
refracting telescope has at material (glass) of larger mass (and
telescopes, as it is least two surfaces the objective lens thus the need for
related to that require is subject to tight support) is at the
refraction, but not precision transparency and front, while in the
to reflection. engineering and clarity tolerances. reflecting ones,
fabrication. this is at the back.
Figure 5‐36: Cassegrain‐type telescope. The deviation mirror has a curvature and therefore contributes to
focusing and optical aberration management.
Catadioptric telescopes include an additional lens element (corrector plate) at the

telescope opening, which helps increase the useful field of view and minimize spherical
aberration. The main variations are the Schmidt- and Maksutov-type telescopes. Schmidt-type
telescopes are more difficult to manufacture, and control of the aspheric correcting plate is
challenging. Maksutov-type telescopes use a spherical meniscus lens as the refracting element.
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Figure 5‐37: Catadioptric Schmidt‐type telescope.
5.2.4.7 Modern Telescopes

5.2.4.7.1 Observing through the Atmosphere
Since their invention and until recently, telescopes had been designed as increasingly large
instruments, offering a brighter and sharper view. However, once they reached a certain size, a
new problem unrelated to the telescope’s design was encountered: the earth’s atmosphere.
Any celestial body observation from the earth ground has to pass through the
atmosphere. Stars appear to twinkle, or scintillate. Scintillation is due to the fact that the
passage of light from a pinpoint-size star though the atmosphere involves successive refractions
by the various temperature and density layers / pockets, which constantly shift in a turbulent
fashion (convection winds). As a starlight ray passes through these layers, it bends in
unpredictable ways, resulting in slight changes in direction. What we perceive as twinkling is the
starlight traveling in a broken-line path through these turbulent layers, instead of traveling a
straight path. The fact that this is due to the atmosphere was proven by the lack of twinkling
outside the atmosphere, as was first observed with the human eye by Walter Cunningham, an
astronaut on the Apollo 7 and 8 missions. Cunningham clearly stated that stars show no
obvious time variations of their visible light intensity.53
The atmosphere is about 100 km thick when considered as a straight path and a lot
thicker if we are observing near the horizon, as scintillation may be particularly evident in low
declination. Planets, on the other hand, may appear as disks (not pinpoint sources) through a
telescope as they are much closer to Earth and therefore are much less affected by scintillation.
Stars, even viewed via large telescopes, appear as such twinkling points. This may be a
significant problem, particularly in telescopes of large resolution and magnification. As large
telescopes became sufficiently powerful, atmospheric distortion was the final obstacle. When
recording a long time-average exposure, a scintillating star results in a blurry recorded image.
This prevents astronomers from realizing the full potential of the more powerful telescopes.
53
Cunningham W, Marshall Libby L. Importance of observation that stars don't twinkle outside the earth's atmosphere. Rand Corp.
1969. Retrieved from www.rand.org/pubs/papers/P4062.html.
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The ‘how fine’ parameter (the minimum observable angle of resolution), although
determined by the optics of the telescope (mainly the objective diameter), is adversely affected
by scintillation. Even if a telescope is capable of resolving down to a fraction of an arcsecond, if
the scintillation is strong, then it is not the telescope, but the atmosphere, that limits seeing,
which is a measure of the resolution allowed by the atmosphere.
Figure 5‐38: Double star Zeta Aquarii images (separated by 2 arcsec) viewed through a D = 20 cm = 8 inch
telescope. The far left shows good seeing, while the far right is an example of poor seeing (image by Alan
Adler from Sky & Telescope reprinted with permission from the photographer).
In addition to ‘how fine,’ atmospheric conditions affect ‘how dim’ a star we can see. The
‘how dim’ parameter, which affects how faint a star can be and still be observed, is dependent
on atmospheric transparency, which describes how clear the sky is directly above. Even in the
best conditions, there may be a 20–30% loss of ‘brightness’ due to effects such as absorption
and scattering from dust and gas molecules. Some of the radiance that reaches the upper
atmosphere is lost at ground-earth level. Scatter increases under natural conditions such as
humidity, volcanic activity, etc., as well as with pollution from human and industrial activity.
Figure 5‐39: Milky Way photography. (left) Photograph taken at the Altiplano region of west‐central
South America (Bolivian salt flats) (by Daniel Kordan; reprinted with permission). (right) Photograph of
the Milky Way as seen at the ancient Greek temple of necromancy of Acheron, Epirus District, Greece (by
Theophanis Matsopoulos; reprinted with permission).
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For example, for a resolution of 1˝, we need an objective diameter of 120 mm. Any
increase in mirror diameter will only theoretically, and not practically, increase resolution unless
atmospheric conditions are exceptional. To avoid the influence of atmospheric variations as
much as possible, the location of the telescope is perhaps almost as important as its design;
astronomical observatories are generally situated on mountaintops. Here, the atmosphere
above is thin and clear enough that all atmospheric distortions are reduced, while city lights and
urban pollution are far away.
Figure 5‐40: Night sky over the Paranal Observatory support telescopes (photo by Theophanis Matsopoulos
reprinted with permission).
Near heavily polluted urban or industrial areas, photo pollution, or luminous pollution,
is yet another factor that further impedes sky observation. In some cities, photo pollution so
dramatically reduces visibility that even in a ‘perfectly’ clear sky we can no longer see the Milky
Way. In an urban area of low altitude, atmospheric transparency may be such that it is
impractical to see a star of apparent magnitude 3 to 4.54 Far away from urban pollution, and at a
high altitude, the clear sky is adorned with shining stars and galaxies. Even with the naked eye,
we may see a lot more stars, down to apparent magnitude 6, which is 1000 times fainter.
When the telescope optics are so good that the A telescope can only be as good
minimum angle of resolution is just a few
as the atmospheric conditions
arcseconds, it is likely that the atmospheric
allow.
conditions may not permit seeing this resolution.
54
The apparent magnitude is a parameter that classifies how bright a star appears from Earth. Larger magnitudes correspond to
fainter stars. The brighter an object appears, the lower its magnitude. Some of the brightest objects visible in the sky (including the
sun and planets) have negative values for apparent magnitude. The faintest objects detected with the Hubble Space Telescope have
apparent magnitude 30. Some apparent magnitudes: Venus (at brightest) –4.4; Sirius (the brightest star) –1.6, the naked eye limit.
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Figure 5‐41: (left) La Silla Observatory on the outskirts of the Chilean Atacama Desert. At an altitude of
2 400 m, it hosts the telescopes of the European Southern Observatory (ESO). (right) Aerial photograph of
NOAO's Cerro Tololo Interamerican Observatory. The largest dome hosts the Blanco 4 m telescope. (Left
photo credit: ESO from Wikimedia Commons under license CC BY‐SA 4.0; right photo credit: NASA Goddard
Space Flight Center.)
Atmospheric conditions are considered good when they allow seeing on the order of 2–
3˝, and are considered very good at 1˝ and exceptionally good at 0.5˝. This means that a
telescope whose smaller angle of resolution is 0.5˝ as determined by the primary mirror may not
be able to actually ‘see’ this resolution unless the atmospheric conditions are exceptional.
Figure 5‐42: Panoramic view of La Silla Observatory (photo by Theophanis Matsopoulos reprinted with
permission).
5.2.4.7.2 Modern Exploratory Telescopes
The modern exploratory telescope is far more than an empty tube with a big mirror at the end
and perhaps an optical arrangement to allow for visual observation.
Today’s research telescopes have no eyepieces at all, but instead have high-sensitivity
and high-resolution digital image recorders positioned at the location of the real image formed
by the objective. In addition to the benefits of digital image recording, the advantages of
modern exploratory telescopes are fewer optical surfaces and therefore fewer aberrations, fewer
mechanical and/or optical obstacles, and elimination of restrictions arising from the need to
observe with the naked eye. Such restrictions include the need to match both the telescope
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resolution to the ocular resolution and the telescope exit pupil to the eye’s entrance pupil, the
eye relief.55
Initially, analog photographic plates were used to record telescope images. Starting as
early as the late 1960s, electronic digital image detectors began replacing film photography,
which is currently all but eliminated. Computer controls and digital detectors based on a CCD
(presented in § 6.4.4) or a complementary metal-oxide semiconductor (CMOS) chip have
replaced film even in the older telescopes. Digital image capture and processing is now a
normal part of an astronomer’s research. Instead of climbing onto tall platforms in the cold and
dark to peer at the sky through telescopes, today’s astronomers use their office computers and
may not need to be in the same location as the telescope to collect the information they need.
Figure 5‐43: (left) The dome enclosures of the twin telescopes at the W.M. Keck Observatory atop Mauna
Kea, Hawaii. (right) Engineering rendering of the Frederick C. Gillett Gemini Telescope, a Cassegrain‐type
telescope. (Left photo by SiOwl from Wikimedia Commons under license CC BY‐SA 3.0; right illustration
reprinted with permission from Gemini Observatory/AURA/NSF.)
Other developments were the construction of even larger mirrors to satisfy the need to
increase light gathering and resolution, and the adoption of the computer-controlled rotator for
precision positioning. Around the mid-1950s, it appeared almost impossible to fabricate mirrors
larger than 5 m in diameter, as they were likely to warp under their own weight. The 5.1 m (200
inch) Hale Telescope at the Palomar Observatory, California, a workhorse of modern astronomy,
held the record for the largest effective telescope from 1948 until 1993.
In 1976, the BTA-6 (Большой Телескоп Альт-азимутальный, Large Altazimuth

Telescope) was built. At that time it was the largest telescope in the world, with a single 6 m
silver-coated, glass-substrate mirror dish. It pioneered the use (now standard in large
telescopes) of a computer-control–driven altazimuth mount mechanism. However, this giant
mirror suffered from sagging under its own weight, distorting any images it produced.
55
Geometrical Optics § 7.1.3 Entrance and Exit Pupil.
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A technique that overcame this limitation was the use of spun molten glass in a mold
instead of the metal-coated mirror of a solid, thick, glass substrate. Today the very large
telescopes use vapor-deposited aluminum over low–thermal-expansion glass made in such
molds.
Then in the 1970s, multiple-mirror telescopes came on the scene. The Large Binocular
Telescope on Mount Graham in Arizona combines two 8.4 m mirrors, while the Very Large
Telescope at Cerro Paranal, Atacama Desert, Chile, combines four 8.2 m mirrors (see Figure
5-47). Their mirrors operate together as one giant mirror. The individual mirrors position and
tracking are, of course, computer controlled.
5.2.4.8 Adaptive Optics
Today’s very large telescopes [from the Gran Telescopio Canarias (GTC), Spain to the expected
European Extremely Large Telescope (E-ELT) at Cerro Amazones, Chile] do not simply depend on
their location (altitude) and the large primary mirror assembly diameter, nor even on the
combination of many ‘giant’ mirrors. They incorporate all of the latest advances in optical
imaging, one such advancement being the technology of adaptive optics.
Despite these telescopes’ huge mirrors and the fact that they are located on
mountaintops, the earth’s turbulent atmosphere continued to cause blurry images. Even at high
altitudes, telescope seeing is limited by the distortion of starlight wavefronts due to the
unpredictable bending of light as it passes through warm and cool air pockets. Even slight
distortions will disturb the image a bit, but enough to limit telescope resolution.
Adaptive optics aims to reduce the effect of atmospheric distortions. The principle is to
instantly change (adapt) the tilt of a computer-controlled deformable mirror part to compensate
for the disrupted way light travels through the atmosphere. Light from a distant star is assumed
to reach the limits of the atmosphere as a plane, flat wavefront: a ‘perfect’ collimated light beam.
When this wavefront reaches the telescope, it is no longer a plane wavefront, but is distorted,
forming a non-ideal image. The ‘point’ image in Figure 5-44 (left) results from an ideally plane
wavefront [the diffraction-limited point-spread function (PSF), which, in a circular aperture,
corresponds to the Airy disk].34 The ‘tighter’ the shape of this distribution, the better the image
quality. In reality, however, due to atmospheric distortions, we may receive shapes such as
those shown in Figure 5-44 (right). The point image is no longer tight and symmetrical, but
rather spread over a larger area with a random shape. This is not good for image quality.
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Figure 5‐44: Point image of a star formed with (left) an undistorted plane wavefront and (right) a
distorted wavefront.
To correct this, we ‘iron out’ the distorted wavefront. A distorted wave has a measurable
phase difference across an incident ‘front,’ while in a plane wavefront this phase difference is
much smaller. Adaptive optics use a phase sensor that feeds data to a computer that controls a
deformable mirror (or material with variable refractive properties). The sensor measures
distortions on a timescale of a few milliseconds; the computer calculates the optimal shape to
correct the distortions by reshaping the surface of the deformable mirror accordingly. The result
is akin to ‘ironing out’ the effects of atmospheric turbulence. Adaptive optics provides increased
resolution ability and enables the efficient use of even larger objective mirror diameters.56
Figure 5‐45: Adaptive optics at the Canada‐France‐Hawaii Telescope (CFHT) at Mauna Kea, Hawaii
resolving a double star separated by 0.27”. (left) The uncorrected image, (center) the resolved image, and
(right) the image following processing (deconvolution) (from Canada‐France‐Hawaii Telescope
www.cfht.hawaii.edu; reprinted with permission).
The application of adaptive optics in a telescope is a spectacular achievement of optical

and mechanical engineering, as each mirror part may move up to hundreds of times a second.
Therefore, in such very large telescopes, the primary assembly is not a compact, single dish
mirror, but is composed of a large number of segments, usually hexagonal. The combination of
56
Perrin MD, Graham JR, Kalas P, Lloyd JP, Max CE, Gavel DT, Pennington DM, Gates EL. Laser guide star adaptive optics imaging
polarimetry of Herbig Ae/Be stars. Science. 2004; 303(5662): 1345-8.
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adaptive optics and segmented mirrors provides clearer views of faint objects in the universe
than have ever been achieved from ground-based telescopes. Adaptive optics helps improve
visible light images, but it works better for longer wavelengths of light, such as the infrared.
Table 5‐4: Current status of the most powerful earth telescopes.
• Altitude 4145 m • Altitude 2400 m • Altitude 3060 m

• Primary mirror • Primary mirror (Cerro Armazones,
Hawaii
Keck Observatory,
Gran Telescopio,
Canarias
diameter 10 m diameter 10.4 m Chile)
Large Telescope
European Extremely
• Minimum angle of • Minimum angle of • Primary mirror
resolution 0.4˝−0.04˝ resolution 0.4˝−0.04˝ diameter 42 m
• Collecting surface • Collecting surface • Scheduled to
area 76 m2 area 78.54 m2 operate in 2022
•Focal length 17.5 m • Focal length 16.5 m
(f/# 1.75)
The first of such segmented-mirror telescopes was the Gran Telescopio, Canarias (GTC) in
the Canary Islands. The primary mirror assembly is composed of 36 hexagonal plates, achieving
an effective diameter of 10.4 m. Two extremely large telescopes are currently under
construction: the 30 m TMT telescope at Mauna Kea, Hawaii and the 42 m E-ELT in Chile, which
is likely to be completed by 2022.
Figure 5‐46: (left) The arrangement of the segmented primary mirror of the GCT. Compare the size of the
mirror to the person at the bottom right. (right) The binary star IW Tau (separation 0.3˝ ) without and
with the use of adaptive optics (Hale Telescope Palomar Observatory) (photo credit: Palomar Observatory
/ NASA‐JPL from www.skyandtelescope.com).
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Figure 5‐47: Size comparison of the primary objective optics (refractive, reflective, and multi‐mirror) of
some historical, current, and planned telescopes. Refractors are shown in pink, single‐dish reflectors are
blue, compound reflectors are orange, and multi‐segmented mirrors are brown.
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5.2.5 Observation Beyond the Visible
All bodies emit thermal electromagnetic radiation, which is dependent on temperature, in a very
similar fashion to a black body (discussed in § 1.5.4). Even our own bodies do this; at a body
temperature of 310 K, humans emit thermal radiation in the infrared. Stars also do this; the
emissions from their thermonuclear reactions span the entire electromagnetic spectrum. Take
the sun, for example: We are accustomed to seeing only the visible part of the sun’s emission.
In reality, the sun emits radiation that spans a very broad part of the electromagnetic spectrum,
from radio waves to X rays. The image corresponding to each spectral region presents a
different ‘picture,’ offering different information.
Astronomers have studied the sun for a long time. Galileo, among others, examined
sunspots. Other early astronomers investigated the outer area of the sun, called the corona,
which was only visible during solar eclipses.
Today, X-ray images of the sun monitor explosive activity such as coronal mass
ejections, commonly known as solar flares. Powered by the sun's magnetic field, this violent
activity produces significant effects in the space between the sun and earth, known as solar
wind, which may disrupt satellite communications and even ground-based power grids. On the
contrary, emission at radio wavelengths peaks around sunspots.
Figure 5‐48: Images of the sun via various spectral windows. (left) X‐ray imaging, (center) UV imaging,
and (right) imaging by radio waves. [Left image: NASA / Goddard / SDO AIA Team; center image:
www.maxpixel.net; right image: National Radio Astronomy Observatory (NRAO / AUI) from
www.universetoday.com.]
Just like the sun, all stars emit not only in the visible, but nearly all over the
electromagnetic spectrum. The emission peak is dependent on the temperature and is not likely
to be in the visible for certain stars. Planets also emit at radio wavelengths; electrons and
charged particles trapped in the magnetosphere of planets emit synchrotron radiation as they
spiral around magnetic field lines.
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Figure 5‐49: A gaseous pillar and a stellar jet in the Carina Nebula as seen in (left) the visible and (right)
the infrared (image credits: NASA, ESA, and the Hubble SM4 ERO Team).
The laws of optics, however, do not vary. They apply to all parts of the electromagnetic
spectrum. Infrared or radio waves, for example, are reflected and refracted just as in the visible,
the only difference being the value of the refractive index and the related effects (such as
chromatic aberration). Particularly for mirrors, the laws of reflection are exactly the same. By
applying the same principles, we ‘collect’ images from all the pieces of the ‘puzzle’ known as
cosmic electromagnetic radiation.
A concern to be addressed when considering observation at other wavelengths is that

the atmosphere is acting ‘pre-emptively’ for our own good. Earth’s atmosphere allows visible
light and radio waves to pass through, but blocks out most other radiation, including infrared or
ultraviolet light. The atmosphere partially absorbs large parts of the electromagnetic radiation
before it reaches ground.
Another concern is that different types of sensors are required to detect the different
parts of the radiation whose ‘image’ is to be recorded. Obviously, we cannot use our eyes to
observe wavelengths other than in the visible range. Specially developed sensors are employed
to do that job.
Figure 5‐50: Atmospheric transparency for different wavelengths. Practically, the atmosphere permits
transmission only for the visible, for parts of the infrared, and for radio waves, absorbing or reflecting most
of the other parts of the spectrum.
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Observation via other spectral windows (ultraviolet, X rays) is not feasible from the
ground through the atmosphere, but is feasible with satellites and space telescopes.
5.2.5.1 Radio Telescopes
The record for the largest telescope is, naturally, associated with longer wavelengths such as
radio waves, which are used by radio telescopes.
In the early 1930s, Bell Telephone Laboratories experimented with using radio waves to
make phone calls across the ocean. They quickly encountered a strange problem: a hissing
noise (static) that interfered with the transmissions. Karl G. Jansky, who was assigned the task of
determining the source of the static, discovered that that it was coming from the center of the
Milky Way. There are two main processes that contribute to the radio emission: decelerating
free electrons as they scatter off of heavy ions (Bremsstrahlung—braking or deceleration
radiation) and electrons spiraling around magnetic field lines (synchrotron radiation).
This discovery triggered an entirely new branch of astronomy called radio astronomy.
Sources of radio emissions include the sun, the planets, interstellar matter—mainly the line
emission at a wavelength of 21 cm from the neutral hydrogen gas—supernovae, and quasars,
which are bright galaxies at high red shift. We can learn about the composition, structure, and
motion of these celestial objects by observing the radio waves they emit.
Figure 5‐51: A radio sky map at a wavelength of 21 cm, corresponding to hydrogen atom emissions. The
bright band across the image is the Milky Way, with the galactic center in the middle (image © 1992
National Radio Astronomy Observatory from www.esa.int/ESA).
The primitive radio telescopes were nothing more than an antenna array that could scan
for celestial radio signals. Today’s radio telescopes use large concave reflector dishes that
converge incoming radio waves to their focal point, where a radio receiver is positioned. The
receivers record information, just as a camera or a CCD would in other types of optical
telescopes.
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Both radio waves and visible light penetrate the atmosphere rather easily, reaching the
ground, where they can be detected by ground-based telescopes. However, that is where their
similarity ends.
There are some differences that make observation through radio waves easier than
through visible waves. Observation in the visible can only be performed at night and in clear
weather since bright sunlight overwhelms faint starlight and visible waves are primarily absorbed
by clouds. Radio astronomy, however, gives the option of operating during the day since the
sun emits radio waves only weakly; therefore, the radiation emitted by the sun at that spectral
window is not strong enough to meddle with detection of the star-emitted radio waves.
Weather is not an issue either; during cloudy, even stormy, weather, radio waves pass through
clouds as if the clouds were not there. In addition, because radio wavelengths are very long,
radio waves reach the ground relatively undistorted by the atmosphere, unlike visible waves.
There are some small ‘bumps’ along the road, however. One is that, as the wavelength λ
in radio waves increases, so do the optical element dimensions (for example, the dish diameter
D) required to maintain the same resolving power. The critical parameter is the fraction λ/D.
Comparing radio waves (λ = 10 cm) to the green line in the visible (λ = 0.5 μm), their wavelengths
are 200,000 times longer. The resolving power of a radio telescope equipped with a primary
mirror having the same diameter would be 200,000 times smaller, or to maintain resolving
power, the primary mirror must have a 200,000× larger diameter! Another option is to combine
several smaller dishes to form an array. The dishes act as a single telescope that is as large as
the diameter of the array.
Figure 5‐52: The Karl G. Jansky Very Large Array is a radio astronomy observatory located on the Plains of
San Agustin, 50 miles west of Socorro, New Mexico. It consists of 27 individual dishes, each 25 m in
diameter (left photo by John Fowler from Wikimedia Commons under license CC BY 2.0; right photo credit:
National Radio Astronomy Observatory, NSF).
The Arecibo Observatory’s William E. Gordon Telescope in Puerto Rico is one of the most
famous radio telescopes, as it was featured in the James Bond movie GoldenEye and in the
movie Contact. Built in 1963, this unique telescope with a 305 m primary mirror diameter held
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(until recently) the record as the largest single-dish telescope. The mirror is stationary and was
built in a natural hollow basin; the overhead suspended signal receiver picks up the radio signal.
Figure 5‐53: (left) Overview of the Arecibo Observatory, Puerto Rico (photo credit: NAIC–Arecibo
Observatory/NSF). (right) The suspended signal receiver (photo by Alessandro Cai from Wikimedia
Commons under license CC0).
The Five-hundred-meter Aperture Spherical Telescope (FAST) in Pingtang County, China

is a radio telescope that became operational in 2016. FAST now claims the title as the largest
single-dish telescope. (However, FAST has not been featured in any action movies yet.)
Figure 5‐54: The new record‐holder for the largest single‐disk radio telescope is the Five‐hundred‐meter
Aperture Spherical Telescope (FAST) in Pingtang County, China. Shown here at different stages of
construction, it achieved first light in September 2016 (photo credits: Palomar Observatory / NASA‐JPL).
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5.2.6 Extraterrestrial Telescopes
The presence of the atmosphere between the object and the observation still resulted in
distorting and shielding effects. Regardless of how well the adaptive optics performed and
which performance strides were made, there would always be some residual distortion. For an
ever-increasing resolution, this was a problem. The radical solution? If the atmosphere could
not be defeated, it could be bypassed by telescopes operating in outer space. These space
observatories, however, required significant advances in instrumentation, processing and data
link transfer, and, of course, the spacecraft to launch them.
The era of space telescopes began in 1966 with the Orbiting Astronomical Observatory
(OAO) satellites. Stargazer, formally known as OAO-2, was the first to successfully operate as
an earth-orbiting telescope. Stargazer pioneered UV astronomy, since significant amounts of
UV light are being absorbed by the atmosphere. The work on Stargazer contributed to the
development of techniques that help an orbiting telescope point to a given spot on the sky and
track it for an extended period. Copernicus, formally known as OAO-3, was the longest-lived of
the OAO satellite telescopes; it worked primarily in the UV and X-ray portions of the spectrum,
and provided resolution spectra of hundreds of stars.57
The most well-known of all space telescopes is the Hubble Space Telescope (HST),
named after the American astronomer Edwin Powell Hubble. Hubble is credited with many
discoveries, including the discovery that the recessional velocity of a galaxy increases with its
distance from the earth, implying that the universe is expanding.
Launched into low earth orbit in 1990 (mission STS-31, Space Shuttle Discovery), the HST
still remains in operation, orbiting at 599 km with a period of 96 minutes. Its four main
telescopes observe in the near-UV, visible, and near-infrared portions of the spectrum. The
mission of the HST is to explore the outer universe and to determine the rate of expansion of
the universe.
The HST design is Ritchey–Chrétien Cassegrain, as is the design of most modern

reflecting telescopes today. The primary concave mirror has a 2.4 m diameter, while the
secondary convex mirror has a 0.26688 m diameter. The primary mirror diameter was designed
to be able to resolve and measure individual stars in the Virgo Cluster of galaxy M100, in
particular, a special type of star called Cepheid variables (0.05"). In doing so, the HST would try
to explore one of the most fundamental questions in science: the age and scale of the universe.
57
Copernicus satellite info retrieved from: archive.stsci.edu/copernicus/.
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Figure 5‐55: The Hubble Space Telescope (HST).
Its two mirrors, spaced by 5 m, are polished to such degree that, if we were to magnify
the primary mirror to the size of the earth, the larger ‘abnormality’ would be 15 cm high.
Expectations regarding its resolution ability were quite high. The ‘usual suspect,’ the
atmosphere, was not in the way to ‘jiggle’ the stars. However, while it still outperformed
ground-based telescopes in many ways, some of its images were rather disappointing. The
images returned from the telescope indicated a problem within the telescope’s optics: It
appeared that the telescope had aberrations.
The analysis, based on Zernike polynomial tools, identified that the problem was
spherical aberration.52, 58 Despite precise grinding and polishing, a null corrector, the optical
testing device at the manufacturing company, was found to have been incorrectly assembled.
The development of an optical correction was a stunning success of optical engineering. This
involved a set of corrective optics, the COSTAR (Corrective Optics Space Telescope Axial
Replacement) and the replacement of the Wide Field and Planetary Camera 1 (WFPC1) with a
second-generation camera, Wide Field and Planetary Camera 2 (WFPC2), designed to precisely
compensate for the spherical aberration in the main mirror’s shape. This resulted in a dramatic
increase in image quality.
Figure 5‐56: (left) The primary HST mirror during preflight inspection (photo credit: NASA/STScI).
(right) The HST in orbit (photo credit: NASA).
58
https://www.eecs.tufts.edu/~bobg/
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After the ‘fix’ by the First Servicing Mission (STS-61) in December 1993, the HST gained
the visual acuity it was designed for. Since then, the HST has spectacularly extended our
understanding of the universe. One of its many successes is that it can detect stars as faint as
apparent magnitude 30. In 1995, in a tiny visible part of the sky (just 2.7΄ wide) in Ursa Major,
about 1 500 galaxies were recorded almost to the far end of the observable universe. The HST
has enabled astronomers to survey large numbers of galaxies to show that every galaxy with a
bright central stellar bulge contains a supermassive black hole in its center.
Figure 5‐57: Supernova Cygni 1992 as imaged by the HST before (left) and after (right) the first servicing
mission [images by F. Paresce and R. Jedrzejewski (STScI), NASA, and ESA].
The Spitzer Space Telescope is named after the renowned American astrophysicist
Lyman Spitzer, Jr., who was the first to propose putting a telescope in space: “… such a scientific
tool, if practically feasible, could revolutionize astronomical techniques and open up completely
new vistas of astronomical research."59
Figure 5‐58: The 1946 paper by Lyman Spitzer, Jr., promoting a powerful space telescope.
59
Spitzer L. Astronomical advantages of an extra-terrestrial observatory. Appendix V Project RAND, Douglas Aircraft Co. 1946.
Reprinted in The Astronomy Quarterly, 1990; 7(3):131-42.
5‐196
The Spitzer telescope, initially named Space Infrared Telescope Facility (SIRTF), was
launched in 2003. Designed for a mission period of just 2.5 years, it remained in full operation
until 2009, while some of its shorter-wavelength cameras are still operating as of 2020. It mainly
operated in the infrared and was cooled to cryogenic temperatures in order to achieve the
needed sensitivity.
The HST’s and Spitzer’s scientific successor is the James Webb Space Telescope (JWST),
named after NASA’s second administrator, James Edwin Webb. The telescope is currently
undergoing tests and is scheduled for launch in 2022 (initially it was planned to be launched no
later than 2011). The complicated design and very large size of the telescope pose several
challenges. Currently, the plan is to fit the launch rocket folded in origami-style; once in place, it
will unfold to its full shape to become fully deployed. JWST will mainly operate in the infrared.60
Figure 5‐59: The JWST will be a large infrared telescope with a 6.5 m diameter primary mirror, composed
of 18 hexagonal mirror segments made of gold‐coated beryllium.
The planned orbit for JWST is 1.5 million km, compared to just 570 km of the HST orbit.
It will operate opposite to the sun in a gravitationally stable space called the earth–sun L2
Lagrangian point. This space is called a Lagrangian point because it occurs where the balance of
gravitational forces allows a space object to remain stationary relative to both the sun and the
earth. L2 is one of five Lagrangian points in space.
This far distance from Earth, together with the sunshield containment membranes
composed of five-layer sheets of silicon- and aluminum-coated Kapton, will allow the JWST
instruments to operate near absolute zero, which will enable unmatched sensitivity for the
infrared sensors. This will allow scientists to peer back in time over 13.5 billion years to observe
high-redshift galaxies created just after the Big Bang.
60
JWST info retrieved from: web.archive.org/web/20100514130059/http://www.jwst.nasa.gov/about.html.
5‐197
Figure 5‐60: (left) Scaled model of the JWST telescope primary mirror. (center) Virtual image produced by
this mirror. (right) Real, inverted image produced by this mirror.
Space telescopes have their drawbacks as well. They are much more expensive to build
and launch than ground-based observatories. Because they must be launched into space, they
cannot be as large as ground-based observatories. Finally, because space telescopes remain in
orbit, maintenance and upgrades can be challenging; unexpected breakdowns may be terminal.
5.2.7 Low-Vision Aid and Aniseikonia Telescopic Devices
Some of the most significant applications of microscopic telescopes in ocular care are in the
field of low-vision aids and aniseikonia.
Low vision is a state of uncorrectable vision loss that negatively impacts daily activities.
Some describe low vision as having ‘not enough vision to do whatever a person needs to do.’
This state is evaluated in terms of its bearing on functionality, rather than in terms of numerical
results; thus, low vision may vary from person to person. Eye care professionals use the term
low vision to describe permanently reduced vision that cannot be corrected with regular
spectacle glasses, contact lenses, or medical or surgical intervention. In the majority of low-
vision patients, usually of advanced age, the problem is not refractive (in the sense that the
optical power of the eye needs to be addressed), but rather is related to a retinal, optic nerve, or
cerebral disorder.
In these individuals, distance vision will not improve with spectacles of more refractive
power. Optically, this is incorrect. The spectacle optical power corrects a refractive error; more
power simply moves the image along the optical axis away from the retina toward the inside of
the eye. A ‘wrong’ prescription with more power brings an (indeed, magnified) image away
from (perhaps) the proper, on-focus retinal position to a ‘wrong’ spot in front of the retina.
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Figure 5‐61: Telescopic low‐vision aids are refracting, Galilei‐type telescopes composed of a positive
objective and a negative eyepiece lens with very short focal lengths (center and right images courtesy of
EyeArt laboratories www.eyeart.org reprinted with permission).
Patients with low vision need an optical instrument that does not affect optical power
but only magnification; in other words, they need a telescope. Thus, we want a telescopic afocal
system (in such a system, a collimated beam from a distant object also exits the optical system
collimated) that increases the apparent angle of observation. Galilei-type telescopes are favored
for several reasons: their small size and relatively large field of view, and the fact that the
resulting image is erect.
Telescopic low-vision aids facilitate daily and social activities that involve distance vision,
such as watching television and reading white boards, street signs, house and street numbers,
billboards, and menu boards. Their drawbacks include a restriction of the visual field and
illumination, difficulty in quickly locating and focusing on objects, and a limited depth of field.
Aniseikonia (άνιση, for unequal & εικόνα, for image) is a binocular condition in which
the retinal image is perceived as different in size between the two eyes. This size difference may
lead to impaired fusion and/or poor stereopsis, as well as anomalous spatial localization.
Aniseikonia may be caused by conditions such as anisometropia, pseudophakia, and a

relative significant difference between the refractive power of the two eyes as a result of a
refractive operation. Retinally induced aniseikonia refers to cases in which the retina may be
compressed or stretched due to an ocular condition or surgery. Due to this compression or
stretching, an image projected onto the retina will be sampled by a greater or a lesser number
of photoreceptors (cones or rods), causing the perceived image to appear larger or smaller
(macropsia or micropsia).
Aniseikonia is considered clinically significant if it is more than 3%–5%,61 where the

percentages indicate the amount of magnification (or minification) needed to address the effect.
For example, a measured aniseikonia of –5% means that the image in the right eye is perceived
as approximately 5% larger than the image in the left eye. To optically address this, we may
61
Jiménez JR, Ponce A, Anera RG. Induced aniseikonia diminishes binocular contrast sensitivity and binocular summation. Optom
Vis Sci. 2004; 81(7): 559-62.
5‐199
minify the image in the right eye by 5%, magnify the image in the left eye by 5%, or apply a
combination of minification in the right (for example, by 2.5%) and magnification in the left eye
(by 2.5% in this case).
Aniseikonia can be managed optically with an instrument that does not affect the retinal
image sharpness, but functions as a ‘mini’ telescope that modifies ocular magnification. An
example of such a suitable optical instrument is a size lens, which comprises two refracting
surfaces with almost identical curvatures, so it has equal and opposite algebraic signs of optical
power.62 Like a telescope, this lens has zero optical power. And just as in telescopes, the
magnification is the ratio of the cross-sectional diameter of the entrance beam to the cross-
sectional diameter of the exit beam.
Figure 5‐62: Size lens principle of operation.
62
Geometrical Optics § 6.6 Advanced Practice Examples.
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GEORGE ASIMELLIS LECTURES IN OPTICS, VOL 1

5 MICROSCOPES AND TELESCOPES

5.1.1 Glancing at the Small and Near…

5.1.2 Microscope Principle of Operation

Figure 5‐4: Architecture of the compound microscope.

5.1.3 Microscope Resolution

This relationship often approximates numerically to

Useful Magnification: Museful ≈ 200 × NAobjective (5.8)

5.1.4 Types of Compound Microscopes

5.1.4.1 Light Microscopes

5.1.4.2 Electron Microscopes

The main advantage of electron microscopes is their resolving power. These

Transmission electron microscopes transmit a beam of electrons through a thin

Scanning electron microscopes work by scanning a beam of electrons across the

5.2.1 Observing the Distant…

5.2.2 Telescope Principle of Operation

Figure 5‐9: Telescope optical setup.

5.2.3 Magnification, Light-Gathering Power, and Resolution

5.2.3.1 Telescope Magnification

To achieve large magnification, both a large telescope length (essentially, a large

Is the telescope actually magnifying?

5.2.3.2 Telescope Light-Gathering Power

5.2.3.3 Telescope Resolving Power

5.2.3.4 Splitting a Double Star

It is estimated that one-third to one-half of all stars belong to double-star systems.

5.2.3.5 Useful and Maximum Magnification

Telescope Useful Magnification: Museful = 5 · D [cm] = 0.5 · D [mm] (5.15)

Mmax = D [mm] (5.16)

5.2.3.6 Exit Pupil and Minimum Resolution

Magnification Exit pupil size M fe

Minimum 7 mm D [mm] ÷ 7 7 × f/#

5.2.3.7 Telescope Field Stop and Field of View

eyepiece apparent field

Another relationship concerning the field of view in a telescope is:

field stop diameter

5.2.4 Telescope Types and Designs

5.2.4.1 Astronomical / Kepler-type Telescope

The Keplerian architecture, designed by Johannes Kepler in 1611, is a simple refracting

Figure 5‐15: Optical arrangement of a Kepler‐type telescope.

The Keplerian architecture has been extensively used in astronomical observations;

The use of Kleper-type telescopes in historical astronomical observations necessitated a

5.2.4.2 Telescope Mounts and Rotation

Equatorial mounts operate using a different principle than their altazimuth

5.2.4.3 The Terrestrial Telescope

Figure 5‐20: Optical arrangement of an erecting terrestrial telescope.

5.2.4.4 The Galilei-type Telescope

Figure 5‐21: Optical arrangement of a Galilei‐type telescope.

(–) Ocular Eyepiece (+) Ocular Eyepiece

Type of image: Erect Field of view: Larger and fixed

Magnification: Usually smaller Type of image: Inverted

Telescope length: Usually smaller Magnification: Usually larger

Figure 5‐26: Galilean telescope versus Keplerian telescope.

The binocular, or prismatic telescope, is a type of erecting telescope of low to medium

Figure 5‐28: Image inversion with Porro prisms.

Table 5‐2: Field of view and magnification in binoculars.

5.2.4.6 Reflecting or Catoptric Telescopes

Figure 5‐32: Optical arrangement of the Newton‐type telescope.

Reflecting telescopes ultimately prevailed over refracting telescopes in the technological

Figure 5‐33: A modern, Newton‐type amateur telescope.