2: TRAFFIC MANAGEMENT

2.1 INTRODUCTION

Traffic management is a term used to embody the activities undertaken by a highway

transportation agency to improve roadway system safety, efficiency and effectiveness for both
providers and consumers of transportation services. There are two distinct types of traffic
management. The first one is through the use of traditional traffic engineering tools or simple
devices to regulate and control traffic. The second relies more on simple devices to regulate and
control traffic.
1 The second relies more on advanced technology through the use of Intelligent
Transportation Systems (ITS). Advancement of ITS has been the primary goal of many
developed countries. The more conventional applications are common in developing countries.
However, it is not uncommon in both developed and developing countries to have a combination
of conventional methods and ITS application. AN introduction to ITS is provided in chapter 9.

2.2 TRAFFIC REGULATIONS

Many individuals feel that traffic controls are an encroachment on their individual driving
rights. It must be stressed, however, that driving is not a right but a privilege. It is therefore
necessary to show that restrictions are for the general welfare, and it must be demonstrated that
regulations do not curtail the rights or actions of the majority.
Traffic regulation must cover all aspects of the control of both vehicle (registration,
ownership, mechanical fitness, accessories, size, and weight) and driver (age, ability to operate
specific types of vehicles, financial responsibility).
Traffic regulations must be reasonable and effective. This can only be achieved through
careful study. Facts must be sought through the conduct of traffic studies, accident analysis,
keeping driver records, and other data.
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All traffic regulations are dependent upon the laws of the states and local governments,
especially the ordinances of cities. Legislative bodies and traffic authorities must keep in mind
that unreasonable restrictions or regulations are not likely to last very long.

2.2.1 Effective Traffic Regulation

There are fundamental requirements for traffic regulation to be effective. These are as
follows:
a. Regulation should be rational.
Irrational regulations cannot be enforces except by tremendous effort and
expense. Social, economic, and human problems must be considered. If the habits of a
community are greatly at variance with the regulations, success cannot be attained for any
substantial period of time.
b. Regulations should be developed progressively.
Regulations must be planned over a long period of time, and the effects must be
carefully observed so that alterations can be made as experience dictates. Experience
shows that abrupt changes in regulation often lead to increase in the occurrence of traffic
accidents.
c. Regulations alone often are not enough.
Regulations constitute but one approach to the overall traffic problem. When
public acceptance is poor and enforcement is lax, regulations may be totally ineffective.
They must be used in conjunction with control devices, overall highway planning and
design, and administrative policies.

2.2.2 Three Elements of the Road System

The road system consists of the following,
a. The road
b. The vehicle
c. The driver

Figure 2.1 suggests a balance among the three elements, i.e., a breakdown or deficiency
in one can lead to the failure of the entire system.
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Figure 2.1
Interaction of the three elements of the road system

The road and vehicle may be subject to constant change and improvement. However, in a
given period of time, they may be considered inflexible. The major portion of existing
regulations is therefore aimed at the driver. Worldwide, licensing has become the most effective
way of controlling the number of drivers on the road. It should be used, therefore, to influence
drivers to become familiar with the rules of the road. This is especially true for the Filipino
drivers, considering the most accidents have been attributed to them.
For vehicles, a number of controls exist, the most effective of which is vehicle
registration. Others are checks on equipment and accessories (lights, bells, mirrors, helmets,
etc.), and vehicle’s dimension and weight. Currently, the Motor Vehicle Inspection System
(MVIS) is being revitalized and expanded to cover the whole country.

2.3 TRAFFIC CONTROL DEVICES

Traffic control devices are means by which the road user is advised as to detailed
requirements or conditions affecting road use at specific places and times to that proper action
may be taken and accident or delay avoided.
There are three distinct functional groups of traffic control devices:
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a. Regulatory devices
These have the authority of law and impose precise requirements upon the actions
of the road user.
b. Warning devices
These are used to inform road users of potentially hazardous roadway conditions
or unusual traffic movements that are not readily apparent to passing traffic.
c. Guiding devices
These are employed simply to inform the road user of route, destination, and other
pertinent traffic.

2.3.1 Four Elementary Requirements of Every Traffic Control Device

To be effective, every traffic control device must be able to meet the following
requirements (FHWA 1988):
a. It should compel attention.
b. It should convey a simple clear meaning at a glance.
c. It should allow adequate time for easy response.
d. It should command the respect of the road users for whom it is intended.

Every traffic control must meet all these requirements in logical sequence. The
effectiveness of a sign or marking normally depends on its size, color contrast, shape (simple,
regular shapes), relative position, and maintenance to compel attention. To convey a clear
meaning, the shape, color, and message must be well understood. The message should be kept as
short as practicable at a glance. After capturing the clear meaning of the device, it should provide
adequate time for response. Simpler message like STOP or YIELD requires only a second, while
multiple choice (as in destination or guide sign) may require three to four seconds. Finally, all
these requirements – the design features of size and brightness, position allowing time for
response, properly maintained control device – should command the respect of road users. Thus,
shabby, ill-kept signs must be discarded and replaced.
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2.4 TRAFFIC SIGNS AND MARKINGS

Traffic signs are employed more frequently than any other devices to regulate, warn, or
guide road users. Traffic markings normally consist of lines, patterns, words, symbols, reflectors,
etc. They may be considered as specialized types of traffic signs in which the message is in
contrast with the color and brightness of the pavement or other background.
Philippine traffic signs conform to the 1968 Vienna Conventions of the United Nations on
Road Traffic and Road Signs, which the country officially adopted on June 6, 1973.
Traffic signs are necessary to give information as to routes, directions, destinations, etc.
Their function becomes more relevant when used to warn road users of hazards and regulate any
prohibitive action at specific places and/or at specified times.
To ensure uniformity, traffic signs shall be installed only by a duly authorized public body or
official for the purpose of guiding, regulating, and warning traffic. In case of temporary
construction work, however, special permission is given to contractors or utility companies to
install signs to protect the public provided that such signs conform to the set standards.
Traffic signs are normally of fixed/permanent type although some variable signs have been
employed and have become useful in locations where traffic and environment conditions often
change.
Traffic signs are classified depending on their intended uses:

a. Informative: the signs are intended to guide users while they are traveling.
b. Regulatory: the signs are intended to inform users of special obligations, restrictions, or
prohibitions with which they must comply.
c. Warning: these signs are intended to warn users of a danger on the road and to inform
them of its nature,

2.4.1 Elements of design

Uniformity in design includes shape, color, dimension, symbols, wording, lettering,
and illumination or reflectorization.

Shape
Shapes of signs are standardized as follows:
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a) Equilateral triangular shape with one side horizontal shall be used for danger warning
signs.
b) Round shape shall be used for regulating traffic.
c) Rectangular shape shall be used for informative signs.
d) Octagonal shape shall be used for STOP signs only.
e) Inverted equilateral triangle shall be used for YIELD signs only.

Color
 Danger warning signs shall have a yellow or white background with black symbols and
red border.
 Prohibitory signs and restrictive signs shall have a white background with black symbols
and red border.
 Mandatory signs with the exception of STOP and YIELD signs shall have a blue
background and white symbols.
 STOP signs shall have a red background and white symbols.
 YIELD signs shall have a yellow background and red border.
 Informative signs shall have a white or light-colored symbol on a dark-colored (blue or
black) background or a blue or dark-colored symbol on a white or light-colored
background.

Size
The minimum dimensions of signs depend upon the intended applications. Larger sizes are
necessary at wider roadways and on high speed highways. According to section 2.5 of DPWH
Highway Safety Design Standards Part 2: Road Signs and Pavement Markings Manual, regulatory
signs are of four sizes based on the speed of the facility as follows:
a. A for urban low-speed roads
b. B for rural roads with speed limits between 60 kph and 70 kph
c. C for high-speed rural highways
d. D for expressways

In the case of a STOP or YIELD sign, for example, table 2.1 below should be followed:
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Table 2.1 Recommended dimensions for STOP and YIELD signs

SIZE DIMENSION (mm)
A 600 x 600
B 750 x 750
C 900 x 900
Source: DPWH 2004.

The reader is advised to refer to the DPWH manual for the dimensions of various
traffic signs and for other details – letter, symbol, border, bar sizes, etc.

Illumination and reflectorization

Signs are intended to convey messages during both daytime and night time. During hours of
darkness, this can be achieved through illumination or by using reflective materials for signs.

Placement and height of signs

In general, signs shall be mounted approximately at right angles to the direction, and facing
the traffic they intended to serve. Mounting signs at exactly right angle must be avoided especially
on roads following the east and west directions as the sun’s brightness reflecting on the signs will be
too glaring for the drivers. However, there may be no standard location for traffic signs. Each
location must be carefully studied so as to achieve the most advantageous position. Signs are
generally placed on the right side of the roadway. On wider roads, overhead signs are often
necessary. On roads with medians, signs may be placed on both sides. Signs may also be placed on
channelized islands.
a. Lateral placement
On uncurbed roads in the rural areas, the sign should be at least 60 cm clear of the
outer edge of the road shoulder, the line of guideposts, or face of guardrails. The clearance
should not be less than 2 m nor more than 5 m from the edge of the travelled way, except for
large guide signs on expressways where ample clearance may be required (see figure 2.2).
In urban areas, signs should be located away from the face of the curb not less than
30 cm but not more than 1 m. If curb is mountable or semi mountable, the minimum
clearance should be 50 cm. On uncurbed roads, the distance given for rural areas shall be
used.
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b. Height
In rural areas, the height of the sign should normally be between 1 m and 1.5 m
above the nearest edge of the travelled way. For intersection direction signs, the height
should be increased to 2 m. Final height is dictated by visibility factor as the sign should be
mounted clear of vegetation and it must be clearly visible under headlight illumination at
night (see figure 2.2).
On curbed roads such as in urban areas, the signs should be mounted at a minimum
of 2 m above the top of the curb to prevent obstructions to pedestrians.

Figure 2.2
Height and lateral placement of signs

c. Location of advance warning signs

In urban areas, warning signs should be placed no less than 30 m but more than 100
m in advance of the hazardous area, while in rural areas they should be placed no less than
75 m but no more than 225 m ahead of the hazardous area. The final location shall be
determined based on the nature of the hazard, reaction time, and operating speed in the area.
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2.5 INTERNATIONAL STANDARD TRAFFIC SIGNS

2.5.1 Warning Signs

The Vienna Convention allows two forms for the warning sign – one is triangular on shape
with a red border and the other is a diamond in shape (table 2.2). Upon signing in the convention,
the signatory has to state which shape is to be adopted. In the Philippines, the first form is the one
being used although the second may still be found in rural areas. The coloring may also differ in
each form. However, the choice of color is left to discretion of the signing body. Examples of
warning signs are shown in table 2.3.
Table 2.2
Shapes and colors of warning signs

a. b. Some countries use this sign; some only for temporary messages.

c. d. Coloring is not approved by the convention but is generally used for

temporary messages.
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Table 2.3
Examples of warning signs
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2.5.2 Priority Signs

Priority signs have various forms. The two most commonly used priority signs are the STOP
and YIELD signs (table 2.4).
Table 2.4
Example of priority signs

2.5.3 Prohibition Signs

Prohibition signs are round with a red border and either a white or a yellow background.
Access restrictions signs can have a red bar from low right to top left. Parking prohibitions have a
blue background. The signs that signal the end of a prohibition are white or yellow with a small
black border and a black bar form left below to right top. The bar can be replaced by a series of
small bars. In addition, the symbol for which the end of prohibition is intended is given in gray.
Examples of prohibition signs are shown in table 2.5.
Table 2.5
Examples of prohibition signs
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Table 2.5 (continued)

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2.5.4 Obligatory Signs

The obligatory signs are round and in blue colors. Examples are shown in table 2.6.
Table 2.6
Examples of obligatory signs
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Table 2.6 (continued)

2.5.5 Other Prescription Signs

These signs are, in general, rectangular with either a blue base with a white background, or
with a light base with a dark foreground.
These signs give prohibitions, obligations, or danger messages for particular lanes on a
multilane road. Each lane is represented by an arrow, to which the appropriate sign is affixed. Table
3.7 shows some examples. The background color blue is used for major roads, white for minor
roads, and within built-up areas, and yellow for road works.
Table 2.7
Examples of prescription signs
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Table 2.7 (continued)

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2.5.6 Information Signs

These signs are rectangular with a white or yellow plate with a symbol that stands for the
service involved. The signs can be either blue or green. Examples are shown in table 2.8.
Table 2.8
Examples of information signs
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2.5.7 Direction Signs

A profusion of colors and forms is available. In general, the forms shown must be adopted,
and in some cases even the color shown must be used and not be changed.
Table 2.9
Examples of directional signs

2.5.8 Additional Information

These signs are small and rectangular, they supplement the information on the main sign
(table 2.10).
Table 2.10
Examples of supplemental signs
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2.6 PAVEMENT MARKINGS

2.6.1 Functions and Limitations of Pavement Markings

A system of clear and effective pavement markings is essential for the guidance and control
of vehicles and pedestrians. They take the form of lines, symbols, messages, or numerals, and may
be set into the surface of, applied upon, or attached to the pavement. In some cases, pavement
markings are used as a supplement to other traffic control devices such as traffic signals and road
signs. In other instances, they may simply guide traffic regulations. Pavement markings have some
definite limitations:
a. They are subject to traffic wear and require proper maintenance.
b. They may not be clearly visible if the road is wet or dusty (e.g., near shoulder edge or
median).
c. They may be obscured by traffic.
d. Their effect on skid resistance requires careful choice of materials.
e. They cannot be applied on unsealed roads.
Despite these limitations, they have the advantage under favorable conditions of conveying
warning message or information to drivers without diverting their attention from the road.

2.6.2 Legal Authority

Markings shall only be applied and/or removed by the Department of Public Works and
Highways (DPWH) or an authority to which these powers are delegated.
All line-markings plans must be approved by the DPWH before installation.

2.6.3 Standardization

As in the case with all other traffic control devices, it is imperative that markings be uniform
so that they may be recognized and understood instantly by all drivers. Manuals are available from
the DPWH, and on request, it will furnish traffic authorities, road markers, material
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suppliers/manufacturers, and similarly interested agencies, detailed drawings of the standard designs
and locations.

2.6.4 Types of Markings

Markings are classified into the following groups:

 Pavement and curb markings
a. Longitudinal lines are those laid in the direction of travel. These include Center Line,
Lane Line, Double Yellow Line, “No-Passing” Zone Markings, Pavement Edge Line,
Continuity Lines, and Transition Line.
b. Transverse lines are those laid across the direction of travel. These include Stop Line,
Yield (Give Way) Lines, and Pedestrian Crossing Markings.
c. Other lines, which include Turn Lines, Parking Bays, Painted Median Islands, and Bus
& PUJ Lane Lines.
d. Other markings, which include Approach Markings to Islands and Obstructions,
Chevron Markings, Diagonal Markings, Markings on Exit and Entrance Ramps, Curb
Markings for Parking Restrictions, Approach to Railroad Crossings, Messages, and
Symbols and Pavement Arrows.
 Object markings
a. Object within the roadway
b. Object adjacent to the roadway
 Reflector markings
a. Retro-reflector raised pavement markers
b. Hazard markers
c. Delineators

2.6.5 Materials

Road markings should be of non-skid materials and should not protrude more than 6 mm
above the level of the carriageway. Raised pavement markings should not protrude more than 15
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mm above the level of the carriageway. The following are the commonly used materials for road
markings:
 Paint
Paint with or without glass beads embedded or premixed can be applied either by
hand or with line marking machines, For proper reflectorization at night, the amount of glass
beads used should be less than 0.45 kg and no more than 0.50 kg per liter of mixed paint.
 Thermoplastic materials
Use of thermoplastic materials with or without reflective properties is recommended
at locations subject to extreme traffic property is recommended at locations subject to
extreme traffic wear. The average service life of thermoplastic materials has been
experienced to be equivalent to eight times that of beaded traffic paints.
 Pre-cut sheeting
Pre-cut materials both with or without reflective properties are used. It is usually in
adhesive tape form, with aggregate, pigment, and plastic rubber combined on one side and
adhesive on the other side.
 Raised pavement markers
These are studs of plastic, ceramic, aluminum, cast iron, etc. that are embodied into
the carriageway or attached to the road surface with adhesive. They may be reflective or
nonreflective.

2.6.6 Color

The color of pavement markings shall be white, except for the alternative uses of yellow in
the following cases:
a. Double yellow “no-passing” lines
b. Unbroken portion of “no-parking” lines
c. Curb markings for prohibition of parking
d. On island in line of traffic
e. Bus and PUJ lanes
Black may be used in combination with white or yellow in hazard markers to warn drivers at
locations where the protruding objects – such as bridge piers, traffic islands, or other protruding
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objects – on or near the roadway. However, the use of black does not establish it as a standard color
for pavement marking.

2.6.7 Types of Lines

Depending on the direction that lines are marked on the pavement, lines may be
longitudinal, transverse, or oblique. And depending on the use and meaning of such lines, they are
either broken or solid lines.
A broken line shall consist of line segments of equal lengths separated by uniform gaps.
The speed of vehicles on the section of road or in the area in question should be taken into account
in determining the lengths of the strokes and of the gaps between them.
A solid unbroken line is used where crossing of the line is either discouraged or prohibited.
It is generally used to replace or supplement a broken line where required, e.g., barrier lines, center
lines, etc. Solid lines may be either yellow or white, depending whether crossing the line is legally
prohibited or not.

2.6.8 Width of Lines

The width of solid or broken lines varies from 100 mm to 300 mm, depending on the usage
of the specified line. Transverse lines are usually wider because of the angle at which the driver
sees markings on the carriageway.

2.6.9 Messages

Messages when used should be limited to as few words as possible, never more than three.
they shall only be used so supplement other traffic control devices. The distance between words is
variable, depending on the message and location at which it is based. (Usually twice the length of
the word if achievable.)
The first word of the message is to be nearest the motorist on rural roads. Un urban low-
speed areas, the order is optional.
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Messages are white in color. Letters or numerals used on roads in urban areas shall
measure at least 2.5 m; oh high-speed highways, they may need to be at least 5 m.
Messages generally in use are STOP, KEEP CLEAR, SCHOOL PED XING, RAILROD
XING, SIGNAL AHEAD, NO RIGHT (LEFT) TURN, BUS LANE, and PUJ LANE.

2.6.7 Symbols

a. Give way (yield) symbol

The symbol used to supplement the give way sign consists of isosceles triangle
having two equal sides of 3.1 m and a base of 1 m. Outline width is 450 mm at the base
and 150 mm for the sides. The distance of the symbol from the holding line is between 5 m
and 25 m, depending on the location and vehicle speeds on that road.

b. Pavement arrows
Pavement arrows are used for lane use control. White in color, they are generally
5m in length on urban roads and 7.5m on high-speed roads.
For half-turn movements, the stems of the straight arrows can be bent to suit the
particular direction of movements.
The first set of arrows should be placed at a distance of 15m from the stop bar, and
the supplement sets should be placed at 45m apart.

c. Numerals
The only numerals that should be used are those associated with speed limits at
location to supplement limit signs, which are continuously disregarded by drivers.

2.7 OBJECT MARKINGS AND MARKERS

2.7.1 Object Markings

Physical obstructions in or near a roadway that constitute serious traffic hazard, including
installations designed for the control of traffic, shall be adequately marked. Typical obstructions of
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this character are bridge supports, monuments, traffic islands, beacons, signal and sign support,
loading islands, railroads and draw-bridge gates, posts of narrow bridges, underpass piers and
abutments, culvert headwalls, poles, trees, rocks, and structures giving restricted and overhead
clearance.
For additional emphasis it is also advisable to mark obstructions rather than islands with
reflectorized white paint with not less than five alternating black and reflectorized white stripes.
The stripes shall slope downward at an angle of 45 degrees toward the side of obstruction, and
shall be uniform and not less than 100 mm in width. A large surface, such as a bridge pier, may
require stripes of 300 mm (see figure 2.3).

Figure 2.3
Object markings (Courtesy of R. Rellosa of 3M Phil.)

In addition to the marking on the face of an obstruction in the roadway, warning of

approach to the hazard shall be given by line markings on the pavements.
Reflectorized yellow should be used in curbs of all islands located in the line of traffic
flows especially on curbs directly ahead of traffic at T and offset intersections.

2.7.2 Raised Pavement Markers

Raised pavement markers are small rectangular or dome-shaped devices that are fixed to
the pavement surface to simulate or supplement painted pavement markings (figure 2.4). The
markers can be reflective or nonreflective.
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Figure 2.4
Raised pavement markers (The one on the right has a built-in lightning.) (Left photo courtesy of R.
Rellosa of 3M Phil; right photo courtest of Solarmakers Inc.)

Raised pavement markers are generally not obscured at night and under wet conditions.
The reflective types are more brilliant than reflectorized paint markings.
Because of high cost of installation and maintenance, use of raised pavement markings
may be considered only in accident-prone areas, e.g., on hilly areas where there is frequent fog and
rain. Figure 2.5 shows the visual effect of raised pavement markers.

Figure 2.5
Visual effect of raised pavement markers in between reflectorized pavement markings (Photo
courtesy of R. Rellosa of 3M Phil.)
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Hazard markers
Hazard markers are rectangular and generally consist of a series of alternating black and
white bands (figure 2.6). The white portion is always reflectorized, but the reflectorized material
may cover only the central portion of each white band in order to achieve a balance between the
areas of black and white under headlight illumination. The bands may consist of either diagonal
strips where only a target is required or of chevrons where directional as well as target properties
are desirable.

Delineators
Delineators are small reflective panels or buttons mounted on guide posts or guard fences
as an effective aid for night driving (figure 2.7). Delineators are made of reflective material
capable of reflecting light clearly visible under normal atmospheric condition from a distance of
300-500 m when illuminated by the upper beam of a standard automobile head lamp.
Placement of delineators at the roadside of a circular curve is shown in figure 2.8.

Figure 2.6
Chevron markers (Photo courtesy of R. Rellosa of 3M Phil.)
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Figure 2.7
Delineators made of reflective materials

Figure 2.8
Placement of permanent delineators along a roadway curve.
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PROBLEMS
1. Drive along Epifanio de los Santos Avenue (EDSA) or along any major roads in your
locality. Note if traffic signs are visible or if they are obscured because of too many
advertisement or billboard signs. Must there be regulations on putting up advertisement
signs?
2. Nowadays, many local government units have been able to get support from private
companies in fabricating and installing traffic signs at locations under their jurisdiction,
provided that the company’s logo or identification is indicated in a certain area of the sign
(one-eighth to one-fifth of the total surface area). Would you agree to this? Why or why
not?
3. In the town or city where you are residing, identify the different traffic signs and see if they
conform to the Vienna Convention as to color and shape. Would you agree if these signs
do not conform to the international standards because they were fabricated at lower cost in
your locality?
4. Most international signs consist mainly of symbols with minimum or almost no words in
them. Would you suggest putting words in Tagalog or in any dialects in order to convey
their meaning? Why or why not?

REFERENCES

 Department of Public Works and Highways (DPWH). 2004. Highway safety design standards.
Road Safety Design Manual. Manila: DPWH
 Federal Highway Administration (FHWA). US Dept. of Transportation. 1998. Manual on
uniform traffic control devices for streets and highways (MUTCD).
 Planning and Project Development Office, Ministry of Public Highways. 1980. Manual on
pavement markings.
 Santiago, Mariano R. ed. 1980. A compilation of educts related to the land transportation
system of the Philippines. Quezon City: Bureau of Land Transportation.