MEM304: THEORETICAL &

APPLIED ROCK MECHANICS

Engineering Tests & Properties

Rudrajit Mitra, PhD

OUTLINE

• Describe the various tests used to determine the engineering properties of rocks

• Determine the engineering properties of rock from given data

• Select the required test for the required property

• Make engineering observations from the results of tests

INTRODUCTION
• When considering the design excavations in rock masses, it is important to
‒ Have a sound understanding of engineering properties of the materials being dealt with;
‒ Have an understanding what tests should be done in order to derive the required
properties; and
‒ Understand the potential errors that may occur in the testing methods AND the limits of
accuracy and reliability.
• Not only need to be able to select the required test for the required property,
but you also need the knowledge to question whether the result makes sense
• Sound understanding of engineering properties and how these are determined, is
required
• Critically, when testing rock to obtain data for use in design, is that the boundary
conditions applied to the test specimen should simulate those imposed on the rock
in situ
ENGINEERING TESTS & PROPERTIES
• Purpose:
‒ Basic information on the physical properties intact rock
‒ To classify or characterise the rock material by providing an index which
can be used to compare the particular rock with other rocks
‒ To provide information which can be used to design structures in the rock

• Testing regime
‒ Testing must be conducted in accordance with standards (ASTM / ISRM
suggested methods)
ENGINEERING TESTS & PROPERTIES
• In laboratory: Derive material/engineering properties
‒ ‘Controlled’ conditions,
‒ ISRM, ASTM, ISO, and other Standards testing procedures
• In field: Derive ‘comparative’ properties from Index tests
‒ Less controlled; less reliable
• All properties (test results) are a function of the rock material &
‘specific’ test conditions and are not ‘inherent’ properties.
• Always remember to ask:
‒ Why you are requesting tests, and what their purpose is?
‒ What are the test conditions vs the in-situ conditions?
‒ Will you be able to extrapolate between the two conditions – sample testing
volume and rock (mass) volume?
ROCK MATERIAL COMPONENTS
• Rock material contains flaws or Va Gas (air)
microcracks, voids and joints Vv Vw Water (liquid)
• A crack, fissure or joint may be
either closed, opened, or filled
with air, gas or water
• Therefore, rocks are in general
porous V Solid
• From soil mechanics Vs
Vv
skeleton
Porosity: n=
V
V
Void Ratio: e = v =
n
Vs 1 - n Total volume = void volume + solid volume:
Vw
Saturation: S = ´100 V = Vv + Vs = Va + Vw + Vs
Vv
ENGINEERING TESTS & PROPERTIES

More Common Tests Properties

Uniaxial Compressive Test (Uniaxial compressive) Peak strength,
Young’s Modulus, Poisson’s Ratio,
Triaxial CompressiveTest & Strength envelope (from multiple and single
Multistage trixial test samples) and Mohr Coulomb parameters
Slake Durability Index Swelling strain and slake durability
Direct shear test Shear strength
Point Load Index Strength
Ultrasonic pulse velocity Dynamic elastic constants
Less Common Tests Property
ISRM Hoek triaxial test Strength envelope from H-B parameters
BrazillianTensile Test Tensile strength
Creep Test Time-dependent behavior
STRENGTH TESTS
• Probably the first property that a mining engineer will consider when
designing an excavation

• Use both laboratory and field tests to classify the rock strength
‒ Unconfined compressive strength (UCS) test (lab test)
‒ Confined compressive strength (Triaxial) test (lab test)
‒ Tensile strength
§ Direct Tensile Test (lab test)
§ Indirect Tensile (Brazilian) Test (lab test)
‒ Point Load (Index) Strength (field test)
INTACT ROCK STRENGTH PEAK FAILURE
CRITERION

(after Hoek & Brown, 1996)

UNIAXIAL COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH

(after Hoek & Brown, 1996)

UNIAXIAL COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH
• ISRM suggested method
‒ Core sample with diameter preferably no less
than 54mm (NX core size)
‒ Length to diameter ratio of 2.5 to 3
‒ Ends to be perpendicular to 0.02mm
‒ Loading rate 0.5 to 1 MPa/sec (failure within 5 to
10 mins)
‒ UCS = load /area (MPa; psi)
‒ At least 5 samples that fail along intact rock
tested

(After Brown, 1981)

TESTING MACHINES
COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH

• (Unconfined) Uniaxial Compressive Axial

Strength (UCS) force (UCS)x(A)
‒ Cylindrical core of an intact rock; Km > Kr
(F)
§ L >= 2D
‒ Loaded axially with a compressive Kr
1
force Km < Kr - Km
§ Displacement-control movement of 1 platen
‒ An axial stress σzz is developed in the Axial displacement (d )
sample until it reaches the rock UCS.
‒ Machine stiffness > rock stiffness
COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH

Axial splitting Shear failure Shear failure conjugate

pair
(After Clark and Cook, 1983)
COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH
• Type A (straight line)
‒ Linear elastic behavior indicating a constant value of Young’s
modulus
‒ Exhibited by most of igneous rocks (basalt, diabase, gabbro and
other very strong rocks like quartzite, very strong sandstone, etc)
• Type B (convex towards stress axis)
‒ Pronounced strain with every increment of load
‒ Strain-softening behaviour
‒ Exhibited by softer rocks such as shales, siltstones, tuff, softer
limestones, well cleated and bedded coal when tested parallel to
the bedding planes, etc.
• Type C (convex towards strain axis)
(After Lama & Vutukuri, 1978)
• Decreased strain with every increment of load
• Strain hardening behaviour
• Exhibited by sandstones, coals and other rocks when loaded
perpendicular to the bedding planes, rock salt and certain
metamorphic rocks
COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH – BRITTLE FAILURE
MECHANISMS
STATIC ELASTIC PROPERTIES

• Derived by monitoring samples

undergoing UCS test
• Young’s modulus
• Axial, Ea
• Tangent , Et
• Secant , Ec
• Poisson’s Ratio
u = (slope of axial curve) / (slope of
diametric curve)
u = E / (slope of diametric curve)

(After Brady and Brown, 1995)

TRIAXIAL COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH

(after Hoek & Brown, 1996)

TRIAXIAL COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH

• Triaxial Test
• With increasing confining pressure, the
peak strength increases
• There is transition from brittle to ductile
behavior
• The post peak drop in stress to residual
strength reduces at high confinements
• Reporting Results
• Mohr Coulomb
• Hoek-Brown

(After Hoek 2000)

 TRIAXIAL COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH

sa s3= 15 MPa t=c + s tan f

s3=5 MPa

s3=0
s3 s3 s1 s3 s1 s1 s
ea

(After Hoek 2000)

TRIAXIAL COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH

• Multistage triaxial test

• Conventional triaxial yields one point
from one sample on the failure envelope
• Multistage enables more points from
single sample
• Progressively increasing confining
pressure after reaching yield point

s3=15 MPa

Force
s3=10 MPa

s3=5 MPa
(After Hoek 2000)
s3=0 MPa
Displacement
COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH – BRITTLE
TO DUCTILE TRANSITION
COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH – MACHINE
STIFFNESS

F
Axial
force Km
(UCS)x(A)
(F) Km > Kr
A= p D2/4 d
Kr L Kr=EA/L
1
Km < Kr - Km
D
F
Axial displacement (d )
COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH – SAMPLE
SHAPE & MODULUS CHANGES
 COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH

(after Lee et al, 2000)

© Australian Mining Consultants Pty Ltd
COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH – INTACT
ROCK
TENSILE STRENGTH

(after Hoek & Brown, 1996)

TENSILE STRENGTH

• Direct Tensile Strength Test

• Sample gripped at both ends and
pulled axially
• Tensile crack forms perpendicular to
direction of the force
Tensile strength = P/ A
Where P= load at failure
A= cross-sectional area of sample
• Very expensive
• High cost in preparation

(After Archibald, 2001)

TENSILE STRENGTH

• Brazilian Tensile Strength (BTS) P

• Cylindrical core of rock material A =p Dt/2
• t = 0.5 (D)
• Loaded laterally with a compressive D
d
force (P).
• Tensile stress (sxx) is developed along t
the loading diameter of the sample until P
it reaches the rock BTS. Axial force (P)
• Rate of loading is setup to follow a
constant rate of displacement (mm/s) of
(BTS)x(A)
one of the platens
sT = P/A = 0.636P/Dt

Axial displacement (d )
TENSILE STRENGTH

(after Lee et al, 2000)

© Australian Mining Consultants Pty Ltd
 UCS AND BTS ON MOHR CIRCLE

Line t = c + s tan(f) f (Friction angle)

c= 1 s cs t t
2
æ s c -s t ö c
f = sin çç
-1
÷÷ (Cohesion)
èsc +st ø
s
sc or UCS
st or BTS
POINT LOAD STRENGTH INDEX

• When the standards for UCS cannot be

maintained, or when only approximate
measure of peak strength is required, point
load strength test may be carried out.
Is = P/D2

Where
P= force at which the specimen breaks
D= distance between the points.
For D= 50 mm

For other values of D, size correction factors

have been suggested.
STRENGTH INDEX

Diametrical
Is = 1000P / D2
Where D = diameter of the core
Axial
Is = 1000P / De 2
Where De = (4WD/p)0.5
Standardised
Is(50) = Is x (De/50)0.45
Relationship (ISRM)
sc = 22 x Is(50)
• Refer to AS4133.4.1 for further details

(After Lama & Vutukuri, 1978)

STRENGTH INDEX

(After Hoek and Bray, 1981)

STRENGTH INDEX

• Schmidt Rebound Hammer

• Less reliable than Point Load but
can be used directly against the
joint wall surface;

(After Hudson & Harrison, 1997)

STRENGTH INDEX

• Schmidt Rebound Hammer

• Deere & Miller created empirically
determined curves for estimating
joint wall compressive strength
• Example:
• Hammer reading 48
• Hammer angle: 90°
• Unit weight: 26 kN/m3
UCS: 130 MPa

(After Hoek, 2000)

sC VS E

• Strength
• Very Low: sc < 27.5MPa
• Low: (27.5 < sc < 55.2)MPa
• Medium: (55.2 < sc < 110.3) MPa
• High: (110.3 < sc < 220.6) MPa
• Very High: sc > 220.6 MPa
• High ratio zone
ET/sc>500
• Average modulus ratio zone
200<ET/sc < 500
• Low modulus ratio zone
ET/sc<200

(after Martin et al, 2003)

sC VS E

(after Martin et al, 2003)

DIRECT SHEAR

Schematic of direct shear test.

Direct shear machine at SD Mines.

 DIRECT SHEAR
5

4
Shear Stress, MPa

Specimen ID: BHPB/B1AA/1050.21/S

Normal Stress: 2.5 MPa
0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12
Shear Displacement, mm

Test data
Failed specimen (shear failure in clay seam).
CONSTANT STRESS – CREEP
Soft rocks such as salt, potash, and shale will creep when subjected to a constant
axial stress (increase in strain without increase in stress).
CONSTANT STRESS – CREEP
• A constant stress creep test is a confined
compressive test
• First, the specimen is subjected to a confining
pressure
• Specimen is loaded axially
• Axial load is maintained for a period of 30 to 60 days
• Axial and radial strain are recorded
CONSTANT STRESS – CREEP
0.035
WG-58-7-1 Measured Temperature = 86 F
WG/58/7/1 Fit
0.030 WG-58-7-3 Measured
WG/58/7/3 Fit
WG-58-7-2 Measured
WG/58/7/2 Fit σe = 3000 psi
0.025

Axial Creep Strain (-) 0.020

0.015

0.010

σe = 2000 psi

0.005
σe = 1000 psi

0.000
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
Time (days)

Measured and predicted axial creep strains for creep tests performed on
salt
WHY IS CREEP IMPORTANT TO MEASURE?

Pillar shortly after mining

EFFECTS OF CREEP

Pillar with 10-inches of roof closure

EFFECTS OF CREEP

Pillar with 36-inches of closure

EFFECTS OF CREEP

Pillar with 80-inches of closure

EFFECTS OF CREEP

Pillar with 84-inches of closure

SUMMARY

• Describe the various tests used to determine the engineering properties of rocks

• Determine the engineering properties of rock from given data

• Select the required test for the required property

• Make engineering observations from the results of tests

THANK YOU

QUESTIONS?