ECE 5218 URBAN TRAFFIC MANAGEMENT DeKUT 2021

6 SIGNAL CONTROLLED INTERSECTIONS

6.1 Introduction

With the growth of cities the need for separation of traffic streams has become more essential
for safety and efficiency. Traffic signals are electrically operated traffic control devices that
provide indication for roadway users to advance their travels by assigning right-of-way to each
approach and movement. Traffic signals are a common form of traffic control used by State and
local agencies to address roadway operations and safety issues. They allow the shared use of
road space by separating conflicting movements in time and allocating delay, and can be used
to enhance the mobility and safety of some movements.

Common objectives for the installation of traffic signals include the following:

 Optimization of travel delay

 Reduction of crash frequency and/or severity
 Prioritization of specific roadway user type or movement (such as pedestrians, NMT or
left turn movements)
 Accommodation of a new intersection approach or increase in traffic volumes (such as
the addition of an approach at a new development)
 Assistance with movement of traffic in and out of side roads
 Augmentation of a larger traffic management scheme
 Controlling Buses, Trams / Trains, or Emergency Vehicles
 Increasing road capacity

Analysis of traffic volume data, crash history, roadway geometry, and other field conditions are
the determining factors when deciding upon the installation of traffic signals.

6.1.1 Types of Signal-controlled Intersections

In their most common form, signalized intersections have indications for users on each
intersection approach. The figure below, shows a basic signalized intersection with four vehicle
approaches.

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In addition to signalizing intersections, it may be necessary to consider the use of pedestrian

signals at locations along a corridor with high concentrations of pedestrians. This type of traffic
control can be used at signalized intersections with the addition of pedestrian push-buttons and
signal heads, or at non-signalized locations that have high volumes of pedestrians crossing.

A signalized pedestrian crossing

6.2 Data Collection and Warrants

Practitioners perform engineering studies of planned signalized intersections to predict their

immediate and future impacts. Data collection is usually required at two stages in the process
of providing signal sites.

 Firstly in order to determine if the provision of signals is really justified

 Secondly during the detailed design process in order to establish the best phasing and
timing arrangements. These types of counts are usually more detailed and are carried
out over different peaks and classified according to different vehicle sizes and their
turning movements

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If recent traffic counts of all movements at the intersection being provided or updated are not
available, a detailed count should be instigated in order to establish:

a) AM and PM Peak Vehicle Volumes

b) Turning Movement Vehicle Volumes
c) Volume and Percentage of Heavy Goods Vehicles (HGVs)
d) Pedestrian / Cyclists Volume and Directional Flows

A warrant analysis is usually the first step in the consideration of traffic signal control. A
warrant is a threshold condition based upon average or normal conditions that, if found to be
satisfied as part of an engineering study, shall result in analysis of other traffic conditions or
factors to determine whether a traffic control device or other improvement is justified. The
following are the major reasons why traffic signal installations may be warranted.

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1. Amelioration of safety problems

2. Assistance with movement of traffic in and out of side roads
3. Augmentation of a larger traffic management scheme
4. Provision of enhanced facilities for Pedestrians, Cyclists, or Mobile Impaired Road-
Users (collectively known as NMT - Non Motorised Traffic)
5. Controlling Buses, Trams / Trains, or Emergency Vehicles
6. Increasing road capacity
7. Reducing stops and delays

The warrants represent the basic areas an engineer’s analysis should cover: intersections where
users have difficulty maneuvering through the intersection due to high mainline volumes;
drivers trying to cross streets with inadequate gaps; and pedestrians trying to cross large
expanses of pavement. Some of these warrants are discussed below:

6.2.1 Warrants for main traffic sites

In general, installation of signals is usually firstly considered in respect of Vehicles versus
Vehicles. Thereafter, Pedestrian movements may be incorporated into the design, especially
where the Pedestrian versus Vehicles is an important factor.

6.2.1.1 Traffic volume criteria

Counts are taken over a 14-hour period on an average day, usually being on a Tuesday or
Thursday, during school terms, and the 4 highest 1 hour totals are used.

It is generally accepted that a minimum Vehicle traffic flow volume of 500VPH, of which
150VPH should be on the minor road, provides justification for the provision of traffic signals.
Even though these volumes are quite common in urban areas, this does not imply that every
junction near a particular site should be justifiably signalled, as one installation in itself will
bring benefits to side road traffic upstream and downstream from the subject site.

6.2.1.2 Accident criteria

Signals may be considered, if the intersection has been the site of an average of three or more
reported road crashes (per year for 3 years) involving casualties, where the crashes could have
been prevented by traffic signals, and the traffic flows are at least 80 per cent of the volume
warrants given under the traffic volume criteria above. Before Traffic Signals are installed,
other simpler devices should be trialled.

6.2.1.3 Pedestrian Movements at Main Signal Sites

Pedestrian movements at main signalled intersections may be required if:

 The Pedestrian flow across the major road exceeds 30PPH for the highest 2 hours of 1
hour totals
 The Pedestrian flow across the minor road exceeds 60PPH for the highest 2 hours of 1
hour totals
 One or more of the following conditions apply:

(i) There is a significant use by young children

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(ii) There is a significant use by the elderly or mobility impaired

(iii) There is a hazard to Pedestrians (e.g. road crossing greater than six lanes or 25m), high
speeds or high number of Vehicles.

6.2.2 Warrants for Mid-Block Pedestrian Crossing Signal Sites

Counts are taken over a 14-hour period on an average day, usually being on a Tuesday or
Thursday, during school terms, and the 4 highest 1 hour totals and 8 highest 1 hour totals
respectively are used. A Pedestrian Signal Site may be considered if one of the following
warrants is true.

a. The crossing Pedestrian flow exceeds 250PPH, and the two-way vehicular flow exceeds
500VPH, (or exceeds 1000VPH where there is a central Pedestrian refuge at least 1.2m
wide)
b. The crossing Pedestrian flow exceeds 175PPH, and the two-way vehicular flow exceeds
500VPH, (or exceeds 1000VPH where there is a central Pedestrian refuge at least 1.2m
wide)

The above warrants may be relaxed where the proposed Mid-Block crossing is to be used
predominantly by children or by the mobility impaired

6.3 Signal Site Design Process

The list below suggests an orderly combination of tasks as part of a rational and effective design
process:

i. Collect existent site data – classified counts / accident statistics, etc

ii. Determine the existent site geometric data – road widths, alignment, poles, drains, ducts,
overhead cables, advertising signs, etc
iii. Determine signal Phase and Time-settings - determine capacities and traffic
performance characteristics for proposed Phase options and proposed geometric layouts
iv. Select signal hardware, determining location of signal displays and signal faces and
appropriate use of pavement markings and signs
v. Determine detector locations and prepare controller program
vi. Prepare the electrical cabling and terminations design
vii. Determine the need for local (or centralised) signal coordination, and accordingly
prepare coordination plans for local controllers and central computer
viii. Prepare operational documentation necessary for the installation commissioning and
operation of the signals

6.4 Geometric Design Considerations

Geometric design of a signalized intersection involves the functional layout of travel lanes, curb
ramps, crosswalks, bike lanes, and transit stops in both horizontal and vertical dimensions.

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The complexity of an intersection increases as the number of approach legs to the intersection
increases. Figure (a) below, shows the number and type of conflicts that occur at intersections
with three and four legs, respectively. Figure (b) shows a complex intersection with six
approach legs. The number of potential conflicts for all users increases substantially at
intersections with more than four legs. Note that many potential conflicts, including crossing
and merging conflicts, can be managed (but not eliminated) at a signalized intersection by
separating conflicts in time.

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6.5 Traffic Signal Equipment

A Traffic Signal installation usually consists of an electronic unit (traffic controller) that is
connected by means of cables to signal displays within lanterns on poles at various approaches
to the site or junction. In addition there may be detection devices connected to the traffic
controller, so that signal timings may vary in accordance with the volume of ‘detected’ Vehicles
and Pedestrians. Ideally, in wide area traffic control schemes (ATC schemes), it is usual for the
traffic controller to be connected to a central computer so that signal coordination may be
achieved in addition to other centralised functions.

The signal lamps comprise of a three colour arrangement in a single housing known as a signal
head or lantern. Each lamp or display (Green, Amber, or Red) is commonly known as a signal
aspect and each ‘roundel’ is usually 200mm in diameter. Red is usually the top-most aspect
(lamp) so that by virtue of the aspect position in the lantern, there is no ambiguity to road users
with colour blindness.

There may be many lanterns and aspects at a junction depending on the complexity of the
junction and each lantern or a number of lanterns may be mounted on metal poles or mast-arms,
or gantries. In addition to Vehicle lanterns, there may also be Pedestrian lanterns and those for
Cyclists, Emergency Vehicles, Buses and Trams.

In addition to controllers, poles, and lanterns, there may also be detection devices in order to
record the presence of Vehicles, Pedestrians, Cyclists, or Trams. Vehicles, bicycles and trams
are usually detected by sub-surface inductive loops and Pedestrians may be detected by their
own action of the pressing of a push-button usually situated on a unit attached to a pole (PBU
– Push-Button Unit).

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Figure 4.1, shows the various elements of a complete signal system; demands for traffic
movements are supplied to the controller from Vehicle detectors. The signal system transforms
Vehicle and Pedestrian demands, in a manner determined by the controller program and time-
settings, into a sequence of signal displays. The controller sets limits for Phase transitions,
conflicting displays, and safety timings that cannot be overridden by the master computer. The
controller also reports activities at the junction to the central computer, such as failed lamps,
failed detectors, and other events, such as interference by Police manual control or loss of
power.

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6.5.1 Signal Aspect

The Signal Aspect is a single optical system, usually round on a signal face, and capable of
being illuminated Green, Amber, Red, or White.

Signal Aspects that are recommended for use in Kenya are illustrated in Figure 5.1.

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Signal Aspects are arranged in columns with the Red aspect upper-most, the Amber aspect in
the centre and the Green aspect at the bottom. The basic three aspect signal face consists of
Green, Amber and Red circular aspects in a single column as shown in Figure 5.3.

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6.6 Design of Signal Phases

It is important that the design of traffic signals should follow a consistent standard, so that road-
users are not confronted with a display, or a sequence of displays, that may be confusing. Design
uniformity and proven techniques are essential in order to avoid hesitancy and
misinterpretation, which in turn leads to accidents, and unnecessary delays. Basic design criteria
aim to:

a) Give a logical and clear presentation

b) Ensure uniformity of design
c) Promote displays that are simple and easy to understand
d) Prevent unsafe or conflicting displays
e) Prevent unsafe sequence of displays

6.6.1 Definitions and Notations

A number of definitions and notations need to be understood in signal design. They are
discussed below:

 Cycle: A signal cycle is one complete rotation through all of the indications provided
 Cycle length: Cycle length is the time in seconds that it takes a signal to complete one
full cycle of indications. It indicates the time interval between the starting of of green
for one approach till the next time the green starts. It is denoted by C.
 Interval: Thus it indicates the change from one stage to another. There are two types of
intervals - change interval and clearance interval. Change interval is also called the
yellow time indicates the interval between the green and red signal indications for an
approach. Clearance interval is also called all red is included after each yellow interval
indicating a period during which all signal faces show red and is used for clearing off
the vehicles in the intersection.
 Green interval: It is the green indication for a particular movement or set of movements
and is denoted by Gi. This is the actual duration the green light of a traffic signal is
turned on.
 Red interval: It is the red indication for a particular movement or set of movements and
is denoted by Ri. This is the actual duration the red light of a traffic signal is turned on.
 Phase: A phase is the green interval plus the change and clearance intervals that follow
it. Thus, during green interval, non conflicting movements are assigned into each phase.
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It allows a set of movements to flow and safely halt the flow before the phase of another
set of movements start.
 Lost time: It indicates the time during which the intersection is not effectively utilized
for any movement. For example, when the signal for an approach turns from red to
green, the driver of the vehicle which is in the front of the queue, will take some time to
perceive the signal (usually called as reaction time) and some time will be lost here
before he moves.

6.6.2 Phase Design

A phase is the green interval plus the change and clearance intervals that follow it. Thus, during
green interval, non conflicting movements are assigned into each phase. It allows a set of
movements to flow and safely halt the flow before the phase of another set of movements start.

The signal design procedure involves six major steps. They include the

(1) phase design,

(2) determination of amber time and clearance time,

(3) determination of cycle length,

(4)apportioning of green time,

(5) pedestrian crossing requirements, and

(6) the performance evaluation of the above design.

The objective of phase design is to separate the conflicting movements in an intersection into
various phases, so that movements in a phase should have no conflicts. If all the movements
are to be separated with no conflicts, then a large number of phases are required. In such a
situation, the objective is to design phases with minimum conflicts or with less severe conflicts.

There is no precise methodology for the design of phases. This is often guided by the geometry
of the intersection, flow pattern especially the turning movements, the relative magnitudes of
flow. Therefore, a trial and error procedure is often adopted. However, phase design is very
important because it affects the further design steps. Further, it is easier to change the cycle
time and green time when flow pattern changes, whereas a drastic change in the flow pattern
may cause considerable confusion to the drivers. To illustrate various phase plan options,
consider a four legged intersection with through traffic and right turns. Left turn is ignored. See
figure 41:1. The first issue is to decide how many phases are required. It is possible to have
two, three, four or even more number of phases.

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6.6.2.1 Two phase signals

Two phase system is usually adopted if through traffic is significant compared to the turning
movements. For example in figure 41:2, non-conflicting through traffic 3 and 4 are grouped in
a single phase and non-conflicting through traffic 1 and 2 are grouped in the second phase.
However, in the first phase flow 7 and 8 offer some conflicts and are called permitted right
turns. Needless to say that such phasing is possible only if the turning movements are relatively
low. On the other hand, if the turning movements are significant ,then a four phase system is
usually adopted.

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6.6.2.2 Four phase signals

There are at least three possible phasing options. For example, figure 41:3 shows the most
simple and trivial phase plan. where, flow from each approach is put into a single phase
avoiding all conflicts. This type of phase plan is ideally suited in urban areas where the turning
movements are comparable with through movements and when through traffic and turning
traffic need to share same lane. This phase plan could be very inefficient when turning
movements are relatively low.

Figure 41:4 shows a second possible phase plan option where opposing through traffic are put
into same phase. The non-conflicting right turn flows 7 and 8 are grouped into a third phase.
Similarly flows 5 and 6 are grouped into fourth phase. This type of phasing is very efficient
when the intersection geometry permits to have at least one lane for each movement, and the
through traffic volume is significantly high.

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Figure 41:5 shows yet another phase plan. However, this is rarely used in practice

There are five phase signals, six phase signals etc. They are normally provided if the intersection
control is adaptive, that is, the signal phases and timing adapt to the real time traffic conditions.

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6.6.3 Interval design

There are two types of intervals - change interval and clearance interval. Change interval is
also called the yellow time indicates the interval between the green and red signal indications
for an approach. Clearance interval is also called all red is included after each yellow interval
indicating a period during which all signal faces show red and is used for clearing off the
vehicles in the intersection.

The change interval or yellow time is provided after green time for movement. The purpose is
to warn a driver approaching the intersection during the end of a green time about the coming
of a red signal. They normally have a value of 3 to 6 seconds. The design consideration is that
a driver approaching the intersection with design speed should be able to stop at the stop line
of the intersection before the start of red time. The following methodology has been
recommended for computing the appropriate length of change interval:

Where:

y is the length of yellow interval in seconds,

t is the reaction time of the driver,

V85 is the 85th percentile speed of approaching vehicles in m/s,

a is the deceleration rate of vehicles in m/s 2,

g is the grade of approach expressed as a decimal.

Change interval can also be approximately computed as

where

SSD is the stopping sight distance and

v is the speed of the vehicle.

The clearance interval is provided after yellow interval and as mentioned earlier, it is used to
clear off the vehicles in the intersection. Clearance interval is optional in a signal design. It
depends on the geometry of the intersection. If the intersection is small, then there is no need
of clearance interval whereas for very large intersections, it may be provided.

6.6.4 Cycle time

Cycle time is the time taken by a signal to complete one full cycle of iterations. i.e. one complete
rotation through all signal indications. It is denoted by C. The way in which the vehicles depart
from an intersection when the green signal is initiated will be discussed now.

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Figure 41:6 illustrates a group of N vehicles at a signalized intersection, waiting for the green
signal. As the signal is initiated, the time interval between two vehicles, referred as headway,
crossing the curb line is noted. The first headway is the time interval between the initiation of
the green signal and the instant vehicle crossing the curb line. The second headway is the time
interval between the first and the second vehicle crossing the curb line. Successive headways
are then plotted as in figure 41:7.

The first headway will be relatively longer since it includes the reaction time of the driver and
the time necessary to accelerate. The second headway will be comparatively lower because the
second driver can overlap his/her reaction time with that of the first driver’s. After few vehicles,
the headway will become constant. This constant headway which characterizes all headways
beginning with the fourth or fifth vehicle, is defined as the saturation headway, and is denoted
as h. This is the headway that can be achieved by a stable moving platoon of vehicles passing

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through a green indication. If every vehicles require h seconds of green time, and if the signal
were always green, then s vehicles/per hour would pass the intersection. Therefore,

where s is the saturation flow rate in vehicles per hour of green time per lane, h is the saturation
headway in seconds. vehicles per hour of green time per lane. As noted earlier, the headway
will be more than h particularly for the first few vehicles. The difference between the actual
headway and h for the ith vehicle and is denoted as ei shown in figure 41:7. These differences
for the first few vehicles can be added to get start up lost time, l1 which is given by,

The green time required to clear N vehicles can be found out as,

where T is the time required to clear N vehicles through signal, l1 is the start-up lost time, and h
is the saturation headway in seconds.

6.6.4.1 Effective green time

Effective green time is the actual time available for the vehicles to cross the intersection. It is
the sum of actual green time (Gi) plus the yellow minus the applicable lost times. This lost time
is the sum of start-up lost time (l1) and clearance lost time (l2) denoted as tL. Thus effective green
time can be written as,

6.6.4.2 Lane capacity

The ratio of effective green time to the cycle length (gi/ C )is defined as green ratio. We know
that saturation flow rate is the number of vehicles that can be moved in one lane in one hour
assuming the signal to be green always. Then the capacity of a lane can be computed as,

where ci is the capacity of lane in vehicle per hour, si is the saturation flow rate in vehicle per
hour per lane, C is the cycle time in seconds.

Example:

Let the cycle time of an intersection be 60 seconds, the green time for a phase is 27 seconds,
and the corresponding yellow time is 4 seconds. If the saturation headway is 2.4

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seconds/vehicle, the start-up lost time is 2 seconds/phase, and the clearance lost time is 1
second/phase, find the capacity of the movement per lane?

Solution:

Total lost time, = +

tL = 2+1 = 3 seconds.

From equation effective green time,

gi = 27+4-3 = 28 seconds.

From equation saturation flow rate,

si = 3600/ h = 3600/2.4 = 1500 veh/hr.

Capacity of the given phase can be found out from equation,

Ci = 1500 × 28/60 = 700 veh/hr/lane.

6.6.4.3 Critical lane

During any green signal phase, several lanes on one or more approaches are permitted to move.
One of these will have the most intense traffic. Thus it requires more time than any other lane
moving at the same time. If sufficient time is allocated for this lane, then all other lanes will
also be well accommodated. There will be one and only one critical lane in each signal phase.
The volume of this critical lane is called critical lane volume.

6.6.5 Determination of cycle length

The cycle length or cycle time is the time taken for complete indication of signals in a cycle.
Fixing the cycle length is one of the crucial steps involved in signal design.

If tLi is the start-up lost time for a phase i, then the total start-up lost time per cycle,

where

N is the number of phases.

If start-up lost time is same for all phases, then the total start-up lost time is

If C is the cycle length in seconds, then the number of cycles per hour

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The total lost time per hour is the number of cycles per hour times the lost time per cycle:

Substituting as L = NtL, total lost time per hour can be written as

The total effective green time Tg available for the movement in a hour will be one hour minus
the total lost time in an hour. Therefore,

...41.9

Let the total number of critical lane volume that can be accommodated per hour is given by Vc,
then

Substituting for Tg, from equation 41.9 and si from the maximum sum of critical lane volumes
that can be accommodated within the hour is given by,

The expression for C can be obtained by rewriting the above equation. The above equation is
based on the assumption that there will be uniform flow of traffic in an hour. To account for the
variation of volume in an hour, a factor called peak hour factor, (PHF) which is the ratio of
hourly volume to the maximum flow rate, is introduced. Another ratio called v/c ratio indicating
the quality of service is also included in the equation. Incorporating these two factors in the
equation for cycle length, the final expression will be,

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Highway capacity manual (HCM) has given an equation for determining the cycle length which
is a slight modification of the above equation. Accordingly, cycle time C is given by,

where N is the number of phases, L is the lost time per phase, (V/s )i is the ratio of volume to
saturation flow for phase i, XC is the quality factor called critical V/C ratio where V is the volume
and C is the capacity.

Example:

The traffic flow in an intersection is shown in the figure 41:8. Given start-up lost time is 3
seconds, saturation head way is 2.3 seconds, compute the cycle length for that intersection.
Assume a two-phase signal.

Solution:

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Further Reading

Read and make brief notes on traffic detection

 Categories of detection
 Detection techniques
 Traffic lights with countdown timer

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