Scribd
Upload
44 views

Module 2 Physics Part 2

Uploaded by

Paulius Karūža
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
Available Formats
Download as PDF or read online on Scribd
44 views

Module 2 Physics Part 2

Uploaded by

Paulius Karūža
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
Available Formats
Download as PDF or read online on Scribd
You are on page 1/ 39
eh etloray Bolte auras SUB-MODULE 03 PART-66 SYLLABUS LEVELS cemmosnoncareaonr= |B) B2. Seh-Module 03 THERMODYNAMICS Kaowledge Requirements 2.5 Thermodynamics @ Temperature thermometers nd temperature sees: Celia, 2 Fahrenheit and Kelvin; Hea definion; ® Hest apa specif eat Heat ranser: omvecson, radiation and condution; Volumetric expansion; Fist and second la of thermedyoamis, Gnes ideal gases avs specific heat constant volume and constant presse, wok done by expanding gx; Isothermal, adiabatic expansion and compres prose, refigertct and het pamps, Laret heas of fision and evapeatic, thermal energy, hea of cmbaton, 22 engin yes, constant volume and constant Les? ‘ral tools te otal ad pti ap the et Enlil ar ng. Ont (Tesla sl bse etn eat nto fe ie (0) Bespca eabo geee erpin sj ug peepee (© Themen sles tue cena ere Aeseron ih pee ne sb ates en ede end et (o) Reppin sad eae pga agen rent ung ele cei edule 02 Phylee a4 Tnewoorantes THERMODYNAMICS ‘Dermedynamics ie the branch of physical scence that "se Volume 1 x Pressure 1» Volume 2 « resure 2 oR vps Pa Example: 10 fof nitrogen ie under a pressure of 500 pa. the volume is reduced to7€, what wll the new pressure be? vari « vae2 10(500)=_7(P2) 10(500) +7= P2 P= 714.29 psia ‘The wefl applications of Boyle's law are many and ‘aed. Some splition more common to witon ae the eaton diode (CO) bore wed inflate lie raft and life vests (2) the compeesied oxygen and the etlene tanks wd in welding) the competed aie bakes and sbock absorbers and (8) che use of exygen tanks forhigh ata fying ad emergency we CHARLES' LAW “The Feench scent Jacques Chases, provided much of “the foundation forthe moder kinetic theory of gases, He found that all gases expand and contact in dvcce proportion (othe chang inthe absolute temperature, Provided the pressures bel constant. edt 2 roe ‘As formula, this wis shown a8 follows: Volume 1 x Absolute Temperature ‘Absolute Temperature 1 (Charles aw also works if the volume is held constant, tnd pressure and temperature ae the variables Tn this «ase, the formula would be as follows PyT2=PaTI For this second formula, presure and temperature mast be in the absolute, Example: A 15 £@ cylinder of oxygen is at temperture (of 70°F anda pressure of 750 pag. The cylinders placed in the sun and the temperature of the oxygen increases oH0'F, ‘What would be the new pressure in pig? 70 degrees Fahrenheit» 530 degrees Rankine 140 degres Fahrenheit » 600 degrees Rankine 1764.7 (600) =P2 (530) P2= 76437 (600) + 530 P2= 8657 psa P2=851 pig GENERAL GAS LAW By combining Boyle's and Charles! laws, a single ‘expression canbe derived which state athe information ‘contained in both. The formula which is uted to express the general gas lai follows: Pressure 1 (Volume 1) __Presure 2 (Volume 2) “Tempensture 1 "Tempenture 2 ‘When using the general gas law formal, temperature and pressure must be in the absolute. 3x9 “TrerwoornaMics Example 20 6 of the gas argon it compressed ro 15 fe “The gat sat out ta temperarre of "Panda pressure ‘of 1 000 psig. After being compressed, its temperature = 90°F. What would is new peessure bein psigh 60 degsees Fahrenheit» 520 degrees Rankine 90 degrees Fahrenheit» 550 degrees Rankine 1000 psig + 14.7 = 1014.7 pai Pa vip (12) =P (V2 CT) 10147 20) (50) = P2 (15) (520) 201431 pala P2= 14163 pig DALTON'S LAW fa mincure of two oc more gies that do not combine chemically is placed ina container, each gas expands throughout the total «pace and the abrolute pressure of. cach gas is reduced toa lower value, called its partial presse. This reduction is in accordance with Boyle's Jaw. The pressure of the mixed gases is equal the sum WORK AND EXPANDING GASES. ‘Work canbe done by expanding gas In fet, this show nergy fuel is extracted in internal combustion engines, “The felis combined with sir snd burned. he expanding «gaze from combustion in a eiprocating engine act upon the pistons forcing them downward, This rotates the srankshaft through the connecting rods. The rotating czankshaft turns the propeller. In a turbine engine, the ‘expanding gues from combustion are divected through the turbine wheels. This rorates the engine shaft with the remaining ga pressoe expelled rearward w produce thrust in the forward direction. In an adiabatic, of isolated system, when work is performed by expanding gases, the volume thatthe gases occupy increases bu there isa corresponding decrease in temperature and pressure. With no energy added to ENGINE CYCLES CONSTANT VOLUME, “The yee through which a reciprocating engine opertes fe known ae the Otto cycle It constant volume cycle owing to a constant volume of fuel air mixture being burned during each cycle (2 revolutions ofthe crankshaf). Consider the diagram in Figure 3-16. an of the partial presnures. This fact was discovered by Dalton, an Englioh physicist, and is set forth in Dalton’ law: A mine of wecral aut abich dont reac chemically xtrts a precure equal the sum of the presures which the sever gates would exert eparately feach were alae to cp the entre space alone at tegen temperate” IDEAL GAS LAW “The ideal gas law ie ured to deteribe che este of a gt under a given set of conditions such a8 temperature, pressure, and volume. Scientists and designers use this fora thorough analysis ofthe behavior of gases. The lw sssumes that gaes are ideal, chat is that the molecules tre perfectly uniform and simply collide with exch other but do not interact. I considers all of the enexgy 9 be the kinetic energy of the molecules bouncing of each other, Therefore, ny change in energy within the system also changes the temperare. Thi does not o¢ is ot sctually te cae when working with ral gases. the system since i it adiabatic, the values of pressure, temperature and volume could be calculated using the general gue formula shown above. Ifthe gases are compresied instead of expanded, the phenomenon would revere, A smaller volume would inerease the pressure of ‘he ga and inerease the temperature ofthe gas. ‘An isothermal system is one ia which temperature remains the same. When regarding expanding gases in auch a aystem, the pressure and volume must vary inversely teach other. As volume increases (pansion (of the gas), the pressure of the gas must decrease, ‘Again, the oppoite would hold that ithe volume of the [ger decreases the pressure of the gases increase in an isothermal stem, Ik shows a PV (pressure-volume) graph of atypical 4 sroke, Oreo yee engin. The cycle begins at the point labeled 1, This is the beginning of che intake suoke of the cycle, Both the volime and the preseure ace at « minimum near atmospheric pressure. Between points 1 and 2, the piston is drawn out of the cylinder and the volume of air at atmospheric pressure increasee ce 2 Phys ‘Gonvastin Process nak stroke Aw Constant vue Process Acetate Process - Power sake ee teat rotn >a Bitast sake v Faure 2.16. Costant vole engineer aces neal conten erie. ts the suction caused by drawing the piston out of the cylinder pulls che fuel-sir mixture into it, The compzesion stroke begins at point 2.The piston rises ‘up in the cylinder reducing the volume but increasing the pressure ofthe gue charge significantly. At point 3 on the graph, the intake valve andthe exhaust valve are closed. A constant volume of gas is held in the ‘combustion chamber as «spack from the spark plug, gtes the mixture For theshort duration tha the ful-sir charge ie burned, the volume remains constant but the energy released by burning the fuel causes sharp inereate in pressure (Grom points 3 to 4). The constant volume portion of the cycle ends when the piston paste top dead center inthe cylinder and che power stroke begins at point 4 Between points 4 and 5, the pressure ftom the burned fuel-sir mixture pushes the piston down transferring ‘mechanical energy to the rotating crankshaft in the process. At point 5, the eshaut valve opens. Quickly, the pressures reduced to atmospheric between points 5 and 6, Residual hears given off and during the exhaust stroke berween points 6 and 1, che piston moves back into the cylinder pushing all of the exhaust gus out thas returning the volume (and pressure) in the engine to ‘thcie minimum vaucs wo begin the cycle agin, Notice that there is an area on the graph created by sraphing the cycle. This presents the work done by the engine. For the purposes ofthis discussion, no Mote 2 Pryce accommodations have been made forthe inelficiencies Inherited in engine operation duc to heat los and fiction, “The actual wotk done by the engine would appear on the ‘raph asa smaller area if these loses were included. CONSTANT PRESSURE A constant pressure engine eyele occurs in a turbine engine. The Brayton cycle is the name given to the thermodynamic cycle ofa gue tubine engine to produce thrust This is 2 variable volume conetant- presse cyle of events and is commonly calle the constant pressure cycle, A more secent term is “continuous combustion cycle." The four continuous snd constant events are lntake, compression, expansion (includes power), and ‘exhaust These eyles are discussed as they apply to a sg1e-turbine engine In the incake eyele, aic enters at ambient pressure and a constant volume. It leaves the intake at an increased pressure and a decrease in volume. At the ‘compressor section, ait i received from the intake at an Increased pressure, slightly above ambient and slight decrease in volume. Air enters the compressor where itis compressed. Ie leaves the compressor witha large Increase in pressure and decrease in volume, created by the mechanical action of the comprestor. The next step ‘expansion, takes place inthe combustion chamber by burning ful, which expands the air by heating it 316 ‘Hemwoownames: “The presaure remains relatively conitant, but a marked increase in volume takes place, The expanding gases move rearward through the turbine assembly and are converted from velocity energy to mechanical energy by the turbine, The exhaust section, which isa convergent HEAT OF COMBUSTION “The term beat of combuaton refers tothe energy released as heat when the fuel sir mixture i burned in an internal combustion engine. Theis a theoretical value that ean be calculated and is characteristic for exch THERMAL ENERGY [All matter not existing at absolute zero temperature hha thermal energy. The extent of vibration or internal ‘movement of the molecules of a substance is actually what is refered to as thermal energy. Usa, thermal THERMAL EFFICIENCY Any study of engines and power involves consideration of heat asthe source of power. The heat produced by the burning of gasoline in the cylinders causes rapid expansion of the gases in the eylinder, and this, in tum, moves the pistons and eretes mechanical energy. Te hat long been knovtn that mechanical work ean be converted into heat and that a given amount of heat contains the energy equivalent ofa certain amount of mechanical work. Heat and work are theoretically Ierchangeable an bear a fixed relation to each other Heat can therefore be measused in work units (for example, felt) as well asin heat units. The British thermal unit (BTU) of heat isthe quantity of heat required to rig the temperature of 1 pound of water by 1° eis equivalent ro 778 feb of mechanical work. A pound of petroleum fuel, when burned srith enough aie to consume it completely (heat of combustion, gives up bout 20 000 BTU, the equivalent of 15 560.000 fel ‘of mechanical work. These quantities express the heat ‘nergy of the fuel in heat and work units, respectively. ‘The ratio of useful work done by an engine tothe hest nergy ofthe fuel ituze,expested in work or het unis, is called the thermal efficiency ofthe engine. If two similar engines use equal amount of fuel, the engine that converts into work che greater par ofthe enexgy in the Fuel (higher thermal efficiency) delivers the grenter duct, converts the expanding volume and decreasing pressure ofthe gases toa final high velocity. The foree ‘rete inside the engine to ep this cycle continuous hasan equal and opposite reaction (rust) to move the seca forwad, particular compound of fuel, Heat of combustion is typically measured in mege-joules per kilogram or in BTUs pec pound ‘energy i regued for an entre body or ester. Therefore itis not the same as temperature. A cup of boiling water, fo eximple, would contain less thermal energy than & swimming pool fll of water t 25 °C. amount of power. Furthermore, the engine that has the higher thermal efficiency hus las waste hea wo digpose of tthe vale, cylinders, pistons and cooling system of the engine. A high thermal efiiency also means low specific fuel consumption and, therefoe less fuel fora fight ofa given distance ta given power. Thus, the practical importance of «high thermal efficiency threefold, and itcontirates one of the most desirable fearaces in the performance of an sreraft engine. (OF te tora hear produced, 25 t0 30 percent is wiized for power ouput, 15 r0 20 percent is ost in cooling (heat radiated from cylinder head fn} 5 t0 10 percents lestia overcoming fieton of moving parts and 40 45 percent is ose through the ezhaust. Anything that increases the heat content going into mechanical work onthe piston, ‘which reduces the fiction and pumping losses, or which reduce the quantity of unburned ficl or the heat lost to the engine pars increases the thermal efficiency. ‘The portion ofthe total heat of combustion thats rurned {nto mechanical wrk depends toa great extent por the compression miti. The compression ratio isthe rato of. ‘the piston displacement plas combustion chamber space to the combustion chamber space, as mentioned elie (Other things being equal, the higher the compresion ‘tia ithe large the proportion af ch heat energy of Mosse 02- Pics ‘combustion turned into useful work atthe crankshafi, On the other hand, increasing the compression ratio increases the cylinder head temperature. This is a limiting factor because the extemely high temperature created by high compression ratios causes the material in the cylinder to deteriorate rapidly andthe fuel to detonate instead of burning ata controlled eae ‘The thermal efficiency of an engine may be based on either bhp or indicated horsepower (ihp) and is represented by the formula ih » 33.000 Weight of Pal Burnednin, x Feat Vale 778 “The formula for brake thermal efficiency isthe sume as shown above, except the valve for bhp is inserted instead ofthe vale fo hp REFRIGERATION Previously, che second law of thermal dynamics stated tha heat energy always flows from high energy to low energy of, from hot t cold. Since ths is the cate, a ‘means for manipulating this and other natu laws of ‘nergy transfer must be usd inorder to cool something. Refrigeration i uch a means. An sir conditioning system, for example cool the exbin of an aircraft on a hot day. Since the elevated ambient temperature outside the aircraft is what eaused the abn tobe hotin the fist plac, simply moving the cabin sir outsides not solution. The replacement aie comes fom ambient air which is known to be too hot. Vapor cycle airconditioning i wed on older transport category airraft and on many business and general aviation aircraft. This isthe same type ofsirconditioning in your ea, home or eefigenitor. (Figure 3-17) Energy can be neither created nor destroyed; however, it ean be transformed and moved. This is what occurs during vapor cycle air conditioning. Heat energy is moved fiom the cabin ae ito liquid refrigerant. Due to the additional energy, the Liquid changes into a vapor. The ‘por is compressed and becomes very hot. eis eoved from the cabin whece the very hot vapor refrigerant transfers its heat energy to the cooler outside se. In doing o, the efiigerane cool nd condenses back nto liquid. The refrigerant returns ro the cabin to repeat the cle of energy transfer. edule 2 - Prin Example: An engine delivers 85 bhp for a petiod of 1 hour and during that time consumes 50 pounds af fel ‘Assuming the fel has eat conten of 18800 BTU per ‘pound, fd the chermalefcency ofthe engine: 85 hp «38.000, £853 18 800 BTU 778 Beale thermal efficiency = 0.23 or 23 percent = 2.805 000 12 183 791 Reciprocating engines are only about 34 percent thermally efficient; that i, they transform only about 34 percent ofthe total heat potential ofthe burning fel Jo mechanical energy. Fae 3.7. apr canto, et ca ‘rom hain othe ots aby agra wd changes tom «er and kag ‘One of the keys tothe operation ofan airconditioning sytem isatentheat. Adding heat to asubstance does not lays cals its temperature. When substance changes stat, such as when aliquid changes into a vapor, heat energy i absocbed. This heat energy abrorhed to change sta is called latent heat. When a vapor condentes into aliquid, this latent hea energy i given off. air “The temperature ofa substance remains constant during its change of state. All energy absorbed or given off ‘the latent heat, is wed forthe change of state process “Aer the change of state is complete, heat added to + substance eases the temperature ofthe substance “When a liquid changes stare and becomes a vapos, the process is known as evaporation. The heat energy aborbed to change from liquid toa ga is known asthe “nent heat of vaporization. Ifa substance is condensing, that i, changing from a gs toa liquid, che heat energy given off is omerimes known as the latent heat of fision Substances have characteriatic amounts of energy required to change state, They also change sate at different temperaaret, The boiling point of substance isthe temperature a which dhe substance changes tae fiom a liquid to a vapor. The boiling point changes “with the amount of pressure applied tothe substance. Reftigerants used in air conditioning systems typical boil at very lowe temperature. ane Another device that moves heat energy is a hea pump, A hest pump i a device thar moves heat energ? from one location to snother. Ie ie typically used fo moderate temperature adjustments. Like a vapor eych tir conditioner, the second law of thermal dynamics j tured tadvanrage. A circulating refigerant absorbs hea from a warm area and moves ito a cooler aea where i is eleased. Usvally, heat pump is reversible so that hea can be moved from the area that was a heatsink wher ‘hat area becomes bor and the normal area to be eoolec equies tobe heated. Mole 02 Pyle Question 3 7 “Thermodynamics is the branch of physic sence that deal with the reaonshipBerween a other frms of en. Questions 3-2 ‘What denomination() ae wed to express heat energy? Questions 33 “What's the ainciple upon which an electric resistance thermomete! operates? eon 4 Set ee eee emt QUESTIONS Question: 3-5 ‘Wat does the second law of thermodyamics state? Question: 3-6 What three variable of gs ate consider when applying the general gas law? (Hin: The genera at Ine combine: Boyle’ law and Chaska) Questions 3-7 ‘Measured in megs-joules per kilogram or BTU per pound what term is given to the calculated theoretical value ofthe energy released as heat in an internal combustion engine? Question: “When heats added toa substance, the temperature ses, Thisstatement is: ‘A. Tre allof the time, B. Tr tome ofthe time (C, Never known for certain, ANSWERS Answer: 344 hese Answer 32 Imperial Sytem: BTU (Brish Thermal Unis), ealoies SI/Meti: joules, calor. Answer 34 ‘When the tempersture changes, te sesistance of material changes, Answers 3-4 ‘Conductien. ‘Convestion Rediaton, a2 Answer:35 “Het always lows from high energy to low energy (oe, ‘eat always flows from hot to cod) Answer:3-6 “Temperate. Presture Volume, “The general gu aw i Pressure 1 (Volume) | ?restre 2 (Volume 2) "Temperature 1 "Temperature 2 Answer: 37 Hest of combustion. Answer:3-8 ‘ve some ofthe times Meas 02 - Pye PHYSICS ore at ee nay SUB-MODULE 04 PART-66 SYLLABUS LEVELS cenmomoncarecon = ET 52 Sob-Module 04 ‘OPTICS (LIGHT) Keowlege Reglrments 24 Optics Ligh) 2) 2 [Nature of igh ped fights LLeweoftefecton and refraction: eflecon at plane surfices, reflection by phere minors, ‘efacon, lenses, heaps ‘gpa ove of hehe an pai pcs te es ‘dana pp th know biti 1) Thelin le wend tra Fedele et ©) Titcibberigoeagr ciin ee (Therein dhl be ito we ato malin ruin acing te er ‘Terps a ees tecer ni : sew wing alelpeesne te er 4 copnics (uci THE NATURE OF LIGHT Light is for of electromagnetic radiation. Ie part ofthe wide spectrum of electromagnetic radiation that surrounds us at all times, Visible light isa relatively small par of the spectrum, (Figure 4-1) a type of wave. As in the cate ofall wave ‘motion, the wave moves witha definite speed. Thespeed of light (is exactly 299 792 458 meters per second hich s 186 282.4 miles per second. I should be noted tht this ie the speed of light ina vacuum, The passage of light through matter seduces this speed. Materials have a eefacive ins () which isthe sped of light (€) for glass. This means that ight travels slower throug. water than alcand slower cough glass than water, “The wavelength of visible light is usually measured i ‘unit called the Angstrom (A): 1A = 10°%m. Variou colors of visible light have characteristic wavelength: They also have characteristic Frequen« frequency of light x wavelength » speed of light. Wit symbols this is written Ph» c. Figure 41 ists variow colors of ight and their respective wavelengths. ‘Wavelengths of visible light ina vac divided bythe sped of igh hough the * Valet 4500» Yow 25800 satel The efatv index of irs 1.000%. The = Ble = 4500 A Orange = 6 000 A reatve Inder of water 133 and approsiatdy 6 “Gren ©5200 A "Reds 6 400A op Sei < wretnecnts => Fwy unter two ese Fig 4 Rado wae ae tsone of slocamagste woes dn spac REFLECTION Reflection isa change in direction of lightwave when in strikes a different media than that in which it was teaveling so thatthe wave recurs back into the orignal media. Mirtorike reflections called specular refeton. ‘This can occur when the reflective surface ie a material that suppresses the propagation ofthe light wave orn a material that allows the passage flight such a water or sss. Specular reflection is shown in Figure 4-2, A perpendicular line dawn from the point where the lighe strikes the mirror i called the mormal The light striking the micror forms an angle of incidence (0) “with the normal. The light reflested fiom the micror also forms an angle with the normal called the angle of reflection (It sala of eeflecton thatthe angle of incidence is equal to the angle of election, Two further laws of election are: the incidence ay, the reflectie ray . ss oe 4.2. pert, Mote Pryce and the normal atthe point of incidence lie in the same lane and, the reflected ay and he icidence ay ae on ‘Poste sides ofthe normal. Reflection can occur off fa pie surface such ae 4 ‘ypical Mat minor or piece of es. It ean also oceur OF of «curved eacfnce, When reflection occurs of of 4 fat sce, ei ad 0 frm amizor image: When occurting off ofa curved sufice the image may be ‘magni or demagrifed Mow cued mito wet hyn ones (bulging ourward toward the light source) or concave Glog nar aay for the light sous) cones ‘mirtoe reflect light outward and demagnifes the image, 1k also provides a wider field of view. Convex micrors sre commonly used ae pastenger-ide rear-vew mierors fn automobiles, A concave mirrors focus light when Ierefcets, The image it flects depends on the distance sexy from the surface, Generally, «concave mirror is ‘sed so that it magnifies the image. Tecan be found in telescopes and in make-up mirrors to gui a else look stone's fice, REFRACTION Refraction is the phenomenon observed when light changes direction due to ic pasieg through a medium Jn which ie eavel at an altered speed. When light enters «slower medium at an angle, its fequeney remains the ‘same. This is ertablshed atthe source of che ight. But 800m as part ofthe incoming ight ay reaches a slower ‘medium, its wavelength is shortened and che light bends ‘ovrards the normal ine. The amount oF bend depends of the speed of lighe through the medium. The slower the speed, the more light wil bend ‘As previously mentioned, materials havea refractive Index which compares the epeed of light through « ‘vacuum tothe speed of light ehragh the materia, The higher the refractive index, the slower the speed of ight hough the mated ‘Using information about how light wil passthrough a ‘medium enables the production of optic lenses. Snell's Law provides a mathematical equation for determining the angle that light will refract when passing from one ‘medium through another ‘Where n isthe index of refraction of the fist medium and ny is the index of reaction of the second median through with the ight will pase and bend. The angles are ‘measured frm the normal, —— See eee LENSES Because light can be directed at diferent angles wsing various mediums lenses ae developed to focus light go that ti beneficial. Eye glasses are made so thatthe incoming light wil be cortected wo that i focses the image ofthe object being looked atdirety onthe retina ofthe oe. seen eget Sm Sst ee Sinem re of rays converge st tinge ‘focus because ofthe limitations o defects in the lens. Tn addition to the material a lens e made from, the shape ofa lens als factors in tthe diceetion and focus of ight passing through it. (Figere 4-3) Similar co mirrors, lenses ae often ground spherically ‘Allens thar bulges outward from the lens is conver, Jens that curves into the len is concave. Variations exit, ‘Advanced optic manufstaring technology now allows the creation of aspheric lenses (non-spheria), aa i 5 comvex Plnocoovex. _Potve Monisous Negative Marisous Panoroncave _Beoneave Fine 43. Asano ate sued nse FIBER OPTICS Fibecoptiesiethe branch of optiel technology oaneerned with the transmission of ight through fiers, Electrical data is converted to optical signal and sent through optical fers at the speed of light. The tranemistion of data through optical fibers offers wie bandwidth, lghe weight, and freedom from electromagnetic influence. (gure) CABLE CONSTRUCTION ‘A fiber’ cladding i wally costed with a tough buffer layer whch may be farther surrounded by spas jacket layer. Taese layers add strength to the fiber bur do not contribute to its optical properties. Fiber bundles someties pu lightabsorbing material between the fibers to prevent light tha leaks out of ane fiber from centeringanothes. (Figure 4-5) Fiber cable canbe very flexible, bu optical lots increases greatly ifthe fberis bent wa sadis smaller than around 30 mm, creating problems ifthe cable is bent around ‘comers r wound around. spool. Some fiberoptic cables sce reinforced with glae yarn to increase strength and, also to procect the cable cre against rodents and insets. FIBER MODES Singlerode (or mono-mode) fiber has a coe diameter less than about ten times the wavelength of the propagating light and can proces only a single signal at atime. Most single-mode fiber ie designed fr use in the near infeed portion ofthe light spectrum. 4 eure 44, er necting wa, Craton oat ep Fiber with a core diameter greater than 10 micrometers Incalled multimode ber In multi-mode ber, mulile rays of light are guided aloag the fiber core by the internal reflection of the cladding surrounding the fer. Each light pulse caries is own piece of dace and is tansmited chrough the cable at different angles $0 15 not to interfere with other pulies traveling throwgh the same cable. Rays tha reflect fom the cladding at Moti 2: Pin angles greater than the critical angle are completely teflcted. Rays that meet the boundary ata lower angle Ae refracted into the adding and do not convey light information slong the fiber. (Figures 4-6 and 4-7) Arcountien i fer pti also know as tsision losis the eduction in intensity ofthe Fgh beam a it "eaves throogh the fer medium. Attenuation is cused Lbybothseerng and absorption within the Be and is 29 important itor limiting the ansson of signal Across lege distances. Mach research bas gone into limiting atenuton I has bee sad that if ocean water 1 a clr at single-mode fiber, one coud se ll the {tthe bottom ofthe MasansTiench nthe Paci (Ocean, a depth of 36 000 et TERMINATION AND SPLICING Optical fiers are connected to terminal equipment by optical fiber connectors (Figure 4-8) Standard connector provide a physical eoneace where the mating surfaces touch each other at an angled surface to achieve the lowes possible attenuation and redced reflections. A fiberoptic connector i basiealy a rigid cylindrical barrel surrounded by a sleeve that holds che bareel in its mating socket. A typical connector is installed by preparing the fiber end and inserting it into the rea of the connector body. Quickesee adhesive is uevaly weed to hold the fiber securely, and a train reli ie secured to the reaz Once the adhesive ects, the fiber’ end is polished to mirror finith,Vatious polish methods are ‘wed, depending on the type of fiber and the application. For single-mode fiber, fiber ends are polished with a slight curvitre that makes the mated connectors touch only a ther core. This is called a physica contact (PC) polish. Such connections have higher loss than PC onnection, but greaty reduce bak reflection, because Tight tha elects for the angled eurface leaks out of the iber core. Opts Chet EERE sc chr by or vor by enlelng arog en cooscnn eeeea sm rete nie eeellaeen a see aoe eee ‘leetre are. For quicker fastening jobs, a mechanical soe wo teed Fone 4-6, Poppet lp rough mute pica igre 4-7 Atsorboen troup ary ed msg theelotn of tine mated pea Me Fs 8b opt cal comets ko fa aa. {In fusion splicing, the ro cable end ae fastened inside splice enclosure andthe fiber ends are tipped of theit protective coating and outer jacket. The ends are cleaved with a precision cutter and are placed inthe eplicer, The splice area is inspected via a magnified view sereen to check the cleaves before and afte the splice, The epicer then emits a small spak at the gap to burn off dt and ‘moisture. Then the splicer genertes larger apa that fases the ends togeher permanently. The optic oes due to the splice ie measured by directing light through the 48 copnes (uci SE 1. dus a mechanical algrment device 2. Hots the fer ands in 2 precise ‘aignes postion 3. Sil two separate fers. Not 1 Two fer andes algned ard hen fused together wih neat or electc 2, Two bers Become contruous pee 4-8 Macc nd kn keg chs. cladding on one side ard mescuring light leaking fom the cladding onthe other. splice lss af oprical cavity under 0.1 dB is eypica ‘Mechanical splices ae designed robe quicker and easier ‘a install, but theres tll the need for sipping, careful ‘and precision cleaving. The fiber ends ace aligned and held together by aleve, often using clear tel that enbances the transmission of ight across the Joint. Mechanical splisseypieally have higher optical Tose and are less robust han fusion splice, especially if the gel is weed. (Figure ¢-9) Militay sieraft have used fiber optics for heads up Aispays. (Figure 4-10). The Boring 777 uses some fer optic transmission line for is inflight entertainment systems and expanded use of fiber optics is promised ur 10 Fr pte mss agp. 46 Somebasc advantages of ber optics or dara transmission include: * System Performance + Greatly Increased Bandwidth and Capacicy + Lower Signal Attenuation (Lot) + Immune to Noite (Flectomagastic Lterference) snd Radio-Frequency Intrfererce + No Crosstalk + Lower Bit Error Rates + Signal Securiey + Difficlt To Tap + Nonconductve Electrical Isolation (Does Not Rediate Signal) + No Common Ground Required + Freedom From Short Circuit and Space + Reduced Size and Weight of Cables + Environmental Protection + Resistant to Radiation and Corrosion + Resistant to Temperature Variation “Important deterrents are high cost and the reliability of connectors inthe harsh aviation operating environment FIBER OPTIC DATA LINK Fiber optic data inks the ame given to the aytem of components that use opi Sbers forthe ransission of data, Data is inpot toa transits which converts the lc sgoals into opi signals and diets therm it the fer he transmit dee cut converts the electric signal to an opal signal by varying the etre cusren through the light source. LEDs (light emitting odes) and laser diodes are swo common light sources employe, A secure, liable and durable connector is "quired to join the transmitter and the fiber. At the feos en ofthe fiber, another conector isthe ber to a receiver The receiver transforms the op signal back nt an elect signal for use. =a [—! (— ‘As ated the cort and availabilty of easy to manipulate, reliable and durable connectors have limited the use of fiber optics in aviation to this point. Conversely, the demand for high performance, bandwidch and eight saving fee from electromagnetic interference eiving development of ber optic use in reef. While ‘many experts believe the use of copper and alumiaumn Alongside fiber optics ha a. enduring future, developers are hard at work addressing the shortcomings of fiber optic transmission. Controlling primary functions of ireeat operation ie. landing gear, flight controls, system operations, et) may someday be performed with ‘ber optic data inks, (Figure 4-11) ple eempoans e ope dta ok. a7 Question: 4-4 “What ica efractive index? Question: 42 QUESTIONS Question: 4-4 ‘Whar causes light within ber opsc cable to maintain ies direction? Question: 4-5 ‘The change ofdizectionoflight when it lows through What rwo advantages of fusion splicing of «fiber optic 2 media enon ae, ‘Question: 43 Name three advantage of tranemisting data through ‘optical bers Moca 02-Pysce cable over mechanical eplicng? Questions 4-6 fiberoptic cable inthe greateat amount CEE “ ANSWERS Answers 44 “The apced at which ight travels hiough a substance divided by te speed of igh in a vacuum. Answer: 42 ‘efiaction Answer 4-3 Wide bandwith, light weight, and freedom from lectromagaetie influence Answer 4-4 “The reflective cladding surrounding the fibers core Answer 45 Les optical loes and a stronger splice Answers4-6 “At splice joints and connection terminal. Mode 02- Pyar PHYSICS Dees aero Se) SUB-MODULE OS PART-66 SYLLABUS LEVELS centmomnancareoon- ET) B2. Sub-Module 05 WAVE MOTION AND SOUND Knowledge Requirements 2.5-Wave Motion and Seund M2 ‘Wve motion: mechan wave, inutoidal wave motion, interference phenome, sening wats Sound: speed of sound, production of sound, inten pitch nd quay, Doppler elect. Leia [Agewlloonlae fe ena an pra pet ofthe jt tally spy tt ese. bie (0) pice hol be he tn te {unen ob bec © ic a me ert he set ing soins pal arg (9) These tase wt te ea ‘once i aloe Searing he se (“Theale eat he donne oh Sewage and sonst deg ec (© Toetecen sabe te phew a pte nrg ee prs Mode 02 Phyice a1 SOUND Sound hus been defined as a series of disturbances ‘matter thatthe human ear can detec, This definition «an alto be applied disturbances which are beyond the range ofhumas hearing. There are thre elements which ace necessary for the transmission and reception of sound. These ae the soure, a medium for carrying the sound, and the detector. Anything which moves back. and forth vibrates) and disturbs che medium around it may be considred 3 sound source, ‘An example ofthe production and transmission of sound is the ring of a bell. When the belli struck and begins o vibrate, the particles of the mediam (¢he surrounding a) in contac with the bell also vibrate ‘The vibrations disturbance is transmitted from one particle ofthe medium to the nex, and the vibrations travel ina "wae" cough the medium until they reach thecar. The earrum, acting as detectog, est in motion by che vibrating particles of air, andthe brain interprets ‘this vibration athe sound ofthe bell ‘WAVE MOTION Sound waves sre mechanical waves since sound is a “wave motion inmates Irean best be understood by Sst

You might also like