AIM

To study the variations, in the current flowing

in a circuit containing an LDR, because of622
a variation:-

(a) In the power of the incandescent lamp,

used to ‘illuminate’ the LDR. (Keeping all the
lamps at a fixed distance).

(b) In the distance of an incandescent lamp,

(of fixed power), used to ‘illuminate’ the LDR.

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 INTRODUCTION
In society, sometimes street lights glow in the daytime
for any reason. In mine areas, people face many
difficulties due to the absence of light at night. In frontier
and hilly areas, people face many problems due to
damaged street lights.
To solve these problems, we create a device in which
the lights glow at night, and in the daytime, they off
automatically and do not glow. Due to use of it, we can
solve the above problems and can also save electricity
and men's power.

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 PRINCIPLE
This project is based on Light Dependent Resistance (L.D.R.).
Light Dependent Resistance [LDR] is a resistance, in which the
opposing power of current depends on the presence of a
quantity of light present, i.e. the resistance of LDR increases
or decreases, according to the quantity of light that falls on it.

If LDR is placed in darkness, the resistance of LDR increases

and
when light falls on it, the resistance of LDR decreases and acts
as a conductor. Any LDR in the presence of light and darkness
changes its resistance depending on the different types of
LDR.

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ADVANTAGES
 Collection of parts of the circuit is easily available.
 The accuracy of this circuit is more than the accuracy of other
circuits.
 By using a laser, it can be used for security purposes.
 It can be used to stop the wastage of electricity.
 The cost of the circuit is low.
 This circuit saves the men's power.
USES
 It can be used in street lights.
 It can be used in mine areas.
 It can be used in hilly areas.
 By using a laser, it can be used for safety purposes.
 It can be used in frontier areas.
 It can be used in houses.
 It can be used in jail lights.
DISCOVERY OF THE PHOTORESISTOR
Photo resistors, or light-dependent resistors have been in use for very
many years. Photo resistors have been seen in early forms since the
nineteenth century when photoconductivity in selenium was
discovered by Smith in 1873. Since then, many variants of
photoconductive devices have been made.

Much useful work was conducted by T. W. Case in 1920 when he

published a paper entitled "Thalofide Cell – a new photo-electric
cell”.

Other substances including PbS, PbSe, and PbTe were studied in the
1930s and 1940s, and then in 1952, Rollin and Simmons developed
their photoconductors using silicon and germanium

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 PHOTORESISTOR MECHANISM
A photoresistor or photocell is a component that uses a
photoconductor between two contacts. When this is exposed
to light a change in resistance is noted. Photoconductivity –
the mechanism behind the photoresistor - results from the
generation of mobile carriers when photons are absorbed by
the semiconductor material used for the photoconductor.
While the different types of material used for light-dependent
resistors are semiconductors when used as a photo-resistor,
they are used only as a resistive element and there are no PN
junctions. Accordingly, the device is purely passive.

There are two types of photoconductors and hence

Photoresistor:

 Intrinsic Photoresistor: This type of photoresistor

uses a photoconductive material that involves the excitation
of
charge carriers from the valence bands to the conduction
band.

 Extrinsic Photoresistor: This type of photoresistor

uses a photoconductive material that involves the excitation of
charge carriers between an impurity and the valence band
or conduction band. It requires shallow impurity dopants
that are not ionized in the presence of light. Extrinsic
photoresistors or photocells are generally designed for long
wavelength radiation - often infrared, but to avoid thermal
generation, they need to be operated at low temperatures
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 MATERIALS REQUIRED
Light Dependent Resistor(LDR), Connecting Wires, Source of
different power ratings (bulbs), Bulb Holder, Metre scale, Multi
Meter Battery.
BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF COMPONENTS
1. TRANSISTOR: When a thin slice of p-type is sandwiched
between two blocks of n-type, then the n-p-n transistor is
formed. It consists of an emitter, base, and collector. In the
project, a common emitter n-p-n transistor ( BC-147 & SL-100) is
used.
2. DIODE: When a p-type and n-type semiconductors are joined a
diode is formed. It conducts when forward biased and does not
conduct when reverse biased. In the project, the IN-4007 diode
is used.
3. RELAY: It helps to contact and contact. In the project, we use a
relay of 6 ohms.
4. CARBON RESISTOR: A carbon resistor has generally four rings
or bands A, B, C, and D of different colors corresponding to the
value of resistance. In the project, we use carbon resistance of
220 kilo-ohms, 1.5 kilo-ohms, and 820 ohms.
5. TRANSFORMER: A Transformer is used to convert low
alternating voltage to high alternating voltage by decreasing the
current and vice-versa. We use a transformer of 6-0-6V for the
circuit.
6. CAPACITOR: A capacitor is used to block DC. In the circuit, we
use the capacitor of 220mfd and 1000mfd.

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7. BULB: An electric bulb is connected to the circuit when LDR
comes in the darkness.
8. LIGHT-DEPENDENT RESISTOR: LDR is a light-controlled
variable resistor. The resistance of a photoresistor
decreases with increasing incident light intensity; in other
words, it exhibits photoconductivity. A photoresistor can
be applied in light-sensitive detector circuits, and light- and
dark-activated switching circuits.
A photoresistor is made of a high-resistance
semiconductor. In the dark, a photoresistor can have a
resistance as high as several megohms (MΩ), while in the
light, a photoresistor can have a resistance as low as a few
hundred ohms. If incident light on a photoresistor exceeds
a certain frequency, photons absorbed by the
semiconductor give bound electrons enough energy to
jump into the conduction band. The resulting free
electrons (and their hole partners) conduct electricity,
thereby lowering resistance. The resistance range and
sensitivity of a photoresistor can substantially differ among
dissimilar devices. Moreover, unique photoresistors may
react substantially differently to photons within certain
wavelength bands.
A photoelectric device can be either intrinsic or extrinsic.
An intrinsic semiconductor has its charge carriers and is
not an efficient semiconductor, for example, silicon. In
intrinsic devices, the only available electrons are in the
valence band, and hence the photon must have enough
energy to excite the electron across the entire band gap.
Extrinsic devices have impurities, also called dopants,
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added whose ground state energy is closer to the
conduction band; since the electrons do not have as far to
jump, lower energy photons (that is, longer wavelengths
and lower frequencies) are sufficient to trigger the device.
If a sample of silicon has some of its atoms replaced by
phosphorus atoms (impurities), there will be extra
electrons available for conduction. This is an example of an
extrinsic semiconductor.

Photoresistors come in many types. Inexpensive cadmium

sulfide (CdS) cells can be found in many consumer items
such as camera light meters, clock radios, alarm devices
(as the detector for a light beam), nightlights, outdoor
clocks, solar street lamps, solar road studs, etc.

Photoresistors can be placed in streetlights to control

when the light is on. Ambient light falling on the
photoresistor causes the streetlight to turn off. Thus,
energy is saved by ensuring the light is only on during
hours of darkness.

Photoresistors or LDRs are also used in laser-based

security systems to detect the change in the light intensity
when a person/object passes through the laser beam.

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9
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM

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 WORKING
This resistor works on the principle of photoconductivity. It is
nothing but, when the light falls on its surface, then the material
conductivity reduces and the electrons in the valence band of the
device are excited to the conduction band. These photons in the
incident light must have energy greater than the band gap of the
semiconductor material. This makes the electrons jump from the
valence band to conduction.

These devices depend on the light, when light falls on the LDR
then the resistance decreases and increases in the dark. When an
LDR is kept in a dark place, its resistance is high, and, when the
LDR is kept in the light its resistance will decrease.

If a constant “V’ is applied to the LDR, the intensity of the light

increases, and the current increases. The figure below shows the
curve between the resistance Vs illumination curve for a particular
light-dependent resistor.

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 PROCEDURE
1. Choose a specific position for the source and mount it
using a holder, make sure it is stable.

2. Select the bulb with the lowest power rating and

connect it to the holder as shown in the figure.

3. Connect the LDR, battery (9V), and the multimeter in

series.

4. Set the multimeter to an ohm section select a suitable

range and measure the resistance with a bulb on.

5. Similarly switch to the current section and move to the

micro ampere in the multimeter. This gives the value of
the
current.

6. Repeat these steps with different power sources at

different distances and note down observations.

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 OBSERVATIONS
The experiment has been conducted by using various sources
with different power ratings. The voltage of the battery = 9 V.

1. The LDR resistance decreases with an increase in the intensity

of light and hence there is an increase in the flow of current.

2. There is an increase in the current as the distance from the

source decreases.

3. The intensity decreases as the distance from the source

increases.

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 CONCLUSION
With this experiment, we can understand and deepen our
knowledge about how a Light-dependent resistor works and
how it can be used in our everyday life, its applications, and its
advantages.

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SOURCES OF ERROR
1. The LDR may not be perpendicular to the source.

2. Connections may be faulty.

3. The experiment should be conducted in a dark room.

4. Measurements should be taken accurately.

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 BIBLIOGRAPHY
1. NCERT CLASS 12 PHYSICS TEXTBOOK
2. www.wikipedia.com
3. www.watelectronics.com
4. www.google.co.in

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